Communication Strategies (adapted from Dornyei 1995)

Avoidance Strategies

1. Message abandonment :

2. Topic avoidance :

Leaving a message unfinished because of language difficultiesAvoiding topic areas or concepts that pose language difficulties.

Compensatory strategies

3. Circumlocution :

4. Approximation :

5. Word coinage :

6. Prefabricated patterns :

7. Nonlinguistic signals :

8. Code-switching :

8. Appeal for help :

Describing or exemplifying the target object of action ( example: the thing you open bottles with for corkscrew)

Using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target lexical item as closely as possible (example: ship for sailboat)

Creating a nonexisting L2 word based on a supposed rule (example: vegetarianist for vegetarian)

Using memorized stock phrases, usually for “survival” purposes (example: Where is the …… or Comment allez-vous), where the sentences are not known to the learner)

Mime, gesture, facial expression, or sound imitation.Literal translation: Translating literally a lexical item, idiom, compound word, or structure from L1 to L2

Using a L1 word with L1 pronunciation or a L3 word with L3 pronunciation while speaking in L2.

Asking for aid from the interlocutor either directly (example: What do you call ……..?) or indirectly (example: rising intonation, pause, eye contact, puzzled expression)

Avoidance Strategies

1. Lexical avoidance

Second language learners avoid a certain lexical item when they don’t know the

word.

Example

Mr A: I lost my road

Mr B: You lost your road?

Mr A: Uh, I lost. I lost. I got lost

2. Message abandonment

The learner begins to talk about a concept but is unable to continue and stops

in mid-utterance.

Example

A learner says “he took the wrong way in mm…” (He/she does not continue

his/her utterance).

3. Topic avoidance

The learner simply tries not to talk about concepts for which the TL item or

structure is not known. A whole type of conversation (say, talking about what

happened yesterday if the past tense is unfamiliar) might be avoided entirely.

Compensatory Strategies

1. Prefabricated patterns

Prefabricated patterns are memorized chunk of language which is often found

in pocket bilingual dictionary such as “How are you?" or "Where is your

hotel?". A learner may use these without any knowledge at all of their internal

structure. These are partly "creative" and partly memorized wholes; they

consist of sentence frames with an open "slot" for a word or a phrase, such as

"That's a _____" (pen, knife, banana),

2. Direct appeal

Learners may, if stuck for a particular word or phrase, directly ask a native

speaker or the teacher for the form (“how do you say ……”). Or they might

venture a possible guess and then ask for verification from the native speaker

of the correctness of the attempt.

3. Code switching

It is a term in linguistics referring to using more than one language or variety

in conversation. Bilinguals, who can speak at least two languages, have the

ability to use elements of both languages. Code-switching can occur between

sentences or within a single sentence. Sometimes the learner slips in just a

word or two, in the hope that the hearer will get the gist of what is being

communicated. Others defined it as 'The alternative use of two languages.'

Example

Ali: No, ask from Fendi. Takkan tak ada?

Spanish/English: Have aqua please.