COMMUNICATION SCIENCE 3INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Media, Culture and Globalisation

Introduction & OverviewLecture 1

Instructor: Mr.T.G. Mokgosi

WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION?

The term international communication

means every aspect of communication

involved in the flow of cultural products

across national boundries- from direct

satellite broadcasting to individual “reading”

of cultural commodities from other countries.

International communication is defined

as communication that occurs across

international borders.

International communication is also

defined as the transmission or transfer of

media products (or the media system

itself) across national borders.

International communication refers to a

more socio-political and economic analysis of

communication across national boundaries.

International communication refers to the

global dimension across the globe, between

nations for the expansion of national

(imperial) and corporate (business) power.

GLOBAL MASS COMMUNICATION

Global mass communication is a multifaceted

phenomenon that takes a variety of forms.

According to McQuail (2000; p.220) these include:

Direct transmission or distribution of media

channels or complete publications from one

country to audiences in other countries.

Certain international media, such as MTV

Europe, CNN International, BBC Word etc

Content items such as (films, music, TV

programmes, journalism items) that are

imported to make up part of domestic

media output

Formats and genres of foreign origin

that are adapted or remade to suit

domestic audience

International news: items whether

about a foreign country or made in a

foreign country, that appear in domestic

media

Miscellaneous content such as

sporting events, advertising and pictures

that have a foreign reference or origin.

THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF

INTERNATIONAL

COMMUNICATION

Reading: Thussu, Chapter 1

POLITICS, COMMUNICATION AND POWER

There are important connections

between media, communication and

power both in terms of means of

communication (Information and

Communication Technology) and the

content of the information communicated.

The nexus of economic, military and

political power has always depended on

efficient systems of communication. (D.

Kissan Thussu).

In short, control over communication

systems allows such powers to control key

messages (for propaganda purposes) and to

influence socio-economic development.

I) COMMUNICATION AND EMPIRES

Communication has always been critical to the

establishment and maintenance of power over

distance.

Form the Persian; Greek and roman empires to the

British, sufficient network of communication were

essential for the imposition of imperial authority, as

well as for the international trade and commerce on

which they were based.

Indeed, the extant of the efficiency of

communication.

Communications networks and technologies

were key to the mechanics of distributed

government, military campaigns and trade.

GREATER NEED FOR INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

The growth of international trade and

investment required a constant source of

reliable data about international trade and

economic affairs, while the British Empire

required a steady supply of information

essential for maintaining political

alliances and military security.

II) THE TELEGRAPH AND 19TH C. IMPERIAL COMMUNICATION

The bottom line is that control of telegraph

cables was crucial to maintaining an empire

thus, political and economic success

3) INTERNATIONAL NEWS AGENCIES

The newspaper industry played an important role

in the development of international communication

and increases the demand of news.

The establishment of the news agencies was the

most important development in the newspaper

industry of the nineteenth century altering the

process of news dissemination, nationally and

internationally.

Commercial newspapers were early adopters of the

telegraph. International news agencies were

established soon thereafter

1835 Havas—French,

1849 Wollf—German

1851 Reuters—English

All were international, all were subsidized by their

domestic government, all services privately owned

newspapers

Their effect was to control international

information markets

What is important about the formation of

international news agencies is that it links content

to control over ICTs (telegraph cables) and control

over the information circulating through that

network, important both for the formation of

public opinion, but as importantly for financial

markets

1) PROPAGANDA, THE COLD WAR AND INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

The second world war saw an explosion in

international broadcasting as propaganda tool on

both sides (communist and capitalist)

Propaganda was also a key battle ground during

the Cold War

Radio Moscow vs. the Voice of America/Radio

Free Europe

In 1951 the US established a “Psychological

Strategy Board’ to advise the US president on the

most effective forms of “international

anticommunist propaganda”.

Radio Free Europe was set up under its auspices as

a part of a broader strategy of psychological

warfare in Europe funded by the CIA

The key point here is that there was a clear

connection made between the power over

communication systems and the ability to alter

public opinion and thinking.

From US side, the goal was simple: win the ‘war’ in

favour of capitalism, the ‘free market’ and

consumerism.

The key battle grounds were the developing world

in Asia and Africa and Eastern Europe (Third World).

2) NEW WORLD INFORMATION/COMMUNICATION ORDER

(NWICO)

Going into the final battle in forming

international communication as we know it today,

there was one last stand between competing

visions of how it might be structured.

The developing word—made up largely of former

colonies—had a broad list of demands, including:

An end to the one-way flow of information—from North to

South

An end to information ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’

A shift from horizontal flows of information (from the top

down, from north to south, etc) to vertical flows

An end to information as commodity subject to market logic

An end to the international information and communication

system helping to reproduce international inequality

MEDIA AND DEVELOPMENT

The Mass Media were seen as an

important vehicle for socio-economic

development not as a commercial means to

‘entertain’ and sell products

THE MAC BRIDE COMMISSION

The international communication for the

study of the communication problems that

was established under the chairmanship of

Sean Mac Bride by UNESCO occupies a

prominent place in the debate regarding the

establishment of a NWICO.

The commission report, commonly known

as the Mac Bride report, gave intellectual

justification for evolving a new global.

The commission was established to study

for main aspects of global communication:

1.The current state of world communication;

2.The problems surrounding a free and balanced flow

of information;

3.How the needs of the developing countries link with

the flow;

4.How in light of the NIEO, a NWICO could be created,

and how the media could become the vehicle for

educating opinion about world problems.

THE MACBRIDE REPORT

Report Summary: A democratic

communication system is fundamental to

both a more democratic social order and

human rights.

THE MACBRIDE COMMISSION’S KEY RECOMMENDATIONS

Developing countries needed greater access to

information and less dependence on existing

communication systems

Democratic communication policies should be a

priority for all developing countries

Educational and informational use of

communication should be given equal priority with

entertainment

Communication systems (i.e. print,

broadcasting, and telecommunications)

must be developed on a national level

Funding, for such development, can come

in part from international initiative

The focus should be less on profits and

more on maximizing the free flow of

information

Telecommunications should remain under

state control to ensure the focus is on the

free flow of information, not corporate profits

Finally, both the electro-magnetic spectrum

and geostationary orbit—both finite natural

resources—should be more equitably shared

as the common property of humanity

One specific recommendations was the need to

foster non-corporate and non-state media (opening

media access to)

i) radical opposition in politics

ii) community media

iii) trade unions

The idea was to establish a countervailing force to

the dominant forms of corporate media to make

media systems more democratic

Called for a number of Communication Rights and

Freedoms

Rights to communicate and receive information-

related political, economic, social and cultural rights

Freedoms of the press (from state and corporate

control) of expression

THEORIZING INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION Reading: Thussu, Chapter 2

International communication has borrowed and/or

adapted theories and paradigms from

(sub)disciplines such as international relations and

media studies and applies these to discourses

related to global communication (Madikiza &

Bornman: 2007 pp.11–44)

Two broad but often interrelated approaches to

theorizing communication can be seen:

The Political-Economy Approach: concerned with the

underlying structures of economic and political power

relations (roots in the critique of capitalism (Marx), but it

evolved over the years to incorporate a wide range of

critical thinkers – question of relationship between

economic, political and cultural power – examination of

the pattern of ownership and production in the media and

communication industries)

Cultural Studies: focused more on the role of

communication and media in creating and maintaining

shared values and meanings (started in Britain in the

1970s with the study of popular and mass culture and

their role in the reproduction of social hegemony and

inequality – now more concerned with how media texts

work to create meaning, and how culturally situated

individuals work to gather meaning from texts –

discovery of polysemic texts).

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN POLITICAL ECONOMY APPROCH & CULTURAL STUDIES APPROCH

Both seek to identify & critique dominant

interests in the media and cultural spheres

Both focuses on power distribution

between the working class and the bourgeoisie

1. FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION

The free-flow principle reflected Western

(specifically US) opposition to the state regulation

and censorship of the media by its communist

opponents and its use for propaganda.

The ‘free flow’ doctrine was essentially a part of

the liberal, free-market discourse that

championed the rights of media proprietors to

sell wherever and whatever they wished.

The concept of ‘free flow’ served both economic and

political purposes – media organisations of the

media-rich countries hoped to dissuade others from

erecting trade barriers to their products or from

making it difficult to gather news or make

programmes on their territories (arguments drew on

premises of democracy, freedom of expression, the

media’s role as ‘public watchdog’ and their assumed

global relevance.

For the businessmen, ‘free flow’ assisted

them in advertising and marketing their

goods and services in foreign markets,

through media vehicles whose information

and entertainment products championed

the Western way of life and its values of

capitalism and individualism.

For Western governments, ‘free flow’

helped to ensure the continuing and

unreciprocated influence of Western media

on global markets, strengthening the West

in its ideological battle with the Soviet

Union.

2. MODERNISATION THEORY

complementary to the doctrine of ‘free-

flow of information in international

communication was the key to the process

of modernization and development for the

so-called ‘Third World’.

The theory arose from the notion that

international mass communication could be used

to spread the message of modernity and transfer

the economic and political models of the West to

the newly independent countries of the South.

Modernisation/ development theory is

based on the belief that the mass media would

help transform traditional societies.

Lerner ()examined the degree to which people in

the Middle East were exposed to national and

international media, especially radio. – proposed

that contact with the media helped the process of

transition from a ‘traditional’ to a ‘modernized’

state, as the media is said to enable individuals to

experience events in far-off places, forcing them

to reassess their traditional way of life.

Schramm (key modernization theorist):

saw the mass media as a ‘bridge to a

wider world’, as the vehicle for

transferring new ideas and models from

the North to the South, and, within the

South, from urban to rural areas.

3. DEPENDENCY THEORY

aimed to provide an alternative framework

to analyse international communication

central was the view that transnational

corporations (TNCs) exercise control over the

developing countries by setting the terms for

global trade – dominating markets,

resources, production and labour.

Development for these countries was

shaped in a way to strengthen the

dominance of the developed nations and to

maintain the ‘peripheral’ nations in a position

of dependence – to make conditions suitable

for ‘dependent development’

Outcome of such relationships: ‘the

development of underdevelopment’

The dependency theorists aimed to show the

links between discourse of ‘modernisation’ and

the policies of transnational media and

communication corporations and their backers

among Western governments.

4.MEDIA AND CULTURAL IMPERIALISM

Oliver Boyd-Barret defined media Imperialism-

is defined as “the process whereby the ownership,

structure, distribution of content of the media in any

one country are singly or together subject to

substantial external pressures from the media

interests of any other country or countries without

proportionate reciprocation of influence by the

country so affected (1977: 117)

The absence of reciprocation of media

influence by the affected country combines both

the elements of cultural invasion by another

power and element of imbalance of power

resources between the countries concerned.

The two element of invasion and imbalance of

power resources justify the use of the term

‘imperialism’.

McQuail notes that the term implies a

deliberate attempt to dominate, invade or

subvert the ‘cultural space’ of others and

suggest a degree of coercion in the

relationship.

The ‘invading’ nation’s cultural and other

values are imposed on the audiences of the

‘invaded’ nation.

MEDIA AND CULTURAL IMPERIALISM THESIS

Global media promote relations of

dependency rather than economic growth

The imbalance in the flow of mass media

content undermines cultural autonomy or

holds back its development

The unequal relationship in the flow of news

increases the relative global power of large

and wealthy news producing countries and

hinder the growth of an appropriate national

identity and self-image

Global media flow give rise to a state of

cultural homogenisation leading to a dominant

form of culture that no specific connection with

real experience to most of the people.

CRITICISMS

clear definitions of fundamental terms are

absent (e.g. imperialism)

lack of empirical evidence to support the

arguments ignores the question of media form

and content as well as the role of the audience

media texts can be polysemic and are

amendable to different interpretations by

audiences who are not merely passive

consumers, but active participants in the

process of negotiating meaning (Fiske)

does not take on board issues such as how

global media texts work in national contexts,

ignoring local patterns of media consumption.

Limitation of cultural and media

imperialism approach: it does not fully

take into account the role of the national

elites, especially in the developing world.

4. HEGEMONY (GRAMSCI 1891-1937)

The dominant social group/nation has the

capacity to excercise intellectual and moral

directionover society at large and to build a

news system of social alliances to support its

aims–not instrumented by military force, but

rather by building consent by ideological control

of cultural production and distribution –

‘common sense’

This happens when this group excersise

control over mass media, schools, religion

etc

The dominant class then coersively

imposses its will on subodinate classes

In international communication, the notion

of hegemony is widely used to conceptualize

political function of the mass media, as a

key player in propagating and maintaining

the dominant ideology and also to explain

the process of media and communication

production, with dominant ideology shaping

production of news and entertainment.

It is thus argued that although the media in

the West are notionally free from direct

governmental control, they nevertheless act

as agents to legitimise the dominant ideology.

5. CRITICAL THEORY

The industrial production of cultural

goods – films, radio programmes, music

and magazines, etc. – as a global

movement, they (critical theorist) argued

that in capitalist societies the trend was

toward producing culture as a commodity.

Adorno and Horkheimer believed that

cultural products manifested the same

kind of management practices,

technological rationality and

organizational schemes as the mass

production industrial goods such as

cars.

This industrially produced and co modified culture,

led to the deterioration of the philosophical role of

culture.

Instead, this mediated culture contribute to the

incorporation of the working classes into the

structures of advanced capitalism and it limiting

their horizons to political and economic goals that

could be realized within the capitalist system

without challenging it.

The critical theorist argued that the

development of the ‘culture industry’

and its ability to ideologically inoculate

the masses against socialist ideas

benefited the ruling classes.

The concentration of the ownership of

a cultural production in a few producers

resulted in a standardized commercial

commodity, contributing to what they

called a ‘mass culture’ influenced by the

mass media and one which thrived on

the market rules of supply and demand.

In their view, such a process

undermined the critical engagement of

masses with important socio– political

issues and insured a politically passive

social behavior and the subordination of

the working classes to the ruling elite.

In an international context the idea of

‘mass culture’ and media and cultural

industries has influenced debates about

the flow of information between countries.

etc. – as a global movement, they argued

that in capitalist societies the trend was

toward producing culture as a commodity.

6. THE THEORY OF PUBLIC SPHERE

The public sphere is define as an arena,

independent of government and also enjoying

autonomy from partisan economics forces, which

is dedicated to rational debate (i.e. to debate and

discussion which not ‘interest’, ‘disguised’ or

‘manipulated’) and which is both accessible to

entry and open to inspection by the citizenry

(Holub, 1991).

The public sphere provides a useful concepts in

understanding democratic potential of

communication processes.

The globalisation of media and communication

led to the evolution of a ‘global public sphere’

where issues of international significance –

environment, human rights, gender and ethnic

equality can be articulated through the global mass

media.

7.THEORIES OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY

According to its supporters, an international

information society is being created via the

Internet, which will digitally link every home,

office and business in a networked society

based on what has been termed the ‘knowledge

economy’ – these networks provide the

infrastructure for a global information society

(Negroponte)

Criticism: these changes are technologically

determined and ignore the social economic

and political dimensions of technological

innovation.

‘The medium is the message’: media

technology has more social effect on

different societies and cultures than media

content (McLuhan)

’Global village’: new communication and

information technologies would help bring

people closer together (McLuhan)

It is argued that US society has moved

from an industrial to a post-industrial

society, characterised by the dominant of

information and information-related

industries (Bell) – the ‘information age’

8. DISCOURSES OF GLOBALISATION

New information and communication have made

global interconnectivity a reality

Globalisation is seen as fostering international

economic integration and as a mechanism for

promoting global liberal capitalism – it is to be

welcomed for the effect that it has in promoting

global markets and liberal democracy (liberal

interpretation)

Idea of cosmopolitan: emphasises

social and cultural life – the expansion of

information and communication

technologies coupled with market-led

liberal democracies are contributing to

the creation of what has been called a

global civil society.

‘Glocalisation’: expresses the global

production of the local and the localisation of

the global.

Global culture includes the proliferation of

media technologies, especially cable

television and satellite (creates ‘global

village’)

Models such as globalisation and

international communism forget the

complexity of the interaction of class with

nationalism, religion, race, ethnicity and

feminism to produce local political

struggles.

GLOBAL COMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE Reading: Thussu, Chapter 3

The process of deregulation and

privatisation in the communications and

media industries combined with new digital

information and communication

Technologies to enable a quantum leap in

international communication, illustrated

most vividly in the satellite industry.

FREE TRADE IN GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

The new information and communication

technologies have helped to create a

global communication infrastructure

based on regional and global satellite

networks, used for telecommunications,

broadcasting and electronic commerce

PRIVATIZING SPACE (THE GLOBAL SATELLITE INDUSTRY)

For most of the 20th century, the state was the main

provider of national telecommunications infrastructure

and equipment and regulator of international traffic (e.g.

PTT)

People began to oppose national monopolies, arguing

that a competitive environment would improve services

and reduce costs

In 1984 US President Ronald Reagan announced as ‘open

skies’ policy, breaking the public monopoly and allowing

private telecommunications networks to operate in the

national telecommunication arena.

The general shift from the public–service role of

telecommunication to private competition and

deregulation had a major impact on international

telecommunication policy, shaped by the USA, Britain and

Europe, all of whom have companies with global

ambitions.

Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on

Tariffs and Trade (GATT): established in 1947 to

provide a framework for international trade

after WWII – included trade in services for the

first time on a par with the traditional

commercial and manufacturing sectors

(reflected the neo-liberal push towards opening

up protected markets)

However, there was tension between the free-

marketers and those who argued for a more

regulated system to protect domestic markets

and interests

The WTO argued that dismantling barriers to

the free flow of information was essential for

economic growth – it is not possible to have

significant trade in goods and services without a

free trade of information

General Agreement on Trade Services: first

multilateral, legally enforceable agreement

covering trade and investment in the services

sector and the one with the most potential

impact on international communication (most

significant component: GATS Annex on

Telecommunications – equal accessibility for

both foreign and national suppliers)

PRIVATIZING NEWS AVENUES (THE WORLD OF NEWS CORPORATION)

Global news and information networks/News

agencies:

AP (USA; world’s largest news gathering

organisation)

Reuters (UK; largest financial information provider)

Agence France Presse (AFP) (France; financial

provider of news)

Other major agencies: United Press

International (UPI, USA), Xinhua (China),

ITAR-TASS (Russia), (WTO, IMF)

These players dominate the global

financial news services and international

television news (especially AP and

Reuters)

CNN is the world leader in international

news channels (in front of BBC and Sky

News) – symbolises globalisation of

American television journalism,

influencing news agendas across the

world and shaping international

communication

THE GLOBAL MEDIA MARKETPLACE Reading: Thussu, Chapter 4

The deregulation and liberalization of the

international communication sector in the 1990s were

paralleled in the media industries and, in conjunction

with the new communication technologies of satellite

and cable, have resulted in the concentration of

media power in the hands of a few large

transnational corporations, undermining media

plurality and democratic discourse .

The largest growing application of international

communication infrastructure is for the delivery of

media products information, news and

entertainment.

The convergence of both media and technologies,

and the process of vertical integration of the media

industries to achieve this aim, have resulted in the

concentration of media power in the hand of a few

large transnational companies, with implications for

global democracy.

With deregulation and the relaxation of

cross-media ownership restrictions,

media companies look to broaden and

deepen their existing interests which has

lead to convergence and acquisitions

MEDIA CONGLOMERATES

Time Warner (USA; entertainment & infotainment

company – CNN/Warner Bros)

Disney (USA; film & entertainment company – Disney

Channel, ESPN)

Sony (Japan; electronics & multimedia entertainment –

Columbia Pictures)

Bertelsmann (Germany; largest publisher of books and

magazines)

Viacom/CBS (USA; large entertainment company –

Paramount Pictures/MTV)

Media power being concentrated in hands few

corporations (mainly American) conglomerates may

act like an alliance in production and distribution of

global information and entertainment (McChesney,

Bagdikian).

In other words, the media may become the

mouthpiece for these corporations and their

supporters in governments (existent relationship

between the media and the government).

A significant proportion of the revenue of leading

media companies comes from television (partly due

to establishment of satellite TV) – mainly

documentaries and adult entertainment TV (easily

exported to all nations/cultures), but also sport and

popular music

Global cinema and television screens are dominated

by Hollywood, and English-language publishing is

predominant (led by the USA/ UK: ‘duopoly’)

TELEVISING SPORT GLOBALLYCOMMERCIALISATION

Historically sports have been used as forms of entertainment

However, they have never been more commercialised than

today

Commercial sports are organised and played to make money

as entertainment events

They depend on gate receipts, sponsorships and sale of

media rights.

Therefore commercial sports are more suited to certain

conditions i.e.

1.most prevalent in market economies where

material rewards are high

2.Most prevalent in market economies where

material rewards are high

3.Usually exist in densely populated cities for large

spectator base

4.Require people in a society to have time, money

transportation and availability to media outlets

(print and electronic)

5. Commercial sports require large amounts of capital

to build and maintain stadiums and arenas (therefore

naming rights are important for $)

6. Commercial sports are most likely to flourish in

cultures where lifestyles involve high rates of

consumption and emphasise material status symbols

(therefore everything associated with sports can be

marketed and sold - i.e. autographs, merchandise,

even team names)

CLASS RELATIONS AND COMMERCIAL SPORTS

Which sports have become commercialised in

society?

Often those sports followed and watched by people

who possess or control economic forces in society

E.g. Golf - the sport does not lend itself to a sporting

“spectacle” in terms of high spectator numbers yet

TV coverage is immense - a lot of money involved

Those who play golf are wealthy powerful people

and are important in terms of sponsorships and

advertising

However, why does women’s golf attain less TV and

media?

And then, which women attract the majority of

attention?

Despite these being gender issues they ultimately

come down to money and market economies

Arguably any sport can be marketed and

promoted as an important sport to watch.

When wealthy and powerful people are

interested in a sport, it will be covered,

promoted and presented as if it has a cultural

significance in society

SPORT AS BIG BUSINESS

Corporations understand the importance of

sport as a marketing and branding tool for

their product

Athletes and sporting teams have a global

marketing capacity

Even sports stadiums have been branded

BIG SPORT IS BIG MONEY

Hosting the Olympics is not about prestige, it is

about money

Politicians know what hosting the Olympics will

mean to the economy (and votes)-increased

tourism, global exposure, more jobs-building

venues-roads, infrastructure money for public

amenities, jubilant voters etc

A successful national or global sporting team can

mean important revenue for the city e.g.

Manchester United, Chicago Bulls, Adelaide

Crows, Port Power (notice these are all male

sports)

Big sport also creates huge revenue for media

outlets - Locally, Nationally, Globally

DO SPORTS DEPEND ON THE MEDIA?

No, when they exist for the players themselves

Yes, when they are forms of commercial

entertainment

–Media coverage attracts attention and

provides news of results

–Television has been a key factor in the growth

and expansion of commercial sport (Television

expands commercial value of sports)

HAVE THE MEDIA CORRUPTED SPORTS?

This is not likely because:

•Sports are not shaped primarily by the media

in general or TV in particular

(Sports are social constructions that emerge in connection with

many different social relationships)

•The media, including TV, do not operate in a

political and economic vacuum

(Government regulates the media, and economic factors set

limits to control)

DO THE MEDIA DEPEND ON SPORTS?

•Most media do not depend on sports for content or

sales

•Daily newspapers have depended on “sports

sections” to boost circulation and advertising

revenues

•Many television companies have depended on sports

to fill program schedules, attract male viewers and

the sponsors that want to reach them (Many

sport events have audiences with clearly identifiable “demographics”-

ie watch the ads-KFC cricketers box during cricket, footy pie)

TRENDS IN TELEVISED SPORTS

•Rights fees have escalated rapidly since the 1960s

•Sports programming has increased dramatically

•As more events are covered, ratings for particular events

have decreased (Audience fragmentation has occurred- basketball

from Winter to Summer, Uncle Toby Super Series surf lifesaving pulled

completely)

•Television companies use sports events to promote other

programming

•Television companies increasingly own teams and events

(particularly in the US-although 7 Network and Telstra Dome have close links)

CORPORATE SPONSORSHIP

•Many male executives of large media corporations love

sports and the notion of being linked to sports

•Masculine culture is deeply embedded in these

corporations (i.e. masculinised hierarchy)

•When sport emphasizes competition, domination, and

achievement, executives feel that these are crucial

factors in their companies (They will pay big money to

hire coaches to motivate employees around these themes

….also pay large sums to sponsor teams and events)

SETTING THE GLOBAL NEWS AGENDA

News, more than any cultural form, carries the

burden of defining the world in which citizens

operate” [Lewis]

Unlike news, maps are objective to the most

part.

News affects our mental maps (how we see

the world, and from which angle).

–News stories are selected (agenda setting)

Certain news however is not reported on.

–Africa is the least reported continent in the

Western World

News Agencies (AFP, Reuters, AP) set news

agendas

–The ‘institutional gatekeeper’ are the news

agencies.

News Agencies are relatively monopolistic.

Decolonization after WWII News Nation

States News flows keep mirroring the

centre periphery.

UNESCO tried to form a contra-flow of news

–Idea was that 3rd world countries would

receive truthful representations.

Yet, news in developing countries is often

channelled through London or Paris.

There is limited agency is African

countries and for foreign news, they rely

on world agencies as they have no foreign

correspondents .

NEWS AGENCIES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD

–Rely on the state for economic survival

–Depend on the agencies of ex-imperial powers

for world news

–Are told that national news agencies in the

national scope are not to be trusted.

THE NEW WORLD INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION ORDER (NWICO) CONTROVERSY

–Developed during and after the cold war

–Developing countries are the victims of

domination in information

–Subject to imperialism

–The motive (is almost) always to control

–Trends in mass media led to concentration and

monopolization

Greater risk of on-sidedness and conformity

–Greater gap between rich and poor

–Imbalance in news flows

–News is framed (generally negative for third

world)

This has NOT changed over the years, as

news is reported on in ethnocentric ways

(where one society feels it is better than all

others).

IDEOLOGICAL SHIFTS WITHIN UNESCO

–1950s: Free flow was key for the Western world.

Info available for those with the necessary

resources

–1960s/70s: Free flow actually seen as “one-way”

flow. National news agencies in the developing

world seen ideological support for politics

–1984: USA and UK leave UNESCO due to one

way flow.

NEWS AGENCIES TODAY

–Three Leading News Agencies: AP, Reuters

and AFP

–Fewer corporations are providing information

using fewer resources

–Age of hyper-commercialism and

infotainment

–Western Societies decline in the amount of

quality of foreign news reporting.

News agencies are forming CNN, BBC, Al Jazeera

Still too western

Agenda Setting and Imperialism

Increased homogenization

TRADITIONAL MODEL

–News coverage: reliable news on national

and international level for customers

–Distribution: distribute it via global

networks telex or satellite

–Everybody can publish

–Everybody can distribute

–No longer single agency of news

“Perceived economic value of content is

approaching zero”

TODAY’S MODEL

INTERNATIONAL JOURNALISM AFTER 911 (WEST VS. MIDDLE EAST)

Current research has demonstrated that

the majority of the news that is found on

the Internet come from only a handful of

preeminent media outlets.

The rise of news networks such as Al-

Jazeera pushed for a reassessment of those

claims.

Al-Jazeera English offers an alternative

mode of news journalism that fosters a

stereotypical attitude towards the “other”

The advent of Al-Jazeera redefine the

traditional wartime news angle of reporting

in the U.S. media, reconfiguring the counter-

hegemonic debate in U.S. war reporting.

images tend to be modified through re-

broadcasting by other news network.

Counter-hegemonic contra-flows have

pushed U.S. local news stations to be

defensive and offensive towards their reports

concerning different world views, perceived

as threatening to the U.S. national security.

U.S. news networks consistently “self-

censored all counter-hegemonic news

material from Al-Jazeera, without regard to

the principles of objectivity and impartiality”

(Samuel-Azran, 2010: 42).

HOW DO THEY DO SO?

News on the War in Afghanistan was “framed as a

targeted attack on the Taliban’s terrorists regime”.

Most of the images were consistent with U.S.

Administration demands.

NEWS MEDIA AND THE FOREIGN POLICY

There is a great debate about the

relationship between the news media and

the foreign policy decision-making process,

and the impact the former may have on the

latter.

Two theories have risen to explain this

matter, the so-called "CNN effect" and the

"manufacturing consent" thesis.

The globalisation of certain television formats may

give the impression of homogenisation, but

television is simultaneously global and national,

shaped by the globalisation of media economics and

the pull of local and national cultures

Many global media corporations also produce

regional editions of their newspapers and magazines

to provide a regional perspective on issues relevant

to their respective readers

THE "CNN EFFECT"

The so-called "CNN effect", is understood in a

variety of ways.

1.The capability of the news media (television

in particular) to "shape the policy agenda”.

2.The "power" of news journalism "to move

governments.

3. The idea that real-time communications

technology could provoke major responses from

domestic audiences and political elites to global

events.

4. The argument that the media drives Western

conflict management by forcing Western

governments to intervene militarily in humanitarian

crises against their will.

THE MANUFACTURING CONSENT THEORY

The manufacturing consent theory "argues

that the media does not create policy, but

rather that news media is mobilized

(manipulated even) into supporting

government policy”.

There are two ways in which manufacturing

consent may take place:

The executive version, in which there is

framing that, conforms to the official

agenda; and

The elite version, in which news

coverage is critical of executive policy as

a consequence of elite dissensus.

MEDIA, FOREIGN POLICY AND EVENTS

The relevance of the relationship between the

news media and foreign policy makers goes

beyond the fact that the former cover foreign

events and the latter make policies regarding

foreign events.

The importance of this relationship, thus,

relies on two claims about it:

Firstly, the claims that the coverage of certain

events has the potential to drive the policies that

foreign policy makers conduct regarding the

events covered (the CNN effect),

Secondly, the claim that foreign policy makers

are the ones who drive media attention towards

certain foreign events, and even determine the

way those events are being framed

(Manufacturing consent).

COMMUNICATION AND CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION Reading: Thussu, Chapter 5

The general pattern of the media ownership

indicates that the west, led by the USA, dominates

the international flow of information and

entertainment in all major media sectors.

Some argue that such globally transmitted

programming will promote a shared media culture, a

global village based on the English language and

Western lifestyles and values

But what is the impact of such one way flows of

global information and entertainment on

national and regional media cultures?

It has been argued that international

communication and media are leading to the

homogenization of culture, but the patterns of

global/national/local interaction may be more

complex.

Hybridity: how global genres are adapted

to suit national cultural codes

Television has a much wider reach than the

print media, as millions of people still

cannot read or write

Television is thus central to a ‘global mass

culture’ – dominated ‘by the image, imagery

and styles of mass advertising’ (Hall)

One reason for the global appeal of US

popular culture is its openness and

mingling of a multiplicity of cultures, many

of which are themselves imports from

outside the USA.

THREE REASONS FOR THE WORLDWIDE SUCCESS OF US TELEVISION

The universality of some of its themes and

formulae (makes programmes psychologically

accessible)

The polyvalent/open potential of many of the

stories (their value as projective mechanisms

and as material for negotiation and play in the

families of man)

The sheer availability of American programmes in a

marketplace where national producers cannot fill more

than a fraction of the hours they feel they must

provide

NB: The fact that particular television programmes

have had such worldwide success, is not necessarily

due to their entertainment quality or interest, but

rather because they are promoted by the huge media

conglomerates (global branding and the

internationalisation of the advertising industry)

With the proliferation of television globally

(more channels/networks) dedicated children’s

channels have become an integral part of the

international television market (also linked to

global toy market)

Advantage for children’s TV channels:

animation translates well in overseas market

(minimal need for cultural interpretation)

UNESCO studies have proven that there

is generally a one-way traffic, mainly in

entertainment-oriented programming,

from the major Western-exporting

nations to the rest of the world

One key result of the privatisation and

proliferation of television outlets, and the

growing glocalisation of US media

products, is that American film and

television exports have witnessed a

massive increase between 1922 and 2004

(Europe continues to be the largest market

for American film and TV content).

The global flow of consumerist messages

through international television has been seen

by some as evidence of a new form of cultural

imperialism, especially in the non-Western world

(Schiller) – mainly due to the extensive reach of

the US-based media, helping the USA to use its

‘soft’ power to promote its national interests

US presence on European television has

increased substantially, but are often dubbed

into local languages/contexts (content is based

on American-style popular entertainment forms,

but have nationally specific themes and setting)

The British lead the European television scene

In non-Western nations (e.g. sub-Saharan

Africa), the poverty existent makes it difficult

for local television channels to make their

own programmes, forcing them to depend

technically and financially on international

organisations or Western media corporations

GLOBAL CINEMA: HOLLYWOOD HEGEMONY

One key reason for US dominations of the global

entertainment market is its film industry

(Hollywood)

One of the most contested issues in global film

exports has been the trade of films between the

USA and Europe (EU is dominant by American

productions, while European films only cover 2% of

the American film market)

In developing countries, many of whom

have no film industry of their own, Hollywood

films account for a majority of their film

imports

Concerns have been raised about the

imbalance in global flows of media products

– “asymmetries in flows of ideas and good”

The standardisation of programmes on the

world’s cinema and television screens risks

the disappearance of cultural and linguistic

identities which many societies consider to

be a basic component of their national

sovereignty – risks cultural diversity

(UNESCO)

Concerns about the impact of the US domination of

international communication and media on culture

and linked with the question of language and

cultural identity and the rise of English as the global

language.

English has become the main language due to the

British domination of the global in the 19th and first

half of the 20th century, including the domination

over the telegraph.

Only those authors who can write in English,

or whose works are translated into English,

are considered ‘international’, and have

success in the international market

LOCAL CULTURE IN GLOBAL MEDIA

International media organisations are

increasingly becoming conscious of the

varying tastes of their consumers in

different parts of the world – increase in

trend towards the regionalisation and

localisation of media content

Wherever one looks one can find similar types

of programmes being broadcasted, although the

language and the context may be localised

The globalisation of certain television formats

may give the impression of homogenisation, but

television is simultaneously global and national,

shaped by the globalisation of media economics

and the pull of local and national cultures

Many global media corporations also produce

regional editions of their newspapers and

magazines to provide a regional perspective on

issues relevant to their respective readers

Routine viewing in one particular cultural and

political context may vary considerably between

and within nations, also in terms of rural/ urban,

male/ female and class distinctions

Western programming is still watched by

a relatively small percentage of the

population in much of the non-Western

world – yet the people who do watch it

have significant power and influence – thus

it is promoting a globalised, ‘Westernised’

elite which believes in the supremacy of the

market and liberal democracy, as defined by the

West

Rather than creating a homogenised culture,

globalisation of Western culture may be

producing ‘heterogeneous disjunctures’: the

global-local cultural interaction is leading to a

hybrid culture, which blurs the boundaries

between the modern and the traditional, the

high and low culture, and their national and

global culture – glocalisation.

Glocalisation: cultural fusion as a result of

adaptation of Western media genres to suit

local languages, styles and cultural

conventions, using new communication

technologies (e.g. Zee TV – mixes English

and Hindi content).

GLOBAL ADVERTISING

Advertising is also being regionalised to cater

national and regional priorities

The flow of music culture is an example of

cultural movement

CONTRAFLOW IN GLOBAL MEDIA Reading: Thussu, Chapter 6

The globalisation of Western media has been a major

influence in shaping media cultures internationally

While there are forces for convergence and

homogenisation, the spread of the US model of

professional/commercial television has also brought

beneficial changes to some national and regional

media industries (e.g. revival of culture and creative

industries)

Westernisation has parallels with

‘Easternisation’ and ‘South-South flows’ (e.g.

Japanese animation, Indian films, etc.)

FACTORS:

The availability of digital technology and

satellite networks has enabled the

development of regional broadcasting

A privatised and deregulated broadcasting and

telecommunication environment has enabled an

increasing flow of content from the global South to the

North

The availability of myriad television channels has

complicated the national media discourse (viewers can

have simultaneous access to a variety of local,

regional, national and international channels, thus

being able to engage in different levels of mediated

discourse)

In countries where the medias systems were

tightly regulated by the state apparatus,

globalisation has brought a fresh and more

international perspective (e.g. enhanced media

professionalism and more freedom of the press)

Global television has also created the

phenomenon of global ‘media events’ (e.g.

Olympic Game, natural or human disasters)

The use of television for political purposes is

on the increase, as visual media can have

tremendous power to influence political and

social attitudes (e.g. ‘spin’)

The Western style of professional television

journalism has influenced programme-making

in many countries (e.g. current-affairs

structure)

ADVANTAGES OF THE GLOBALISATION OF WESTERN TELEVISION:

created jobs in the media industry

it has a liberatory potential that can

contribute to strengthening liberal

democratic culture, through its ‘modernity’

its promotes gender equality and freedom.

ALTERNATIVE GLOBALIZATION

The growing Western cultural presence has also

produced discontent in some countries (e.g. Islamic

World; due to 9/11 – anti-American and anti-Islamic

sentiments) – clash of civilisations/fundamentalisms

‘Westoxication’: the adoption and flaunting of

superficial consumerist attributes of fads and

commodities, originating in the USA.

Non-Western countries have tried to

restrict the reception of Western satellite

TV by introducing licensing regimes (often

banned on the grounds that the content

is inappropriate to that particular culture)

Partly as a reaction to perceived Westernisation

of their culture and partly as a reaction to the

alleged distortion in representations of non-

Western cultures in the global media, many

countries have experienced a cultural revival,

often influenced by religious groups and

encouraged by political establishments, acting as

a barrier to the flow of Western media products

GLOBAL COUNTERFLOW OF MEDIA PRODUCTS

Evidence shows that new trans-border

television networks are appearing from

the periphery to the centres of global

media and communication industries.

The deregulation of broadcasting, which

has been a catalyst for the extension of

private television networks, has also made it

possible for private satellite broadcasters to

aim beyond the borders of the country

where the network is based (in contrast to

state/public broadcasters).

Reason for the proliferation of transnational

channels: the physical movement of people from

one geographical location to another, carrying

with them aspects of their culture – ‘ethnoscape’

The Southern presence in the metropolitan

centres of the world has been brought about by

‘deterritorialisation’: the loss of the ‘natural’

relation of culture to geographical and social

territories.

The nature of ‘culture mixing’ can lead to

a hybridisation of cultures

Diasporic communities use different

types of media to keep in touch with their

culture, nowadays through satellite

television channels

The demand for such channels also reflects the

lack of provision for minority communities by

mainstream media and national broadcasters

Examples international players of contraflow from

‘Global South’:

1.Latin American telenovelas,

2.Al Jazeera, Phoenix (China) and

3.the Indian Film Industry (Bollywood)

These examples do not show that the

Western media domination has diminished –

the emergence of regional players contributing

to a ‘decentred’ cultural imperialism is not

likely to have significant impact on the Western

hegemony of global media cultures

Nevertheless, there does exist a blurring of

boundaries, mixing of genres, languages and

a contraflow of cultural products from the

peripheries to the centres – transculturation,

hybridity and indigenisation.

The desire to experience the new is

balanced by that to protect cultural

sovereignty

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE INTERNET AGE Reading: Thussu, Chapter 7

International communication has been

shaped by technological innovation –

fibre optics, satellites and the Internet

have enabled the trade of information

instantly across the globe

The origins of the Internet lie in the US

Department of Defence’s APRANET, created

in 1969 during the Cold War threats.

The explosion in the use of Internet took off

with the establishment of the World Wide

Web in 1989

The Internet has been the fastest growing

tool of communication

The unprecedented growth in the volume of

international communication and the conduct of

business through the Internet has made it

imperative for transnational corporations to

demand the harmonisation of standards of

equipment and frequencies so that

telecommunication and broadcasting

equipment can be used across national borders.

It is in the interests of the countries and

corporations that dominate global trade to

ensure that electronic commerce operates in

a free-market environment.

FROM A 'FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION' TO 'FREE FLOW OF COMMERCE

Technological developments, combined with the

liberalisation in trade and telecommunications,

have acted as catalysts for e-commerce – made

possible because of the opening up of global

markets in telecommunications services and

information technology products (due to the

WTO agreements)

One of the biggest potential growth areas for e-

commerce is Asia, due to its rapid growth in

Internet users and its booming economy

Googlisation of global communication: the rapid

rise of search media which arranges the world’s

information and makes it universally accessible and

useful – focuses on the issue of access and to the

relations between commercial interests and media.

MEDIA ON-LINE

Major newspapers have started a web edition and

all major broadcasters have a presence on the

Internet (first seen as a supplement to the main

media source)

In this media environment, the boundaries between

advertising and programming are constantly blurring

The international media survive/depend more and

more on advertising

By being able to monitor and record patterns of

Internet use, governments can control citizens’

political activities, while businesses can have

access to private information (back accounts,

insurance details, etc.) which can be traded for

marketing purposes – this type of information has

security and privacy implications, since it can also

be misused by governments and corporations.

THE INTERNET AS A POLITICAL TOOL

The commercialisation of the Internet is

perceived by some as betraying the initial

promise of its potential to create a ‘global

public sphere’ and an alternative forum.

The Internet was once seen as a mass medium

whose fundamental principles were based in access

to free information and a decentralised information

network – opened up possibilities of digital

dialogues across the world

Unlike traditional communication (top-down, one-

to-many model), online communication was seen as

a many-to-many dialogue and thus more

democratic.

However, the Internet has also provided a platform

for extremist organisations (hate propaganda).

Internationally, the most significant political role

that the Internet has played is in promoting links

between community groups, non-governmental

organisations and political activists from different

parts of the world.

The Internet has influenced the mass

media in a substantial way: not only has

it provided a new platform for media

organisations to reach consumers, but it

has also changed the timeframe of news

production, distribution and speed (24-

hour broadcasting and accessibility).

The Internet has also become a great source for

journalists, which allows them to include different

perspectives and background information in their

news reporting.

Power is moving away from journalists as

gatekeepers over what the public knows – citizens

are assuming a more active role as assemblers,

editors and even creators of their own news (e.g.

blogs)

In many countries the growing use of the Internet

and its potential power to provide alternative

viewpoints and exchange of information beyond

national borders have generated anxiety

In the digital era, filtering software and protocols

may in fact make censorship easier (they can

simple route all Internet traffic through electronic

gateways).