Communication for Development (C4D) Learning Course MODULE 2professorcarlson.net/c4dcourse/orientation/orient_unit1/... · 2016-09-07 · By the end of this module you will be able

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Communication for Development (C4D) Learning Course

MODULE 2

This workbook supplements the online learning materials. It contains the text of the modules, but without the readings. The complete version of the modules and all accompanying materials are on the course website.

In developing this course, the Communication and Development Studies Program and the Center for International Studies at Ohio University have made every effort to trace copyright holders and adhere to educational fair usage guidelines. We regret omissions and welcome additions and amendments for inclusion in future revisions.

© Ohio University and UNICEF 2016.

This material is not licensed for resale or copying without agreement.

Communication for Development (C4D) Learning Course

MODULE 2

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MODULE 2Introduction to Module 2 [ 5 ]

Learning Objectives [ 6 - 9 ]

Unit Structure [10 ]

UNIT 1: Individual-Level Change Theories [11]

Introduction [12 ]

Learning Objectives [12 -14 ]

Background [14 ]

Discussion [15 ]

Readings and Resources [16 ]

UNIT 2: Interpersonal-Level Change Theories [17 ]

Introduction [18 ]

Learning Objectives [18 ]

Background [18 - 2 0 ]

Discussion [ 2 0 ]

Readings and Resources [ 21]

UNIT 3: Community-Level Change Theories [ 2 2 ]

Introduction [ 2 3 ]

Learning Objectives [ 2 3 ]

Background [ 2 3 – 2 4 ]

Discussion [ 2 4 ]

Readings and Resources [ 2 5 ]

UNIT 4: Choosing Among Change Theories [ 2 6 ]

Introduction [ 2 7 ]

Learning Objectives [ 2 7 ]

Background [ 2 8 ]

Discussion [ 2 9 ]

Readings and Resources [ 3 0 ]

TABLE OFCONTENTS

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MODULE 2Behaviour and Social Change Theory in C4D

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When we plan communication strategies for behavioural or social change, one set of helpful tools are theories for change. Many successful C4D programmes are based on the application of one or more behaviour or social change theories. It’s not something we often talk about in our planning and reports. And we certainly avoid the “t” word in implementing programmes. But it’s there (and if it isn’t, it should be!)

So, though some people see theories as abstract and removed from everyday life, we think of theory as a set of conceptual tools that allow us to introduce changes to programmes that are not working or to build new ones.

Our task in this module is to de-mystify theory, and add it to your toolkit. Our goal is to show you theory in practice—how to plan and implement programmes that are based on proven theoretical models which research shows have worked in development.

MODULE 2: Behaviour and Social Change Theory in C4DINTRODUCTION

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• Describe and discuss behaviour and social change theories as they apply to C4D work at the individual, interpersonal and community level;

• Identify what level of change the intervention is seeking to achieve;

• Articulate theory based research gaps for C4D strategy planning;

• Assess and apply the most appropriate theory or combination of theories for different C4D programmes.

By the end of this module you will be able to:

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This module focuses on behaviour and social change theories that guide C4D interventions. You will learn about individual, interpersonal and community level change theories and how they are complementary and inter-dependent. You will also understand the importance of theory-led research and the role of theory in C4D planning.

Unit 1: Looks at behaviour change theories and factors that can motivate or encourage individuals to change their current behaviours. You will examine individual level knowledge, attitudes and perceptions that either influence or impede change in behaviours.

Unit 2: Looks at interpersonal-level change theories focusing on the interaction and dialogue that occurs between individuals which in turn affects behaviour change.

Unit 3: Focuses on community level theories of change and how C4D can facilitate the process of social change through a mix of mass and group mediated communication channels. This unit emphasizes that individuals exist within social networks and their behaviours are influenced by their interactions with family members, peer groups and community.

Unit 4: Looks at theory-led C4D research and planning. You will learn how to assess which theories to choose and how to combine different theories depending on the level of change you are aiming for. You will explore theory- driven research questions and learn how data can lead us to select certain theories.

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Most programme planners are interested in articulating change processes. Theywant to know which strategies and tactics are most likely to lead to a programme’s desired outcomes. By looking at theories as tools, we will be emphasizing theories that are used to predict and influence individual behaviours and social change.This means that, in this module, we will not be emphasizing theories that are primarily descriptive or prescriptive in nature.

Theories meant to describe are very good at telling us what the factual truths, moral norms, or group identities of a community are, but seldom present these factors as a way to promote change. Descriptive theories tell us what is happening in a community, but they do not necessarily emphasize or provide details on how to change communities in pro-social ways.

Theories meant to prescribe are very good at helping us to envision a more desirable world. Prescriptive theories are designed to tell us what the theorist thinks the best possible world would look like. The limitation of prescriptive theories is that many people think they are difficult to apply to practical problems because they look at what should be done rather than what actually can be done. Also, many prescriptive theories can be easily politicized.

If you want to know more about descriptive and prescriptive theories, as well as other predictive and influential theories, we have included links on the course website to short definitions of theories that we will not be covering in depth in this module. You can find these on the Module 2 Tools web page.

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In this module, we are looking at 3 levels of behaviour and social change theory,or different tools that are used to guide different change processes. Most changetheories (and their concepts) address one of the following 3 levels of change:

This module focuses on theories that guide the design, implementation and evaluation of C4D, as opposed to concepts, models, or strategies. In Units 1, 2 and 3, we divide C4D theories into 3 groups, based on the level of change:

• Individual-level change theories

• Interpersonal-level change theories

• Community-level change theories

Individual, interpersonal and community level theories of change complement one another and can be used in a coordinated fashion given the inter-related nature of the different levels of communication. Individuals inevitably interact with one another (interpersonal communication), communicate in group settings (community-level communication), and are exposed to interpersonal and group interaction via mass, community, group, or individually mediated communication channels.

The Inter-related Nature of

Theories of Behaviour Change

• Individual • Interpersonal • Community

• Psychological• Psycho-social• Cultural & Social

• Personal Behaviours• Social Network• Collective/Social/Group• Norms and Practices

CHANGE PROCESS

LEVELS OF CHANGE

TARGETS OF CHANGE

COMMUNITY

INTERPERSONAL

INDIVIDUAL

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As development professionals working in C4D, we need to be familiar with theories at multiple levels, since a given situation may require and benefit from the use of multiple theories.

Psychologist Albert Bandura writes that the value of a theory is “ultimatelyjudged by the power of the procedures it generates.” For us, this means:does the theory give us the tools and information we need to develop effectivecommunication strategies? How do we know which theory or theories to use inour programme? In Unit 4, we bring them all together with advice and practice onchoosing between or combining social and behaviour change theories. We will also examine existing data and attempt formulating theory driven research questions.

In the practice of C4D, the discourse around behaviour change and socialchange communication approaches has often created varied (and sometimes opposing) interpretations of what behaviour and social change theories actually mean. We will have a chance to discuss some of these issues and interpretations in-depth during the face-to-face workshop. In this module,we refer to behaviour and social change theories primarily in terms of change theories operating at different levels as described above. However, we believe that C4D is ultimately a multilayered strategic process that draws on communication to encourage or facilitate social change. Communication for social change implies work that is bottom up, participant directed, and empowering.

Therefore, when you consider these theories, remember that while someof them may concern the behaviours of individuals, either alone or in relation to others or their communities, our goal is to foster overall positive social change and transformations.

1Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc,, 1977, p. 4.

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Each unit has a common structure with six elements, identified by images on the website and in the workbooks.

UNIT STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTIONAn outline of the unit, indicating how the topics covered relate to C4D.

Additional information about a topic

More Navigational Images

A question or an optional response

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LEARNING OBJECTIVESWhat you will know and/or be able to do after completing the unit.

BACKGROUNDKey concepts and the broader C4D and UNICEF context.

DISCUSSIONQuestions for discussion about the issues in the unit.

READINGS AND RESOURCESRequired and optional readings, resources and tools to help you complete the unit.

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3

4

5The readings (average of 50 pages per week) have been carefully chosen by the curriculum development team and vetted by UNICEF to help build a common understanding of C4D terminology, principles and practice. There are many more useful readings on C4D topics (some listed under “Optional Readings”) so we’ve worked hard to select those we judge most relevant to C4D work in UNICEF. We’ll be referring to these readings throughout the online phase and the workshop.

VIDEO MATERIALSRequired and optional videos to help you complete the unit. The audiovisual resources include several videos and short interviews (available as videos or podcasts) with UNICEF staff on key issues in C4D.

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M2: UNIT 1Individual-Level Change Theories

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M2U1 Individual-Level Change Theories

INTRODUCTION In this unit you will look at behaviour change theories and factors that can motivate or encourage individuals to change their current behaviours. You will examine individual level constructs such as knowledge, attitudes and perceptions that either influence or impede change in behaviors. To explore individual-level change, we will cover the following theories:

• Maslow’s Theory of Human Motivation

• The Health Belief Model

• The Theory of Reasoned Action/Theory of Planned Behaviour

• The Stages of Change/Transtheoretical Model

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Based on the readings, viewings and discussion, by the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Identify core concepts from key individual-level change communication theories;

• Describe how concepts and strategies from individual-level change communication theories can inform strategic choices for C4D interventions.

BACKGROUND

PUTTING INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL CHANGE THEORIES IN CONTEXT

When we do C4D work, we are trying to encourage change in individual behaviours by understanding and influencing the behaviour of key audiences and participants in our communication strategy. We are interested in their knowledge, attitudes and norms, as well as any other real, perceived, or psychological barriers or facilitators to changing behaviour.

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Most theorists and practitioners working in C4D today recognize that while individual-level change is important (and thus individual-level theories are essential), all individuals exist within a larger “ecology” that includes the family, the community and society as a whole. The socio-ecological model (SEM), for example, locates individual behaviour within larger social structures and acknowledges that individual behaviour should be considered in context, in relation to the family, institutions, community and national-level history, policies and laws.

As you read about individual-level theories, remember that these theories are often used in conjunction with other theories related to community, culture and society. We need not think about different theories as requiring us to make an “either/or” choice (individual or community/societal level) but rather allowing us to adopt an inclusive, “both/ and” orientation whereby theoretical

concepts, from individual-psychological to social norms-societal, can be equally embraced and applied in conjunction with one another.

Although many of the components of individual-level change seem like common sense, learning their names and the ways they relate to each other gives us a common framework and shared vocabulary for talking to other C4D practitioners, development professionals, government counterparts, and other change agents who we may be working with in the field. Also, the things that we might think are common sense might be new to other people, just as what other people take for granted might give us new ideas for trying to persuade individuals to take new positive actions or stop harmful practices.

Each of these theories is widely used in communication initiatives that focus on changing individual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours.

1University of Victoria, Center for addictions research of British Columbia: http://carbc.ca/

HelpingSchools/ImplementingPromisingPractices/tabid/638/agentType/View/PropertyID/397/Default.aspx

Consider Behaviour in a Wider Context1

COMMUNITY

INTERPERSONAL

INDIVIDUAL

PUBLIC POLICY

SCHOOLS

(knowledge, attitude, skills)

(social network)

(cultural values, norms)

(environment, ethos)

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READ THIS SHORT SYNOPSIS AND THEN ANSWER THE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS.

Sociologist Kurt Lewin once wrote:

“There is nothing so practical as a good theory.”2 One theory that is widely used and very practical is Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Human Motivation3.

The theory explains that humans must first meet basic physiological and safety needs (food, water, shelter, etc.)before addressing “higher” needs such as social relations, esteem, or

“self-actualization” (e.g., a fulfilling career). In relation to behaviour change, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs provides a reference to understand barriers to change for any behavior.

The theory suggests that when planning and designing an intervention, success may be limited in circumstances/contexts where people are focused on meeting basic needs or have other priorities. For example, if someone is worrying

about feeding their family they may not be thinking about vaccinations or open defecation (even though they should be, for obvious health reasons). In short, humans strive to meet their basic needs first. Higher order needs are less of a priority than basic, physiological and safety needs. It’s important to remember that certain health behaviours, while perceived by health workers as essential for survival and thus a basic need, may not be perceived by community members as life-saving. Many C4D interventions are designed to demonstrate health risks and to communicate that some behaviours, like hand-washing with soap, can be a life-saving action (thus meeting a basic need).

2 Lewin, K. (1951) Field theory in social science;

selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (ed.).

New York: Harper & Row, p. 169.

3 Maslow, A.H. (1943). A theory of human

motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–96.

DISCUSSION

1. Often times when we are promoting certain issues such as vaccination, maternal nutrition or school retention we are faced with communities struggling to meet basic needs. How do you deal with such situations? What are your experiences promoting certain practices in the context of poverty, conflict or food insecurity?

2. Identify some (3-5) core concepts from the individual-level change theories that you learned about in the readings and found potentially relevant/useful for C4D work. You are also free to describe theories/concepts that you found limited, and less useful. Are these concepts more useful for certain programme areas than others? Please explain.

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Image adapted from: http://www.newexistentialists.com/posts/07-22-11

ESTEEM NEEDS(prestige and feeling of accomplishment)

BELONGINGNESS AND LOVE NEEDS(intimate relationships, friends)

SAFETY NEEDS(security, safety)

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS(food, water, warmth, rest)

SELF-ACTUALIZATION(achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities)

—Self-fulfillment Needs

—Psychological Needs

—Basic Needs

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Note: Readings and resources are available on the course website along with their full citations.

REQUIRED VIEWINGSThe Story of Cholera.

• This is a good example of how a creative and compelling story is used to convey the severity of cholera and the importance of hand-washing with soap and other key hygiene behaviors, thereby linking key behaviours to basic needs. http:// globalhealthmedia.org/story-of-cholera/ videos/the-story-of-cholera/ Video

Stages of Change Model • This video provides good examples that help

illustrate the Stages of Change model.

Using theory in C4D work (Paolo Mefalopoulos)

REQUIRED READINGSFamily Health International, (1996). Behavior change

—A summary of four major theories. AIDSCAP Behavioral Research Unit. [13 p.]

Hayden, J. (2009). Introduction to Health Behavior Theory, (Chapter 4, pp. 31–44). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. [14 p.]

University of Twente (n.d.). Health belief model (web page). Retrieved from http://www. utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Health%20Communication/Health_Belief_Model.doc/. [1 p.]

• Note: This brief document repeats some information from the “summary of major theories” reading above, but also has a helpful table format with concept, definition and “application” columns this last column provides good examples of how HBM can be applied in health promotion.

Ajzen, I. (n.d.). TPB Diagram (web page). Retrieved from http://www.people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.diag.html. [1 p.]

• Note: This diagram has “clickable concepts” that provide definitions and additional information. The diagram covers the “Theory of Planned Behavior,” which is an evolution of the Theory of Reasoned Action (1980). TRA became TPB when the concept of “perceived behavioral control” was added.4

Cancer Research Prevention Center (n.d.). Detailed overview of the transtheoretical model (web page). Retrieved from http://www.uri.edu/research/cprc/TTM/ detailedoverview.htm. [14 p.]

OPTIONAL READINGS The following short readings bridge research and theory with practice by providing concrete examples of how theoretical concepts from this unit and the module as a whole are used in interventions that relate to subject matter of interest to UNICEF staff members.

Al-Akour, N., et al. (2010). Factors affecting intention to breastfeed among Syrian and Jordanian mothers: a comparative cross-sectional study. International Breastfeeding Journal 5(6). [8 p.]

Curtis, V.A., Danquah, L. O., and Aunger, R. V. (2009). Planned, motivated and habitual hygiene behaviour: An eleven country review. Health Education Research 24(4). 655–673. [19 p.]

Weinrich, N. K. (1999). The “Don’t Kid Yourself” campaign case study. Excerpted from Hands-On Social Marketing: A Step-by-Step Guide by Nedra Kline Weinreich (Sage Publications, 1999). [13 p.]

READINGS AND RESOURCES

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M2: UNIT 2Interpersonal-Level Change Theories

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES Based on the readings and discussion, by the end of this unit, you will be able to:

• Identify and understand key concepts from each of the interpersonal theories

• Describe how interpersonal-level concepts can inform C4D interventions6

BACKGROUND

Interpersonal-level theories of change provide another level of understanding in deciphering, and in some cases even predicting, the nature of communication among people.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY illustrates how individual behaviour is influenced by the behaviour of others (and possibly by the media) and by others’ reactions and responses to communication and behaviour. It describes a dynamic, ongoing process in which personal factors, environmental factors, and human behavior exert influence upon each other. We provide an example of some practical

“imperatives” or what you can do to apply the theory in your C4D work.

M2U2 Interpersonal-Level Change Theories

INTRODUCTION As we saw in Unit 1, individual-level change theories inform efforts to facilitate behaviour change by explaining various factors that may influence the attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge of individual members of a key participant group.

In this unit, we shift our focus to interpersonal-level change theories. Interpersonal-level theories acknowledge the interaction and dialogue that occur between individuals and explore how they can affect behaviour change.

We will cover the following interpersonal-level theories in this unit:

• Social learning theory (also called social cognitive theory)

• Diffusion of innovations.5

5 Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) can be considered both an interpersonal-level theory and a community-level theory. We include DOI here to stress the importance of the key interpersonal DOI concepts, opinion leaders and peer networks.

6 We use the broad term “C4D interventions” (rather than “campaign”) because it includes two-way flows of communication, not just mass-mediated dissemination. A “C4D intervention” could involve a wide range of activities, including a poster contest for children, a call-in radio show, an advocacy workshop, and/or an interactive street theater performance, to name just a few.

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KEY CONCEPTS

EnvironmentFactors physically external to the person.

• TO DO: Provide opportunities and social support

ExpectationsAnticipatory outcomes of a behavior.

• TO DO: Model positive outcomes.

Observational learning Learning that occurs by watching the actions and outcomes of others’ behavior.

• TO DO: include credible role models of the targeted behavior.

ReinforcementsResponses to a person’s behavior that increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence.

• TO DO: Promote self-initiated rewards and incentives

Self-efficacyA person’s confidence in performing a particular behavior.

• TO DO: Approach behavioral change in small steps to ensure success

Reciprocal determinismThe dynamic interaction of the person, the behavior, and the environment in which the behavior is performed.

• TO DO: consider multiple avenues to behavioral change, including environmental, skill, and personal change.

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS THEORY shows how identifying opinion leaders and peer networks and understanding the needs of “end users” can help efforts to diffuse a desired behaviour or innovation through a social system.

KEY CONCEPTS

Relative advantageThis is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes

CompatibilityThis is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters.

ComplexityThis is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use.

TrialabilityThis is the degree to which an innovation can be experimented with on a limited basis.

ObservabilityThe easier it is for individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt it.

ReinventionThe adaptation of an innovation by adopters to better meet their needs.

Opinion leadersWell-connected individuals to spread new ideas through their own social networks or peer networks.

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READING

Greiner, K. (2012), Linking theory and strategy in Communication for Development: The examples of Extertainment Education and Social Marketing. [4 p.]

As noted in the reading, Bandura’s Social Learning theory (SLT) contains two closely-related concepts—”observational learning” and “behavioral reinforcement.” In brief:

Observational learning is the name for learning from the behaviours and actions of others. The behaviour of others is often copied, even when that behaviour is not real, but rather seen on television (or heard on the radio, or seen on a stage).

Dialogue about behaviour can also be modeled. If people do not emulate the dialogue they see—talking about a taboo topic like sex, for example—they can at least learn from the content of modeled dialogue.

Behavioural reinforcement is the idea that people learn not only from behaviour itself but also from how others react to a given behaviour. Behaviours can be modeled through peers, family members, opinion leaders, and mass media (radio and television). The consequences (positive or negative) of behaviours and actions can also be modeled.

DISCUSSION

In relation to these concepts, discuss one or more of the following questions:

1. Think about your own living and working context and share examples of how certain people’s behaviours (positive or negative) have influenced other community members. Examples that you consider possibly unique to your community/country/region are particularly encouraged. Draw on some concepts from the theories to explain why you think this change occurred.

2. Which concepts from Social Learning Theory and/or Diffusion of Innovations do you find potentially relevant/useful for C4D work? You are also free to describe theories/concepts that you found limited, and less useful.

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Note: Readings and resources are available on the course website and DVD, along with their full citations.

REQUIRED VIEWINGSAlbert Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” experiment informs Social Learning Theory

Professor Thomas Valente on Diffusion of Innovations theory

Soul City “pot banging” episode excerpt: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AqR3aUulqMQ

REQUIRED READINGSSocial Learning Theory (Bandura). Retrieved from http://www.learning-theories.com/ social-learning-theory-bandura.html. [2 p.]

Abbot, L. (n.d.). Social learning theory: From notes on Ormond’s Human Learning. Retrieved from http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/~Lynda_abbot/Social.html. [6 p.]

Robinson, L. (2009). A summary of Diffusion of Innovations. Retrieved from http://www.enablingchange.com.au/Summary_Diffusion_Theory.pdf. [9 p.]

Greiner (2012), Linking theory and strategyin Communication for Development: The examples of Entertainment Education and Social Marketing.” [4 p.]

Rogers, E. (1995). Diffusion of Innovations (4th ed.). New York: Free Press. [excerpt–20 p.]

OPTIONAL READINGS

Social learning theoryPapa et al., (2000). Entertainment education and social change: An analysis of parasocial interaction, social learning, collective efficacy and paradoxical communication. Journal of Communication 50 (4), 31–55. [24 p.]

Bandura, A. (1994). Social cognitive theory and exercise of control over HIV infection. In R. J. DiClemente and J. L. Peterson (Eds.), Preventing AIDS: Theories and methods of behavioral interventions (pp. 25-59). New York: Plenum. [34 p.]

Reininger, et al., (2010). Community-based participatory research in an obesity prevention media campaign for Mexican Americans: Tu Salud ¡Si Cuenta! Health Promotion and Practice 11(3), 347–357. [10 p.]

Singhal, A., and Rogers, E. (2002). A theoretical agenda for entertainment-education. Communication Theory 12(2). [excerpt–6 p.]

Boeree, G. (2006). Albert Bandura. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/ bandura.html. [7 p.]

Diffusion of InnovationsBertrand, J. (2004). Diffusion of innovations and HIV/AIDS prevention. Journal of Health Communication 9. 113–121. [8 p.]

Cain, M. and Mittman, R. (2002). Diffusion ofinnovation in health care [report]. California Health Care Foundation. [29 p.]

UNICEF (2008). Chatting with my best friend: Nepal’s first radio programme created for and by youth (web page). A good example of modeling (dialogue) and the importance of peer networks (listening groups). Retrieved from http://www.unicef.org/cbsc/index_44205. html. [2 p.]


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M2: UNIT 3Community-Level Change Theories

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M2U3 Community-Level Change Theories

INTRODUCTION Units 1 and 2 introduced individual-level and interpersonal-level change theories. In this unit we will focus on community level theories of change. Social change results from multi-level changes, i.e. at the individual, interpersonal and community level.

In this unit we will cover:

• Ecological systems theory

• Social convention theory7

7 Note: There is emerging thinking on the definitions of “social norm” and “social convention” that is outside the scope of this course. However, an overview of perspectives will be covered in the required and optional readings section and will be discussed further during the face to face workshop.


• Identify key concepts from each of the community-level change theories presented.

• Apply “ecological systems” thinking to design a set of

“layered” community activities.

BACKGROUND As mentioned in the introduction, C4D is a process of facilitating social change that is bottom up, participant-directed, and empowering. Community-level theories can be useful in helping us design communication interventions in which participants create change at the level of their communities or societies, rather than as individuals.

Community-level theories recognize that individuals do not exist in isolation: they interact with family members and peer groups, and they exist and function within a larger community. We can define community as a geographical designation,

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such as a neighbourhood or village. We can also use the term community to describe affinity groups, such as members of the same religious group, speakers of the same local dialect or a

“community” of local high school parents.

Regardless of whether membership in a community is determined by geography or by affinity, theories that attempt to explain and/or predict behaviour at this level are concerned with groups that are larger than the individual and the interpersonal level.

Community-level theories of behaviour change include but are not limited to concepts related to the psychological characteristics of the individual: community-level concepts can be located in the cultural and social realms.

Bicchieri, C. (2006). The grammar of society: The nature and dynamics of social norms. New York: Cambridge University Press. [preface and pp. 1–3]. [8 p.]

Christina Bicchieri, author of “The Grammar of Society,” describes norms in this way:

”Like a grammar, a system of norms specifies what is acceptable and what is not [acceptable] in a social group. And analogously to a grammar, a system of norms is not the product of human design and planning.” In other words, our behavior and actions may be affected by norms, without being explicitly or publicly recognized as “norms.”

DISCUSSION

Answer the following questions:

1. Please give an example of how prevailing social, cultural or gender norms have affected the adoption of certain practices?

2. Based on your understanding of the readings, is the concept of “norms” useful for your work? Why or why not?

3. Please share an example of how you can apply social norms theory to your work.

READING

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REQUIRED VIEWINGBronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

• A fun musical animation video illustrating Brofenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. (Perhaps an inspiring format for future C4D interventions!) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjhDYR1NbZY

Ecological systems theory brief synopsis [1 p.]

Ecological systems theory graphic [1 p.]

REQUIRED READINGSBicchieri, C. (2006). The grammar of society: The nature and dynamics of social norms. New York: Cambridge University Press. [preface and pp. 1–3]. [8 p.]

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist (July 1977). 513–522. [9 p.]

Paquette, D., and Ryan, J. (n.d.). Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. Retrieved from http://pt3.nl.edu/paquetteryanwebquest.pdf. [4 p.]

UNICEF (n.d.). Coordinated strategy to abandon female genital mutilation/cutting in one generation: A human rights-based approach to programming [technical note]. Retrieved from http://www.polisci.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/unicef_ coordinated_strategy_to_abandon.pdf. [pp. 1–3, 13–18, and 22–25]. [12 p.]

National Social Norms Institute (2002). What is social norms theory? Retrieved from http://www.socialnorm.org/pdf/themainframe.pdf. [2 p.]

OPTIONAL READINGS Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (2009). Longitudinal study of Australian children: Key research questions. [technical report]. Retrieved from http://www.aifs.gov.au/growingup/pubs/reports/krq2009/ KeyResearchQuestionsJuly09.pdf. [9 p.]

Airhihenbuwa, C.O., and Webster, J. D. W. (2004). Culture and African contexts of HIV/ AIDS prevention, care and support. Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS Research Alliance 1(1). 4–13. [9 p.]

Drinkwater, M. (2009). “We are also human”: Identity and power in gender relations. In S. Hickey and D. Mitlin (Eds.), Rights-Based Approaches to Development (pp. 145–162). Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press. [18 p.]


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M2: UNIT 4Theory-Led C4D Research and Planning

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• Describe the role of values and assumptions embedded in theory;

• Distinguish among different levels of theory for application to C4D interventions to achieve social and behavioural change;

• Argue for the use of different levels of theory when engaging with different social issues;

• Identify theory-driven research gaps.

M2U4 Theory-Led C4D Research and Planning

INTRODUCTION In the previous three units, we examined three different sets of theoretical tools: individual-level behaviour change theories, interpersonal-level behaviour change theories, and community-level behaviour change theories. In this unit you will learn how to assess which theories to choose and how to combine different theories depending on the level of change you are aiming for. You will also explore theory-driven research questions and learn how data can lead us to select certain theories.

To explore ways to choose among theories—of choosing between communication tools—we will cover the following topics:

• Traditional (scientific) approaches to evaluating theory

• Alternative (ethical) approaches to evaluating theory

• The Social Ecological Model of approaching theory

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BACKGROUND Communication theories are similar to the tools we use to build a house or fix a car—different tasks call for different tools. Different communication tasks are best performed with the right theories. And, in order to build the most effective communication strategy, you probably want a variety of tools and knowledge of when and where to use each tool.

However, since you have a set of individual-level tools, another set of interpersonal-level tools, and yet another set of community-level tools, how do you know which tool to use for the job? This is the question you will address in this unit.

SCENARIO The Government of Waheheland (Case Study 5) is faced with several challenges affecting child nutrition and survival. In spite of being a middle income country, unemployment is rampant and 43.3% of children live in poverty. There is widespread under-nutrition among children less than five years of age throughout the country. In a 1992 National Demographic and Health Survey, 28% of children were found to be stunted, almost 9% of the children in the survey were wasted, and 26% of the children nation-wide were underweight. Children in the northeastern region experienced the highest rates of underweight and stunting, while wasting was most prevalent in the central region.

Malnutrition accounts for up to 10% of all U5 child mortality. While the percentage of children underweight (too thin for age) has declined in the last two decades, stunting (too short for age) and wasting (too thin for height) have increased. With one out of every three children under the age of five stunted, the country has almost twice the percentage of moderately stunted children and three times of severely stunted children than what is expected for a country with its level of economic development. This national data also masks significant regional and mother-tongue disparities. All forms of under-nutrition among the U5 age group are more prevalent in the rural areas in comparison to the urban areas. 31% of U5 children are stunted in the rural areas compared to 24% in the urban areas. Regionally, severely high levels of stunting affect at least one third of the regions of the country with the worst affected areas at 40% prevalence.

The link between nutrition and sanitation is only recently becoming evident. Simple but effective and inexpensive interventions to reduce stunting, micronutrient deficiencies, and child deaths such as keeping the environment clean, washing hands with soap at crucial times, encouraging mothers to breast feed, encouraging appropriate complementary feeding and vitamin A, zinc, iron and iodine supplementation, could be very effective in addressing issues related to malnutrition.

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DISCUSSION

You have been approached by the Ministry of Child Welfare to develop a communication strategy to address child survival and nutrition in the country. Potential funders are interested and partners are in the process of developing a multi-sectoral nutrition strategy into which the C4D strategy will be integrated.

• Describe three theories and key constructs that you would draw on to inform your strategy recommendations. Remember that these theories are most effective when they include all layers of the social ecology (individual, interpersonal and community).

• The first step in C4D planning is usually a situation analysis. Review the data available (under key resources), identify some data gaps (or simply put what you need to know) and formulate 2-3 theory based research questions. Please reference the theory you are drawing on.

Example: How do people perceive the risk of not consuming iodized salt? (Health Belief Model)

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REQUIRED VIEWINGSApplying theories to C4D Strategies (Hedy Ip)

REQUIRED READINGSCelebrating Everyday Heroes in Nepal: A Comprehensive C4D Strategy (2014). Theoretical Framework, pp. 9–11.

Littlejohn, S., (1983). Theory in the process of inquiry. In S. Littlejohn, Theories of Human Communication (3rd ed.), (pp. 21–37). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. [17 p.]

WikiBooks (2009). Introduction to Communication Theory/Evaluating Theory (web page). Retrieved from http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Communication_ Theory/Evaluating_Theory. [3 p.]

National Guidance Research Forum (n.d.). How do we choose between theories? Retrieved from http://www.guidance-research.org/EG/impprac/ImpP2/how-do-we [2 p.]

Lau, J., and Chan, J. (n.d.). Choosing among theories. Critical Thinking Web. Retrieved from http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/sci/induction.php. [1 p.]

Gumucio-Dagron, A., (2007). Playing with fire. CFSC/MAZI articles. Retrieved from http://www.communicationforsocialchange.org/mazi-articles.php?id=354. [7 p.]

Note: In Module 1, Unit 3, you read Silvio Waisbord’s (2001) article, Family tree of theories, methodologies, and strategies in development communication. You do not need to read this article again, but you may wish to refer to it as a tool for considering the position of theory in C4D.

OPTIONAL READINGS Stokols, D. (1996). Translating social ecological theory into guidelines for community health promotion. American Journal of Health Promotion 10(4). 282–298. [16 p.]

California Department of Public Health (n.d.). Social ecological model [white paper]. Retrieved from http://www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/cpns/Documents/Network- Appendix6SocialEcologicalModel.pdf. [3 p.]

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (n.d.). Violence prevention— The social-ecological model: A framework for prevention (web page). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/overview/social-ecologicalmodel.html. [2 p.]

Brieger, W. (n.d.). Health behavior and the ecological model [powerpoint presentation]. Retrieved from http://ocw.jhsph.edu/courses/SocialBehavioralFoundations/PDFs/ Lecture2.pdf. [Slides 53–72]. [22 slides (powerpoint).]


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