COMMPRENEUR: AN ORIGINAL METHODOLOGY FOR RAISING THE

ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION AMONG JOURNALISM STUDENTS

Abstract: The present article proposes, describes in detail and empirically validates a

methodology for raising the entrepreneurial intention among journalism students. The

research is based on pre-post surveys on four different groups of 20-25 students (89 in

total) from a Spanish public university and measures the change in the students’

intentions after a period of three months of class. The findings contribute to the theories

of education and have wider implications for the practice of teaching entrepreneurship

among communication students.

1. Introduction

During the last two decades, the promotion, study and understanding of

entrepreneurial behaviour has been a recurring point of discussion for both academics

and legislators from different industrialised and non-industrialised areas globally

(Zahra, Wright & Abdelwagad, 2014). This relatively recent increase has been largely

due to its positive impact on economic activity (Wennekers & Thurik, 1999), since, in

general terms; countries with higher number of entrepreneurs tend to suffer lower levels

of unemployment (Reynolds, 1987; Zahra, 1999; Audretsch, 2002) and higher

generation of capital (Delmar, Davidsson & Gartner, 2003). However, entrepreneurial

activity is scarce (Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011). According to

the General Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM, 2011), in 2007 less than 10% of the

OECD adult population was starting a new business venture, as the financial collapse

and the subsequent economic recession questioned the implementation and promotion

of certain public and fiscal policies, and individual and collective business initiatives

(Goyanes, 2014). In this context, a considerable consensus exists regarding the political

importance of the promotion of entrepreneurship to stimulate the worldwide

development of the economy and business (de Pillis & Reardon, 2007).

In Spain, the popularisation and political incentivisation of entrepreneurship as an

alternative career path has been induced, mainly, by the increase of unemployment rates

as a result of the bursting of the housing bubble and the subsequent economic downturn.

The relatively recent appearance of this negative political, economic and social context

has served as a decisive catalyst for political leaders to encourage their citizens to

embrace an entrepreneurial mind-set to employment in addition to pursuing traditional

career paths. In this process of transformation and learning, the design and

implementation of programmes that raise the individual capacity to plan and execute

measures oriented to self-employment is fundamental both from an academic and

political-economic strategy point of view.

Media organisations have not been the exception to the rule during the recent

international and national economic turbulences and, in order to ensure their economic

viability, they have initiated a restructuration process through the exploration and trial-

error learning of new digital business models, coupled with layoffs, wage cuts,

downsizing, the recruitment of interns, and, ultimately, the gradual erosion of job

security (Campos, 2010). In this context of industrial uncertainty and instability (De

Bustos & Casado del Río, 2010; Goyanes, 2015), the traditional role of the

communication sector professionals as salaried employees, requires an extensive review

(Aceituno-Aceituno et al., 2014, Goyanes & Peinado-Miguel, 2014). In this sense, the

voices that champion self-employment and call for its early incentivisation and

promotion at universities as a future career path for Communications students are

growing louder. For example, it is suggested that university courses should adopt new

methodologies and teaching approaches that best harness, encourage and enhance

entrepreneurial skills of the students that consequently invigorate their desire to become

self-employed (Paniagua, Gómez & González, 2014). However, to our knowledge, there

is a noticeable lack of previous studies that describe in detail and empirically validate an

entrepreneurship programme specifically designed to foster the entrepreneurial intention

of students pursuing Journalism Studies.

The present study empirically examines how a specific and original entrepreneurship

programme influences the entrepreneurial intention of Journalism students from a

Spanish public university. Based on a sample of 83 students divided in to 4 different

groups and using pre-post-test surveys, the results show that the programme raises the

overall entrepreneurial intention of the students under study. Educational, managerial

and political implications are finally discussed.

2. Theoretical framework

In entrepreneurship literature, some previous empirical studies focused on the

analysis of entrepreneurial intention, interest or propensity of university students (Scott

& Twomey, 1988; Begley et al., 1997; Henderson & Robertson, 2000; Wang &Wong,

2004; Lee & Wong., 2004). Fundamentally, there are two prominent overlapping

strands: on the one hand, there are those empirical studies that looked at the personal

characteristics of potential entrepreneurs (Henderson & Robertson, 2000; Wang

&Wong, 2004) and/or contextual factors (Scott & Twomey, 1988; Begley et al., 1997;

Lee et al., 2005), and on the other hand, there are those studies specifically focused on

empirically validating entrepreneurship programmes. But, more specifically, what does

entrepreneurial intention refer to?

Despite the wide-ranging debate regarding the theoretical framework for its analysis

(Wennekers & Thurik, 1999; Thompson, 2009), the vast majority of empirical models

depart from the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). In this sense,

entrepreneurial intention would be a decisive and determinant element in

entrepreneurial behaviours (Fayolle & DeGeorge, 2006). Therefore, the prediction of

future entrepreneurial behaviour could be obtained through the measurement of this

intention. Based on this logic, entrepreneurial intention could be conceptualised as the

self-acknowledged conviction by persons that they intend to set up a new business

venture and consciously plan to do so at some point in the future (Thompson, 2009).

In the Spanish context, the number of initiatives to develop new business ventures

has been traditionally medium to low (GEM, 2011), especially when compared to other

Northern European countries and North America. Several factors may explain this

pattern of behaviour towards self-employment as a career path preference: the lack or

the perceived lack of public subsidies, high taxes, bureaucratic sluggishness, limited

entrepreneurial education and formation etc. If the pre-crisis situation was problematic

in this regard, the economic downturn led to the closure, downsizing and slowing down

of a considerable number of business ventures (IFIC, 2014). However, by the same

token, the downturn promoted the political incentivisation of entrepreneurship, as this

career path began to be increasingly perceived by society as attractive, viable, and, in

some cases, even necessary, given the lack of traditional labour opportunities (GEM,

2011). As we previously observed, media organisations do not appear to obey to a

different pattern.

In a digital environment characterised by information-overload and job uncertainty,

the role of communication sector professionals as interpreters, whistle-blowers and

advocates of democracy, is more indispensable than ever (Díaz-Nosty, 2011). Their

work, generally articulated through the industrial production systems that traditional

media organisations (digital or not) represent, is being extended through the political

and fiscal fomentation of new labour careers oriented towards self-employment.

However, despite the promotion and incentivisation of entrepreneurship, the lack of

previous studies that empirically analysed new educative programmes that trigger

student’s intentions towards entrepreneurship, is more than notable. Therefore, the

present study asks the following research question: does COMMPRENEUR

significantly increase the entrepreneurial intention of students pursuing Journalism

Studies?

3. Methodology of the study

3.1. About the course

“Organization and Management of Media Enterprises” is a mandatory course that is

worth 6 ECTS practical-theoretical credits and is offered in the third year of the BA

degree in Journalism and Bilingual Journalism. The course theoretically explores basic

business concepts that are particularly required in order to design, develop and manage

a media company in a relatively competitive and realistic environment. In this sense, the

course adopts a practical and didactic approach and each of the topics includes case

studies and exercises that help students understand the theoretical contents under study.

In general, the main objective of the course is to provide students with the basic and

fundamental theoretical and conceptual tools to develop new business-ventures in a

relatively real and competitive context.

3.2. Procedure

Intention towards entrepreneurship was analysed on four different groups of students

that took the mandatory course “Organization and Management of Media Enterprises”

in the first semester of the academic year 2014/2015. From the four groups, three of

them were taught in Spanish whilst the fourth one was imparted in English. In this last

group, the origin of the students was as follows (most of the non-Spaniards were part of

the international programme): USA (n = 1; 5,6%), Portugal (n = 1; 5,6%), Australia (n =

2; 11,1%), Germany (n = 3; 16,7%), England (n = 3; 16.7%) and Spain (n = 8; 44,5%).

The total number of students in all four courses amounted to 120, of which 89 were

surveyed (the response rate was 74,16%). The total sample of 89 students included

slightly more women (n = 61; 69,3%) than men (n = 27, 30,7%) which follows the

current gender representation of the vast majority of Journalism courses in Spanish

universities. The average age was 20,79 (max.: 33; min.: 19; dt = 2,27).

The distribution of the students by group were as follows: a total number of 25

students were surveyed in group one, 18 students were surveyed in group two (this is

the Bilingual Journalism BA Degree), a total of 23 students were surveyed in group

three as well as in the fourth group. The same students participated in both the pre and

post-test. As previously stated, the surveys were conducted at the beginning and at the

end of the first semester of the 2014/2015 academic year in all four groups. Data for the

pre-test were collected on the 15th

of September of 2014 while data for the post-test

were collected on the 15th

of December 2014, that is, three months later after

COMMPRENEUR.

The procedure to collect pre-data was as follows: after the introduction of the course

(the first day of class) the official lecturer kindly invited their students to fill a survey

that is designed to measure their entrepreneurial intention before and after the course.

The survey was given in a relaxed environment at the same university where the

students belong to. In addition to the concise explanation of the aim of the survey by the

official lecturer, a cover letter was also provided, explaining the objectives and the

procedure to fill it. Before covering the survey the lecturer of the course clearly

explained that the survey must be anonymous and that the data would never be used for

academic purposes, but for the sole use of measuring the applicability of

COMMPRENEUR. Finally, the procedure to collect post-data was the same as with the

pre-data but only those students who had carried out the pre-survey were taken into

consideration in the sample. Data was analysed in Stata.

5. COMMPRENEUR programme

The duration of the course is 14 weeks, with one three-hour class per week. The

course design is identical for all the groups and complies with the following pattern.

From the beginning, according to their number (usually around 25), the students are

randomly divided into three or four groups of 6-8 members and they start working on

the idea of a business project in a media industry that will be presented at the end of the

term. In the first part of the course (weeks 1-6) the classes are divided into two equal

parts. During the first half, the lecturer introduces some theoretical concepts and

managerial tools, whereas the second part is dedicated to team-working and the students

try to apply these notions to their projects, which grow week by week.

The different teachers are free to organize their lectures according to their personal

inclinations, but they all typically cover the following topics: mission, vision and values

of the company; industry analysis; product development and innovation process; value

chain and competitive advantage; organizational structure and marketing. The contents

tackled in the lectures provide an introduction to management for journalists and

represent a guide for the realization of the final project, a 5-10 sheet document

organized as follows. Firstly, it must present a mission statement, a vision statement,

and a values statement of the company. The second part is dedicated to an analysis of

the industry in which the firm is entering, of its direct competitors and of their potential

response. In the third section of the project, the students must describe the company’s

value chain and core processes, its position in the value system and then indicate how

they think it is possible to achieve a competitive advantage in the chosen industrial

sector. After this, the document illustrates the formal organization of the firm and

provides a possible salary frame. The successive paragraph deals with the competitive

strategy of the company and its middle-term strategy. Then there is a description of the

launching process and of the launching timing plan, illustrated by a Gantt chart. The

following section of the project envisions a marketing strategy and the last one

examines the sources of revenues that are expected to provide profitability. Given that

the course is part of a journalism degree, no financial analysis is required. Above all, the

final project design attempts to give a taste of what an entrepreneurial process can be

and it provides a first grasp of the basic managerial tools.

The second part of the course (weeks 7-11) is characterized by the absence of

lectures and every week each group presents a different study on a national media

industry. Ideally, the chosen country coincides with the one in which the group is

considering as the place to start the company of the final project, but this is not

mandatory. The first presentation is dedicated to the press industry, then the industries

of radio, television, and advertising are covered in this order; lastly, the groups provide

a general framework of the chosen national media industry1.

1 For a better understanding of the details, we briefly describe here the structure of the presentation:

1) The press industry: evolution of the industry; industry’s volume (readers and advertisement

investments); general audience’s evolution (last 5-10 years minimum); cost structure; revenues structure;

promotion / marketing; industry analysis (Michael Porter’s 5 competitive forces); impact of digital media;

segmentation and regionalization; business opportunities.

2) The radio industry: regulation of the industry; volume of the industry (listeners and advertising

investments); evolution of the audiences; timeline of daily consumption (who watches what at what time);

industry analysis; segmentation of the contents and the markets; radio station groups; digital radio;

business opportunities.

3) The television industry: regulation of the industry (including advertising regulation); volume of the

industry (audiences and advertising investments); evolution of the audiences; timeline of daily

consumption; segmentation of the contents and the markets; television groups; industry analysis; new

ways of watching television; business opportunities.

Every member must participate in the public presentation, which lasts 25-30 minutes

and is accompanied by a multimedia document (no longer than 10 slides) and a two-

sheet pdf document containing subsidiary information and all the sources of the data2.

At the end, the teacher comments on the research and a class discussion follows. Also,

the other groups deliver a brief written analysis/consideration and an evaluation of the

presentation to the lecturer. These “peer-reviews”, that may or may not be taken into

account by the teacher, have the purpose of maintaining the attention of the students and

motivating a critical view.

Overall, the goal of these five presentations is to develop the ability of studying a

media industry from an entrepreneurial point of view, of providing a concise account of

its situation, and of seeing the business opportunities within the distinct sectors. This

also aims to improve the final projects, which acquire details and background

information during these weeks.

The class of week twelve is dedicated to a group tutorship in which each team

receives the final advice and feedback from the teacher. Then, the last two days are

spent by the teams on the making of a 30-45 minute public presentation of their final

projects.

4) The advertising industry: regulation; evolution of the investments in all media industries (general

overview), in each traditional media industry (radio, television, press), and by advertisers; structure of the

industry (number and size of companies); factors in media selection; new advertising trends in traditional

media companies and new media companies.

5) General framework: it is a more free presentation that provides a description of the present situation of

a national media industry mostly using the data gathered in the previous weeks. The primary aim is to

highlight the most important features of the industry and, secondly, present the business opportunities

within the industry. 2 These restrictions are not applied in the case of the last presentation.

6. Evaluation system

The final grade is the result of the team work, which is evaluated during the course of

the quadrimester, and of a final individual exam. Both the exam and the continuous

evaluation account for half of the final grade, which is expressed, according to the

Spanish system, in a 0-10 scale where 5 is the minimum mark needed to pass. The final

exam consists of 10 questions about the topics covered in the lectures and a reference

book (Organización y gestión de la empresa informativa by Galán J. et al. for the

Spanish group and Strategic Management in the Media: Theory to Practice by Lucy

Küng for the English group).

The final project account for 25% of the grade and its mark is up to 250 points. To

avoid cases of free-riding, this mark is multiplied by the number of the members of the

groups and the students split it and share it according to the perceived individual

contribution. So, if the final project grade is 200 and the group has 6 members, the mark

will be 1200, and the individual marks may be 200 for everybody if the group agrees to

share equally, or may be different in case it decides otherwise. Finally, each of the 5

presentations of the national media industry account for 5% of the final grade. Their

marks are up to 50 and they follow the same sharing rule of the final project’s grade.

7. Results

Prior to conducting the experimental analysis, we analysed both pre and post data in

order to see significant differences in relation to the level of entrepreneurial intention

and course/gender. The means of the entrepreneurial intention are very similar in pre

data (to be in ascending order): course 3 has the lowest entrepreneurial intention (m =

2.13; SD = 1.14), followed by course 1 (m = 2.48; SD = 1.12), course 2 (m = 2.80; SD =

1.07), and finally course 4 has the highest entrepreneurial intention (m = 2.84; SD =

0.95). The mean of the entrepreneurial intention in all courses is 2.54 (SD = 1.10). In

order to determine whether the course (in pre-data) significantly affects entrepreneurial

intention, we conducted an analysis of variance (ANOVA). Since the p value is above

5% significance level, we conclude that there are no significant differences between the

four courses in relation to the level of entrepreneurial intention. Finally, to determine

whether significant differences exist between the levels of entrepreneurial intention

depending on gender in pre-data, we conducted another analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Given that the p value is above 5% of significance level, we conclude that there are no

significant differences between gender and the level of entrepreneurial intention in pre

data. In addition, in the four courses a series of analysis of variance were conducted, and

in all of them there no significant differences that exist in relation to gender and

entrepreneurial intention.

Figure 1. Pre data. Entrepreneurial intention in the four courses.

In relation to the post analysis, data is very similar with regard to the parity of means

of entrepreneurial intention, although there is a notable increase with respect to pre-data

(to be in ascending order): course 3 has the lowest mean in entrepreneurial intention in

post data (m = 2.65; SD = 1.08), followed by course 2 (m = 2.85; SD = 1.06), course 4

(m = 3.01; SD = 1.07) and finally, course 1 (m = 3.19; SD = 1.16) has the highest

entrepreneurial intention in post data.

In order to determine whether the course (in post-data) significantly affects

entrepreneurial intention, we conduct an analysis of variance (ANOVA). Since the p

value is above 5% significance level, we conclude that there are no significant

differences between the four courses in relation to the level of entrepreneurial intention.

Finally, to determine whether significant differences exist between the level of

entrepreneurial intention depending on gender in post-data, we conduct another analysis

of variance (ANOVA). Given that the p value is below 5% of significance level, we

conclude that in post-data there are significant differences between gender and the level

of entrepreneurial intention. Therefore, the entrepreneurial intention in male students is

higher than in female students after COMMPRENEUR. In addition, in the four courses

a series of analysis of variance were conducted, and in all of them significant

differences exist in relation to gender and entrepreneurial intention.

Figure 2. Post data. Entrepreneurial intention in the four courses

As we previously noted, the entrepreneurial intention in pre data was 2.54 (SD =

1.10) while in post data was 2.92 (SD = 1.09). To verify if our methodology

(COMMPRENEUR) significantly increases the entrepreneurial intention among

communication students (from four different courses) we conduct an analysis of

variance (ANOVA). Our results indicate that there are significant differences in relation

to the pre/post data and the level of entrepreneurial intention (p < 0.05). Therefore, we

conclude that COMPRENEUR increases the overall entrepreneurial intention among

communications students. Furthermore, in the four courses a series of analysis of

variance were conducted, and in all of them, except in course 2, there are significant

differences between pre and post data (p < 0.05).

Figure 3. Pre-Post data. Entrepreneurial intention

As reflected in the figure, there is a notable increase in the entrepreneurial intention

of journalism students in all groups. However, in course number two, the difference is

not significant. In descending order, these are the steepest increases of entrepreneurial

intention by groups: course one is where COMMPRENEUR has affected the

entrepreneurial intention of journalism students the most (pre m = 2,48; post m = 3,19),

followed by course 3 (pre m = 2,13; post m = 2,165), course 4 (pre m = 2,84; post m =

3,01) and finally course 2 (pre m = 2,80; post m = 2,85).

Figure 4. Pre and Post-data in the four groups.

Analysed the simple effects (pre/post*EI), we explore whether the relationship

between pre/post data and entrepreneurial intention depends on the level of gender

(male/female). In order to determine the interaction effects we conduct 2x2 ANOVA

design (pre/post*gender). The results of the 2x2 ANOVA, indicate no significant

interaction effects (F = 1,587; p = ,210), suggesting that gender does not significantly

affects the relationship between pre/post data and entrepreneurial intention.

8. Discussion

The present article is one of the first studies in proposing, describing in detail and

empirically validating a methodology for raising the entrepreneurial intention among

communication students (in particular journalism and media studies students). Based on

pre-post surveys on four different groups of 20-25 students (total of 85) from a Spanish

public university, the study measures the change in students’ intentions after a period of

three months of COMMPRENEUR, the original methodology designed and developed

by the authors.

Firstly, this study addresses a very low entrepreneurial intention among the students

pursuing Journalism and Media Studies in Spain, before COMMPRENEUR, and even

after, although the Analysis of Variance suggests a significant increase with respect to

pre-data. If intention is considered as one of the most important predictors of future

behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), self-employment as a career path in the communication sector

remains as a subordinate labour alternative. Therefore, being a salaried employee in the

communication sector continues to be one of the most important and desirable labour

preferences for future professionals.

A comparison of these results with some earlier empirical studies, conducted on

college students from other academic backgrounds (technical studies, economy,

business, natural sciences, etc.) and countries (Greek, Turkey, Ireland, United States or

even Spain itself), shows a considerable difference with respect to the entrepreneurial

intention depending on the university study being undertaken (see for example,

Zampetakis & Moustakis, 2006; de Pillis & Reardon, 2007; Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard &

Rueda-Cantuche, 2011). That is, the entrepreneurial intention among the students

pursuing Journalism and Media Studies was lowest in comparison to all of the earlier

studies referred, even for the samples focused on Spanish college students (but with

different academic backgrounds: economy and business).

There are several different reasons that might explain this lack of entrepreneurial

intention, including the relief, security and sense of belonging to a workforce of a

traditional media company (Brenner, Pringle & Greenhaus, 1991; Delano, 2001;

Greenhaus & Callanan, 2009), the lack of educational support for the students pursuing

Journalism and Media Studies in developing new business-ventures (Liñán, Rodríguez-

Cohard & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011; Fretschner & Weber, 2013), their habits, experiences

and lifestyles (Bedeian, Burke & Moffet, 1988; Parasuraman, Greenhaus & Granrose,

1992; Carlson, Kacmar & Williams, 2000), the current Spanish economic context

(GEM, 2011) etc. However, in an environment of economic instability where media

companies tend to implement radical austerity measures (fundamentally through layoffs

and wage cuts) (Campos, 2010; Author, 2013), the promotion of entrepreneurship as a

labour career for the future professionals of communication sector should be a strategic

priority from both academic and legislative point of view.

With this in mind, encouraging university entrepreneurship education through

workshops and innovative teaching methods that trigger an entrepreneurial behaviour is

a matter of urgency and vital importance for the future of university students in the

communication sector. As it stands, certain Communication, Media and Journalism

university faculties in Spain3 (and in the majority of European countries and North

America) already develop programmes that encourage and foster entrepreneurship

through subjects such as “Creation and Management of Media Enterprises”,

“Organisation of Media Business” or “Organisation and Management of Media

Enterprises” with the main objective of providing students with the basic and

fundamental theoretical and conceptual tools to develop new business-ventures in a

relatively real and competitive context.

However, in many other universities such programming is non-existent or other

aspects in relation to media economics or the political economy of communication are

preferentially addressed. If it is true that these component subjects are both appropriate

and necessary within the overall curriculum spectrum of Communication Studies, then

the promotion, incentivisation and further development of courses that galvanise student

3 As is the case of the university under study.

interest towards the pursuit of a self-employed career path, is of vital importance in the

current and forthcoming business-economic environment.

The present research represents a step forward in order to empirically test the impact

of student’s entrepreneurship education in order to foment their intentions to develop

new business ventures. As our empirical examination has tested, COMMPRENEUR is a

valid and generalizable methodology designed to increase the overall entrepreneurial of

students pursuing Journalism Studies. In all the groups where the COMMPRENEUR

was implemented a notable and significant increase in entrepreneurial intention was

observable, although in course number two the difference was notable but not

significant.

9. References

Aceituno-Aceituno, P., Bousoño-Calzón, C., Escudero-Garzás, J. J., & Herrera-Gálvez,

F. J. (2014). Formación en emprendimiento para periodistas.El profesional de la

información, 23(4), 409-414.

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and human

decision processes, 50(2), 179-211.

Audretsch, D. B. (Ed.). (2002). Entrepreneurship: determinants and policy in a

European-US comparison(Vol. 27). Springer.

Bedeian, A. G., Burke, B. G., & Moffett, R. G. (1988). Outcomes of work-family

conflict among married male and female professionals. Journal of management, 14(3),

475-491.

Begley, T. M., Tan, W. L., Larasati, A. B., Rab, A., Zamora, E., & Nanayakkara, G.

(1997). The relationship between socio-cultural dimensions and interest in starting a

business: a multi-country study. Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, 17.

Brenner, O. C., Pringle, C. D., & Greenhaus, J. H. (1991). Perceived fulfillment of

organizational employment versus entrepreneurship: Work values and career intentions

of business college graduates. Journal of Small Business Management, 29(3), 62.

Campos, F. (2010). Los nuevos modelos de gestión de las empresas mediáticas.

Estudios sobre el mensaje periodístico, 16, 13-30.

Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., & Williams, L. J. (2000). Construction and initial

validation of a multidimensional measure of work–family conflict. Journal of

Vocational Behavior, 56(2), 249-276.

de Bustos, J. C. M., & Casado del Río, M. Á. (2010). Sobre pago y gratuidad:

momentos de crisis en la industria periodística. Telos: Cuadernos de comunicación e

innovación, (83), 24-35.

Delano, A. (2002). The formation of the British journalist 1900-2000 (Doctoral

dissertation, University of Westminster).

Delmar, F., Davidsson, P., & Gartner, W. B. (2003). Arriving at the high-growth firm.

Journal of business venturing, 18(2), 189-216.

de Pillis, E., & Reardon, K. K. (2007). The influence of personality traits and persuasive

messages on entrepreneurial intention: a cross-cultural comparison.Career Development

International, 12(4), 382-396.

Díaz-Nosty, B. (2011). La crisis en la industria de la prensa. Vida más allá del

papel... Telos: Revista de pensamiento sobre tecnología y sociedad, (86), 52-65.

Fayolle, A., & Degeorge, J.M.. Attitudes, intentions, and behaviour: New approaches to

evaluating entrepreneurship education. Available at:

http://www.untag-

smd.ac.id/files/Perpustakaan_Digital_1/ENTREPRENEURSHIP%20International%20E

ntrepreneurship%20Education.pdf#page=84

Fretschner, M., & Weber, S. (2013). Measuring and understanding the effects of

entrepreneurial awareness education. Journal of Small Business Management, 51(3),

410-428.

GEM. (2011). GEM España 2011. Available at:

http://cieu.eutdh.cat/archivos/GEM2011esp.pdf

Goyanes, M. (2015). Apoyo estructural en la intención emprendedora de estudiantes de

periodismo y comunicación audiovisual en España. El Profesional de la

Información, 24(1), 55-61.

Goyanes, M. (2014). An empirical study of factors that influence the willingness to pay

for online news. Journalism Practice, 8(6), 742-757.

Goyanes, M., & Peinado-Miguel, F. (2014). Online newspapers business models in

spanish scientific journals: a review and suggestions for future research. Ambitos:

Revista internacional de comunicación, (24), 91-100.

IFIC. (2014). España, un país poco emprendedor. Available at:

http://www.ific.es/blog/espana-pais-poco-emprendedor/

Greenhaus, J., Callanan, G., & Godshalk, V. (2009). Career management. London:

Sage.

Henderson, R., & Robertson, M. (2000). Who wants to be an entrepreneur? Young adult

attitudes to entrepreneurship as a career. Career Development International, 5(6), 279-

287.

Lee, S. H., & Wong, P. K. (2004). An exploratory study of technopreneurial intentions:

a career anchor perspective. Journal of Business venturing, 19(1), 7-28.

Liñán, F., Rodríguez-Cohard, J. C., & Rueda-Cantuche, J. M. (2011). Factors affecting

entrepreneurial intention levels: a role for education. International entrepreneurship

and management Journal, 7(2), 195-218.

Paniagua F.J., Gómez, M., & González, M.E. (2014). Incentivar el emprendimiento

periodístico desde la Universidad. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, 69,548-570.

Parasuraman, S., Greenhaus, J. H., & Granrose, C. S. (1992). Role stressors, social

support, and well‐ being among two‐ career couples. Journal of Organizational

behavior, 13(4), 339-356.

Reynolds, P. D. (1987). New firms: societal contribution versus survival potential.

Journal of Business Venturing, 2(3), 231-246.

Scott, M. G., & Twomey, D. F. (1988). The long-term supply of entrepreneurs: students'

career aspirations in relation to entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business

Management, 26(4), 5.

Thompson, E. R. (2009). Individual entrepreneurial intent: Construct clarification and

development of an internationally reliable metric. Entrepreneurship Theory and

Practice, 33(3), 669-694.

Wang, C. K., & Wong, P. K. (2004). Entrepreneurial interest of university students in

Singapore. Technovation, 24(2), 163-172.

Wennekers, S., & Thurik, R. (1999). Linking entrepreneurship and economic

growth. Small business economics, 13(1), 27-56.

Zampetakis, L. A., & Moustakis, V. (2006). Linking creativity with entrepreneurial

intentions: A structural approach. The International Entrepreneurship and Management

Journal, 2(3), 413-428.

Zahra, S. A., Wright, M., & Abdelgawad, S. G. (2014). Contextualization and the

advancement of entrepreneurship research. International Small Business Journal, (5):

479–500.

Zahra, S. A. (1999). The changing rules of global competitiveness in the 21st century.

The Academy of Management Executive, 13(1), 36-42.