395

Comment

Insects as human foodGene DeFoliart discusses some nutritional and economic aspects

During the past few years there has been a new upsurge of interest in insects as food. One

factor that may be responsible is an increasing awareness in the western world that insects

are traditional and nutritionally important foods for many non-European cultures. Other

factors may be increased pride in ethnic roots and traditions, increased concern aboutenvironment and overuse of pesticides, and better communication among scientists who are

interested in the subject. Edible insects may be closer now than ever before to acceptancein the western world as a resource that should be considered in ftying to meet the v'orld'spr e s ent and fut ure ;fbo d nee ds.

Traditional use and economicimportance in non-Europeancultures

Insects have played an important partin the history of human nutrition inAfrica, Asia and Latin America(Bodenheimer, 1951). They were anequally important resource for theIndians of western North America,who, like other indigenous groups,expended much organization andeffort in harvesting them (Sutton,1988). Hundreds ofspecies have been

used as human food. Some of themore important groups include grass-

hoppers, caterpillars, beetle grubs and(sometimes) adults, winged termites(some of which are very large in thetropics), bee, wasp and ant brood(larvae and pupae) as well as wingedants, cicadas, and a variety ofaquaticinsects. Ordinarily, insects are notused as emergency food to ward offstarvation, but are included as a plan-ned part of the diet throughout theyear or when seasonally available.Among the numerous examples thatcould be cited, the Yukpa people ofColombia and Venezuela prefer cer-

tain of their traditional insect foods tofresh meat (Ruddle, 1973), as do thePedi of South Africa (Quin, 1959).

Indeed, Quin reported that whenmopanie caterpillars (Gonimbrasia

belinaWestwood) were in season, thesale of beef was seriously affected. In

Emeritus Professor Gene R. DeFoliart is atthe Russell Laboratories of the Departmentof Entomology, University of Wisconsin,Madison, Wl, USA. Received 27 August 1991;

revised and accepted 17 April 1992

0261 -21 I 4 / 92 / 05/0395-05O 1992 Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd

the early 1980s, annual sales ofmopanie entering commerce were esti-

mated by the South African Bureau ofStandards to be 1600t; this did notinclude those privately collected andconsumed (Dreyer and Wehmeyer,1982). Currently, hundreds oftons ofmopanie are exported annually fromBotswana and South Africa toZambia and Zimbabwe. A similarcaterpillar trade, involving otherspecies, exists further north in Africa.

The Yansi people of central Zaireare not atypical of other indigenousgroups, and the importance withwhich they regard their caterpillars is

indicated by some of their sayings:'Caterpillars and meat play the same

role in the human body', and, 'Asfood, caterpillars are regulars in thevillage but meat is a stranger'(Muyay,l98l). There are also children's songs

about eating caterpillars. One of these

contains the follo.,ving verse: 'Fatheryou have to give rne some "milee"caterpillars. . .. Look at all the otherchildren with milee caterpillars thattheir fathers gave them. . . . I'm goingto bother you until you give me some'(Muyay, 1981).

With reference to mumpa caterpil-lars, which feed on Julbernardiapaniculata and several other commontrees in the miombo woodland ofZambia, Holden (1986) states:

One person can pick about 20 litres per day ifthe bush is rich in caterpillars, the value ofwhich in 1985 was K20. Thus 7 days' pickingshould give K140 if all are sold and this is a

month's salary for a general worker in Zambia.Not strange that people travel 200-300 km topick caterpillars. And traders come from

Lusaka and the Copperbelt (900km) to buythe foodstuff and sell it at a much higher price

when they go back.

Chavunduka (1975) noted that in sev-

eral arcas of Zimbabwe, some families'make a fairly good living from sellingcaterpillars'.

Insects are not only sold widely inthe village markets ol the developingworld, but many of the favouritesmake their way to urban markets andrestaurants. Conconi (1982), who has

proposed the'industrialization' ofedible insects in Mexico, notes that inl98l the demand for'escamoles'(immature stages of the ant, Liometo-pum apiculatum Mayr.) was so great

that the price per kilogram went up to1000 pesos (>US$2 at the then-prevailing exchange rate). She states

(translation):

In Tlaxcoapan... they are sold in restaurants

like El Prendes. Las Meninas, Delmonicos,and Bellinghaussen, where 2 tacos with 50

grams of ants cost 300 pesos. They are served

fried or with black butter, but the best way isfried with onions and garlic.

Two other insects that are found inurban restaurants of Mexico, andwere formerly exported to the UnitedStates and Europe, are the whitemaguey 'worm' (larva of the hesper-

rid, Aegiale hesperiaris Kirby) andahuahutle or'Mexican caviar' (eggs ofseveral species of aquatic Hemiptera).However, both are in reduced num-bers now - maguey larvae because ofover-collectin g, and ahuahulle because

of urban pollution ol alkaline lakes.

At present, two Asian insects are

being exported to Asian communityfood shops in the United States: these

are the giant water bug (Lethocerus

indicus L. & S.) from Thailand (Pem-

berton, 1988), and canned silkwormpupaelBombyx mori (L.)l from SouthKorea.

Nutritional value

Protein

In the dried form most frequentlY

396 Comment

found in village markets of the devel-

oping world, insects are very high incrude protein, many species rangingabove 60oh. As to protein quality,Finke, DeFoliart and Benevenga(1989) reported that the house cricketlrAcheta domesticus (L.)], when fed toweanling rats, was superior to soyprotein as a source of amino acids atall levels of intake. The Mormoncricket (Anabrus simplex Haldeman),a tettigoniid, was equivalent to soyprotein. Other investigators have

obtained similar results with a varietyof insects in feeding trials with poul-try. On the other hand, whole insects

as a source of protein are of somewhatlower quality than vertebrate animalproducts because of the indigestibilityof chitin (Phelps, Struthers and Moyo,1975; Dreyer and Wehmeyer, 1982).

Despite this, Dreyer and Wehmeyerconclude that, 'the consumption ofmopanie caterpillars lGonimbrasiabelinal can to a substantial degree

supplement the predominantly cereal

diet with many ol the protectivenutrients'. Removal of chitin increases

the quality ofinsect protein to a level

comparable to that of products fromvertebrate animals. Following alkaliextraction, the true digestibility ofprotein concentrate obtained fromwhole dried adult honey bees (Apis

mellifera L.) was increased from7 1.5% to 94.3oh,the protein efficiencyratio (PER) from L50 to2.47, and thenet protein utilization (NPU) from42.5 to 62.0. This compares withvalues of 96.8oh, 2.50 and 70.0,

respectively, for casein (Ozimek et al.,1985). In general, insect protein tends

to be low in the amino acids,

methionine/cysteine; but it is high inlysine and threonine, one or both ofwhich may be deficient in the wheat,rice, cassava and maize-based dietsthat are prevalent in the developingworld.

Fat

Malnutrition in developing countriesis as much, or more, a problem ofcalorie deficiency as of protein defi-ciency. Insects vary widely in fat (and,thus, energy) content. Isoptera (ter-mites) and Lepidoptera (caterpillars)rank among the highest in fat. Forexample, Phelps et al. (1975) reported

a calorific value of T6lkcal(r3196kJ)/100g (dry, ash-free,weight basis) for the winged sexualforms of the African termite, Macro-termes falciger Gerstacker, while thewinged forms of another Africanspecies, Macrotermes subhyalinusRambur were found to contain613 kcal (r2575kJ)/100g (dryweight) (Oliveira et a|.,1976). Ashiru(1988) reported a calorific value of6llkcal (=2566kJ)/100g for thecaterpillar Anaphe venatq Butler(Notodontidae) in Nigeria. Twenty-three species of caterpillars in Zaire,mostly Saturniidae, were found toaverage 457 kcal ( * 19 19 kJ)/100 g dryweight, ranging from 397 to 543 kcal(x1667-228lkJ) (Malaisse andParent, 1980).

Recent analyses of 94 of the insectspecies consumed in Mexico also yiel-ded high fat and caloric values(Ramos-Elorduy and Pino, 1990).

Excluding pork, soybeans [at4660kcal (x19572kJ) kg- llwas thehighest ranking non-insect foodtested, plant or animal. Maize wasfound to have a value of 3700kcal( r I 5 540 kJ) kg- 1. Of the insectsanalysed, 50oh had a higher caloricvalue than soybeans; 87% were higherthan corn; 63o/o were higher than beef;70oh were higher than fish, lentils andbeans; and 95o/o were higher thanwheat, rye or teosintle. The five high-est Lepidoptera (caterpillars) of 16

species examined averaged 6594(x27 695kJ) kg- 1; the five highestColeoptera (beetle grubs) of 17 species

examined averaged 5964kcal(=25049kJ) kg- 1; the five highestHemiptera (mixed nymphs andadults) of 14 species examined aver-aged 5646kcal (x 23 71 3 kJ) kg- 1

; thefive highest Hymenoptera (all ants,ranging from adults to immatures) of24 species examined averaged5361kcat (x225l6kl) kg- 1;and thefive highest Orthoptera (grasshoppernymphs and adults) of 20 species

examined averaged 4168kcal(r l7506kJ) kg- 1.

Cholesterol levels in insects varyfrom low (e.g. none in the edibleleaf-cutter ant, Atta cephalotes Lalr.)to approximately the levels found inother animals (- I mg sterol g 1

tissue), depending on species and diet(Ritter, 1990). Insect fatty acids are

similar to those of poultry and fish intheir degree of unsaturation, withsome groups being rather higher inlinoleic and/or linolenic acids, whichare the essential fatty acids (DeFo-liart,1991).

Vitamins and minerals

In Angola, the caterpillar, Usta terpsi-chore M. & W. (Saturniidae), was

found to be a rich source of iron,copper, zinc, thiamin (vitamin B1) andriboflavin (Br); 100 g of cooked insectprovided > l00oh of the dailyrequirement of each of these mineralsand vitamins (Oliveira et al., 1976).

Winged adults of the termite, Mauo-termes subhyalinus, are high in magne-

sium and copper, and the palm weevillarva, Rhynchophorus phoenicis F., inzinc, thiamin and riboflavin. In eachcase, 100g of these insects providedmore than the minimum dailyrequirement. In Zaire, Kodondi,Leclercq and Gaudin-Harding (1987)

analysed three species of saturniidcaterpillars prepared by the tradi-tional techniques of smoking anddrying, and found them to be high inriboflavin and niacin, but low in thia-min and pyridqxine (86). Feedingtrials confirmed that, except for thia-min and pyridoxine. the vitamins sup-plied by the caterpillars are sufficientto allow proper growth of young rats.The caterpillars studied by Malaisseand Parent (1980), also in Zaire,proved an excellent source ofiron; of21 species tested, 100g of insects pro-vided (average value) 335o/o of theminimum daily requirement.

In Mexico, axayacatl (a mixture ofseveral species of aquatic Hemiptera),ahuahutle (eggs of the preceding), andjumiles (several species of edible stinkbugs) are rich sources of riboflavinand niacin (Massieu et al., 1958,

1959). Sphenarium grasshoppers arehigh in niacin, while axayacatl is a richsource of iron. The high content ofiron and zinc in many edible insects is

of particular interest. Iron deficiencyis a major problem in women's diets inthe developing world, particularlyamong pregnant women, and espec-

ially in Africa (Orr, 1986). Vegetarianseverywhere are at risk of zinc defi-ciency.

Fibre

Chitin comprises - I0% of whole

dried insects. It is a carbohydratepolymer found in invertebrateexoskeletons, protozoa, fungi andalgae, and is being called the polymerofthe future because ofits abundance,toughness and biodegradabilitY(Goodman, 1989). Numerous aPPli-

cations of chitin and its derivatives(especially chitosan) are being foundin medicine, agriculture and industry.In fact, chitin from shells of lobsters,crabs and crayfish has been approvedby the Japanese for use in cereals as a

source of fibre and calcium. If proteinconcentrates from dechitinized insects

should become acceptable and Pro-duced on a large scale, the chitinby-product could be of significantvalue as a fibre source.

Potential hazardsSome insects secrete toxins, produce

toxic metabolites or sequester toxicchemicals from foodplants (Blum,1978; Duffey, 1980; Wirtz, 1984).

Defensive secretions that may be reac-

tive, irritating or toxic include carb-

oxylic acids, alcohols, aldehYdes,

alkaloids, ketones, esters, lactones,

phenols, 1,4-quinones, hydrocarbonsand steroids, among others. Phyto-

chemicals sequestered bY various

insects include simPle Phenolics,flavin, tannins, terpenoids, PolY-acetylenes, alkaloids, cyanogens,

glucosinolates and mimetic amino

acids. Insects are also a source olinjectant, ingestant, contactant and

inhalant allergens (Wirtz, 19841.

Gorham, l99l), and some insects

serve as vectors or passive interme-

diate hosts of vertebrate pathogens

such as bacteria. protozoa. viruses orhelminths (Gorham, l99l). Moreattention should be directed towardassessing these risk factors in the

edible insect groups. The long historyof human use suggests, however, withlittle evidence to the contrary, that the

insects intentionally harvested forhuman consumption do not Pose any

significant health problem.

Relevance to environmentallYcompatible pest managementand sustainable agriculture

As noted by Dufour (1987) in Colom-bia, insects used as food by indigenous

populations are often those that are

dependably most abundant. Thus,many of the species used as food are

important crop pests. Relative to effi-ciency of resource utilization and pre-

serving environmental quality, a fewexamples will suffice to indicate the

diversity of possibilities that exists.

The question has been raised, forexample, whether increased pro-motion and harvest of palm weevil(Rhynchophorus) and rhinocerosbeetle (Oryctes) larvae as food mightserve as a form ofbiological control ofthese pests (and the associated 'red-

ring disease' of palms). Such a practice

might result in the reduction of pesti-

cides, as well as creating new eco-

nomic opportunities for indigenouspeople (DeFoliart, 1990). In SouthAfrica, Ledger (1987) suggested thatserious consideration be given toattempting harvest of the brownlocust, Locustana pardalina (Walker),

as human and animal food (as indige-nous people have done for centuries)in order to eliminate or reduce the use

of insecticides on this pest. The idea

was summarily dismissed as 'totallyimpractical' by agricultural officials.Nevertheless, local officials in Thai-land launched a campaign to combinegrasshopper harvest and sale with pest

control when conventional controlprocedures proved unsuccessful(Defoliart, 1989): whether or not suc-

cessful pest control was achieved, the

grasshoppers were an economicwindfall.

In Mexico, Conconi and Pino(1979) suggest that some plants thatare widespread and characteristic ofarid regions, but of limited food value,

such as mezquite, madrono and some

cacti, could be used for cultivation oftheir associated insects, thus produc-

ing more protein of animal quality.The insects are many times higher inprotein and fat than are the Plantsupon which they feed: for examPle,

protein (on a dry weight basis) is

69.05oA in the adult weevil, Metama-sius spinolae Vaurie, compared with5.2loh in nopal, the cactus uPon

which it feeds; fat is 58.55% of the

caterpillar of A e giale he s p e r iaris Kirbycompared with 3.60% in the magueY

plant. When the cosmopolitan house

cricket, Acheta domesticus, was main-tained at temperatures > 30'C and fed

Comment 397

a diet of similarly high quality to thatused in bringing beef animals tomarket size and condition, the foodconversion efficiency of the cricketswas estimated to be more than five

times that of beef animals (Nakagakiand DeFoliart, 1991). When the highfetirndity of the cricket is considered(1500 offspring per female cricketcompared with four standing animalsin the beef herd for each animal mark-eted), the true food conversion effi-

ciency is closer to l5-20 times greater

for the cricket than for beef.

Turk (1990) notes that at least 42

species of leguminous trees are fed

upon by edible caterpillars in Africa.He suggests that management Prac-tices for these trees should be

developed that would help preserve

caterpillar production. Some of the

trees are among those recommended(for reasons other than caterpillarproduction) by an advisory panel ofthe United States National Academyofsciences (1979) for further develop-ment as food protein resources. InZambia, where late bush-burning is

very damaging to the forest, Holden(1986) noticed that there were veryfew late fires in the areas where the

mumpa caterpillars are found: thepeople burn early to protect the cater-pillars. He proposed research on man-agement of the caterpillars not onlybecause they are important as food,but because of their favourable impacton woodland management. That is,

this practice would create an incentivefor people to burn early and, thereby,enhance woodland regeneration. Thereception by administrators for thisproposal was:'Serious researchers

cannot come up with such things!'(Holden, 1986, in postscript added inleel).

Economic implications forindustrialized countries

Processed insects for sale as cocktailsnacks, etc., are apparently no longerimported into the United States(DeFoliart, 1988). A new product,however, tequila-flavoured lollipops,which contain an embedded beetlegrub, are selling (at US$0.95 each) as

fast as they can be made, according tothe Californian manufacturer. Several

398 Comment

processed insects are commerciallyavailable in Japan (Mitsuhashi, 1984;

Kantha, 1988). The most widely eaten

is inago (the grasshopper, Oxya veloxF.), which is preserved by boiling insoy sauce. This product appears as a

luxury item in supermarkets through-out the country, including Tokyo.Mitsuhashi (1984) states (translation):'Catching inago is an activity thatadds poetic charm to rice paddies inautumn'. He further describes an inagohunt at an elementary school inTsukuba Science City in Ibaraki Pre-

fecture, in which the fathers andmothers who participated collected68 kg of inago in 2 h. Mitsuhashi sug-gests that with rice in overproduction,why not let inago feed on the excess,

thus increasing the population of thegrasshopper. Another product,cooked wasps, sells at Y1000(*US$8.00) per can (r65g); mixedwith cooked rice, this was a favouritedish of the late Emperor Hirohito(Mitsuhashi, 1988).

There is currently an effort to incor-porate several insects that were impor-tant in aboriginal diets into theAustralian cuisine (Irvine, 1989). InCanada, attempts are under way toapply industrial methods to the pro-duction of insects as food (Kok, Shiv-hare and Lomaliza,l99l). The Frenchbook, Ddlicieux Insectes, by Comby(1990), is selling so well that it is beingtranslated into German and Italianeditions.

Commercially grown insects avail-able to fanciers (from bait and petfood stores) in the USA and Europeinclude the cricket, Acheta domesticus,

the mealworm, Tenebrio molitor L. (abeetle grub), and the greater waxmothlarva, Galleria mellonella (L.). Morethan 80 recipes based on these insects

and honey bee pupae (Apis mellifera)are included in the tastefully executedcookbook, Entertaining with Insects, orthe Original Guide to Insect Cookery,by Taylor and Carter (1976); unfortu-nately, the book is out of print. DrJustin Schmidt, of the USDA's CarlHayden Bee Research Laboratory,Tucson, Arizona, USA, has research-

ed methods of harvesting honey bee

drone pupae and the possibility ofdeveloping markets for the pupae (J.

Schmidt. personal communication.leel).

If insects become more widelyaccepted as a respectable food item inthe industrial countries, the economicimplications are obvious. They wouldform a whole new class of foods made

to order for low-input small-business

and small-farm production. Interna-tional trade in edible insects wouldalmost certainly increase. Althoughprospects for widespread acceptance

are uncertain, there has been a notableincrease in the number of articles innewspapers and magazines, and thesubject is usually treated more seriou-sly than in the past. In my contactswith the US public the response has

been almost totally positive. Forexample, as a guest on radio call-inshows, I have repeatedly heard callersmake comments such as 'We Ameri-cans shouldn't be foisting our foodvalues on other people who need

food', and 'Maybe we Americanswould be better off if we were eatinginsects ourselves, instead of dousingthe world in pesticides'. In addition,the Food Insects Newsletter (DeFoliart,1988-1991), a desktop operation, has

met with wider enthusiasm than anti-cipated, the mailing list having grownfrom 100 names with the initial issue

in 1988 to > 1700 in early 1992. TheNewsletterhas proved to be a valuablesource of information for universityand secondary school teachers whowant to incorporate the subject intotheir courses, as well as for news-papers, magazines, radio and tele-vision. With this increasing attentionon the part of educators and the mass

media, there is good reason to expect

that the current momentum in publiceducation on the subject of insects as

human food will continue.

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