COMM THEORY:On Its Scientific Nature

John A. Cagle, Ph.D.Communication

California State University, Fresno

ISOMORPHISM

There exists a dynamic isomorphism among reality, phenomena, theory, research design, instrumentation, statistical analysis, and computer technology.

More elements are involved, but these illumine the character of science as we move into the 21st Century.

Isomophism is the identity in form and substance between all of these “constructions of reality.”

Isomophism is the identity in form and substance between all of these “constructions of reality.”

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Two Imperatives of Science• Verifiability

• Corrigibility

Philosophical Approaches• Rules

• Systems

• Laws

Ideal Process in Science

Verifiability & Corrigibility

Making Observations in Science Is Called Measurement

Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rules. – S. S. Stevens

Alienation

Powerlessness Meaninglessness Normlessness IsolationSelf-

Estrangement

ConceptualLevel

ConceptualComponents

OperationalDefinitions

ConceptualDefinitions

ObservationalLevel

Expectancythat behavior

cannotdetermineoutcomes

Anticipationof rewards

that lieoutside theactivity itself

Assignmentof low

reward valuesto goals

Expectancythat

unapprovedbehaviors are

required

Perceivedinability to

comprehenddecisions

A set ofquestionnaire

items

A set ofquestionnaire

items

A set ofquestionnaire

items

A set ofquestionnaire

items

A set ofquestionnaire

items

Responses toquestionnaire

Responses toquestionnaire

Responses toquestionnaire

Responses toquestionnaire

Responses toquestionnaire

Th

eo

ry L

ev

el

Re

se

arc

h

Le

ve

l

NOIR: Kinds of Observation

Nominal: something is observed and given a name (e.g., hostile, leader, task)

Ordinal: things in the nominal category are given a relationship to one another (e.g., tall-short, better-worse, etc.)

Interval: numbers to label things with a relationship have precise distance between them (e.g., 8 is twice as much as 4)

Ratio: there is a zero point in observation (e.g., speech preparation, number of words)

7 38

Primary Scales of Measurement

ScaleNominal Numbers

Assigned to Runners

Ordinal Rank Orderof Winners

Interval PerformanceRating on a

0 to 10 Scale

Ratio Time to

Seconds

Thirdplace

Secondplace

Firstplace

Finish

Finish

8.2 9.1 9.6

15.2 14.1 13.4

Abraham Kaplan

Kaplan’s “styles of thinking” from The Conduct of Inquiry

Theories Reflect Kaplan's Levels of Thinking

LiteraryAcademicEristicSymbolic

• Postulational• Formal

Analytic is the logical character of scientific statements

Synthetic is the empirical character of scientific statements

Incr

easi

ng A

naly

tic

Rig

or

Increasing Synthetic Rigor

Literary theories

Academic theories

Eristic theories

PostulationalEmpirical loadings

Formal Math—No empirical loadings

Kaplan’s Styles of Thinking

Incr

easi

ng A

naly

tic

Rig

or

Increasing Synthetic Rigor

Literary theories

Academic theories

Eristic theories

PostulationalEmpirical loadings

Formal Math—No empirical loadings

Kaplan’s Styles of Thinking

Investigation

Select a phenomenon and list all its components & their characteristics.

Observe/measure all of these characteristics in a variety of situations.

Analyze the observations to determine if there are any patterns worthy of further attention.

If patterns have been found in the observations, state these patterns as theoretical statements.

Confirming Research

Develop a theory. Select a statement generated by the theory

(hypothesis) for comparison with observation (empirical research).

Conduct research to “test” the chosen statement by observations using an experimental design.• If the statement derived from the theory does not

correspond with observational results, make appropriate changes in the theory or in the research design and continue with the research.

• If the statement from the theory corresponds with the results of the research, select additional statements for testing and/or apply theory in world with some confidence.

Criteria to Evaluate Theories

Theoretical scopeTestabilityParsimonyUtilityHeuristic valueValidity

CRITERIA Necessary Desirable

Logically consistentConsistent with

accepted factsTestable

SimpleParsimoniousConsistent with

related theories Interpretable: explain

and predictUsefulPleasing to the mind

Testing Theories

Hypotheses and Research Questions Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Critical Scholarship

  Scientific Humanistic

Epistemology Discover the truth Create meaning

Human Nature Determinism Free will

Value Priority Objectivity Emancipation

Purpose of Theory Give universal laws Give rules for interpretation

Research Methods Experiment and Survey Textual analysis and ethnography

Standards for Evaluation

Explanation of dataPrediction of futureRelative simplicityTestable hypothesesPractical utility

Understanding of peopleClarification of valuesAesthetic appealCommunity of agreementReform society

Ron Wright, University of Arizona