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Coming to you from Salt Lake City, UT November 2Coming to you from Salt Lake City, UT November 2ndnd, , 2004 2004 To begin at 3:05 ETTo begin at 3:05 ET
Watersheds and UrbanizationWatersheds and Urbanization
CUAHSI Fall 2004 Vision Paper Cyberseminar Series www.cuahsi.org
CUAHSI Fall 2004 Vision Paper Cyberseminar Series www.cuahsi.org
Bill Johnson Steve BurianCraig ForsterDavid Bowling
Jim Steeburgh Kip Solomon
Welcome to the 3Welcome to the 3rdrd Semester of Semester of CUAHSI CUAHSI Education and Outreach Education and Outreach Distinguished LecturesDistinguished Lectures
Problems? Send a chat to Host
Feedback? Please send an email to [email protected]
Host: Jon DuncanHost: Jon DuncanCUAHSI Communications CUAHSI Communications
DirectorDirector
The Presentation can be downloadedFrom www.cuahsi.org
Fall ScheduleFall Schedule
•• Advancing Coupled LandAdvancing Coupled Land--Atmosphere PredictionAtmosphere PredictionDave Dave GochisGochis, NCAR November 10, NCAR November 10thth
•• Moving Beyond the Theory Impasse in Moving Beyond the Theory Impasse in CatchmentCatchmentHydrologyHydrology
Jeff McDonnell, Oregon State U. November 16Jeff McDonnell, Oregon State U. November 16thth
•• Mountain Hydrology of SemiMountain Hydrology of Semi--Arid Western USArid Western USRoger Bales, UC Merced November 17Roger Bales, UC Merced November 17thth
•• HydropedologyHydropedology and the Earth’s Critical Zoneand the Earth’s Critical ZoneHenry Lin, Penn State November 18thHenry Lin, Penn State November 18th
Go to CUAHSI website for complete calendar, links to papers, Go to CUAHSI website for complete calendar, links to papers, presentations, and discussion forumspresentations, and discussion forums
Watersheds and Urbanization: Compelling and Emerging Challenges for the 21st Century
Prepared for the Consortium for the Advancement of Hydrologic Science, Inc.
(CUAHSI), by:
1aWilliam P. Johnson, 1eSteven J. Burian, 1bJames Steenburgh, 1cDavid Bowling, 1dCraig B. Forster, 1aD. Kip Solomon, 2,3James M. Thomas, 3Scott W. Tyler
1dPhilip C. Emmi, 1aRobert N. Harris, 4Arthur Caplan, 4David G. Tarboton, and 5Upmanu Lall
1University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, Departments:
aGeology & Geophysics, bMeteorology, cBiology, dArchitecture & Planning, eCivil & Environmental Engineering
2Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV, Division of Hydrologic Sciences 3University of Nevada, Reno, NV, Dept of Environmental & Resource Science
4Utah State University, Logan, UT, Departments of: aCivil Eng., bEconomics 5Columbia University, Department of Earth & Environmental Engineering
Increasing # Cities with Population >1 millionIncreasing # Cities with Population >1 million
650
100
1950 2025
In 2000: 23 cities with population >10 million(18 in developing countries)
Future:Future: Shift to Demand Side ManagementShift to Demand Side Management
Urbanization is part of the Hydrologic Cycle – and vice versa
Hydrologic Pathways, Fluxes, and Reservoirs in Urbanizing Watersheds
POLLUTION
URBAN LAND SURFACE
PRECIPITATION
RUNOFF &STORMWATER
DRAINAGE
CAPILLARY RISE
POLLUTION
PLANT EXTRACTION & TRANSPIRATION
SNOW/ ICE STORAGE
OCEANS
WELLS
SURFACE WATER-
LAKES, RIVERSETC.
INTERCEPTION & EVAPORATION
SEEPAGE
SOIL STORAGE
CONSUMING AND
NON-CONSUMING USES
WASTE &SEWAGE
EVAPORATION
POLLUTION
INFILTR
ATIO
N
GROUNDWATER
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
Surface energy budgetsQ*: Net radiation QH: Sensible heat fluxQE: Latent heat flux QG, ∆QS: Ground heat flux/storage term
From Oke (1982)
The Urban Heat Island• Often observed, seldom explained
From Oke (1982)
Urbanization and precipitation
• UHI and other aspects of urbanization can lead to increased precipitation
• Effects are well documented but poorly understood
From Changnon (1971)
Wind direction
Urbanization and evapotranspiration
source: polihale.com/display/41473source: public-health.uiowa.edu
in humid regionsET decreasese.g., Dow and Dewalle (2000)
in arid regionsET increases
Through ET, vegetation strongly influences the quantity of runoff
Trimble et al. (1987) Water Resources Research 23:425-437Figure taken from Chapin et al. (2002)
Urbanization of a semi-arid grassland
Seasonal patterns of QH and QE in a Tennessee deciduous forest(2 different years)
QH
QE
Annual QE = 1.39 GJ m-2
QE/Q* = 46%
QE is limited by energy not water
Wilson and Baldocchi (2000) Ag. Forest. Meteorol. 100:1-18
Bowen ratios of different ecosystems (QH/QE)
Wilson et al. (2002) Water Resources Research 38, 12, 1294, doi:10.1029/2001WR000989
Goshute Valley, NE Nevada
Q*
QH
QE
QE in semi-arid regions is much lower than in temperate forests
QE peaks at about3 MJ m-2 d-1
which is 1.2 mm d-1
Annual QE = 0.39 GJ m-2QE/Q* = 14%
QE is limited by water not energy
Malek and Bingham (1997) J. Arid Environments 37:193-207
Irrigated systems in arid regions can advect energy as QH to feed QE
The same is found in urban parksSpronken-Smith et al. (2000)
QE
QH
Q*
Collier (2000)
Bowling et al. (2003) Ag. Forest Meteorol. 116:159-179
Hydrologic Pathways, Fluxes, and Reservoirs in Urbanizing Watersheds
POLLUTION
URBAN LAND SURFACE
PRECIPITATION
RUNOFF &STORMWATER
DRAINAGE
CAPILLARY RISE
POLLUTION
PLANT EXTRACTION & TRANSPIRATION
SNOW/ ICE STORAGE
OCEANS
WELLS
SURFACE WATER-
LAKES, RIVERSETC.
INTERCEPTION & EVAPORATION
SEEPAGE
SOIL STORAGE
CONSUMING AND
NON-CONSUMING USES
WASTE &SEWAGE
EVAPORATION
POLLUTION
INFILTR
ATIO
N
GROUNDWATER
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
Natural Hydrologic System
Groundwater
Modified Streamflow
EvapotranspirationPrecipitation
Urban Hydrologic System
Leakage
Rainfall runoff Dry weather flows
StormwaterWater Distribution
Wastewater
Streamflow
Precipitation Evapotranspiration
Rainfall runoff
Groundwater
Soil MoistureInfiltration/Recharge
Infiltration/ Recharge
• Greater system complexity
• Modified fluxes and pathways
• Additional pollution sources
Soil Moisture
Separate or Combined
What is Urbanization Effect on Hydrologic Processes at Multiple Scales?
Urbanization:
• Removes indigenous vegetation
• Disturbs soil matrix
• Introduces impervious surfaces and drainage systems
Lot
Neighborhood
City
Regional
Continental
Global
Reservoirs Modified:Atmospheric compositionSurface water bodies (rivers, lakes, estuaries)Aquifers
Scales of Interest
Fluxes Modified:Surface to Atmosphere (ET)Atmosphere to Surface (Precipitation)Surface to Sub-surface (infiltration)Surface to Surface (runoff)
Modified Surface to Sub-Surface Flux
Coordinated urban experiments are needed to develop revised predictive models of infiltration processes in urban environments and to better quantify leakage from water infrastructure and impacts from intentional and unintentional stormwater infiltration
Pitt et al. 2003
Pitt et al. 2003
Pitt et al. 2003
Modified Surface FlowsModified Surface FlowsDry WeatherDry Weather Wet WeatherWet Weather
Modified Base Flow Modified Base Flow Rates and QualityRates and Quality
Increased Flashiness of Flow and Increased Flashiness of Flow and Altered Chemical and Thermal Altered Chemical and Thermal
Composition (Composition (stormwaterstormwater, CSO), CSO)
Increased Increased Water UseWater Use
Increased Increased Wastewater Wastewater ProductionProduction
Impacts to Impacts to Water BodiesWater Bodies
from Hollis 1975
DiversionsDiversions DischargesDischarges
Receiving Water Effects
What are the effects of multiple stressors?
Monitoring, laboratory experiments, and field Hamilton et al. 2004
The USGS NAWQAprogram has provided baseline data for more than a decade that show for all regions the reduced quality of waterways exposed to urban influences
experiments are needed to collect data for new model developmentexplaining the nonlinear feedbacks and synergism between stressors
What emerging contaminants must be considered?The significance of the effects to aquatic life of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine-disrupting compounds, and other emerging contaminants must be determined
Public Health EffectsSurface flow discharges to urban water bodies have been found tobe important public health issues:
Santa Monica Bay: the epidemiological study of health effects from stormwater discharges to Santa Monica Bay conducted in the early 1990s found increased frequency of various illnesses (e.g., earaches, sinus problems, diarrhea, fever, and rashes) associated with swimming near stormwater outfalls
Milwaukee, WI: crypto outbreak taught several lessons including need to better understand the interactions between surface water, groundwater, and water supply in urban environments and need to protect water supplies from runoff, and served as a testbed for bioterrorism response
What are the pathways for contamination of surface water supplies and what are the sources of contamination?
What emerging contaminants must be considered?The toxicology of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine-disrupting compounds, and other emerging contaminants is uncertain
Dr. Rachel Noble
Studies of the interaction between runoff, surface water, and ground water must be conducted to define the pathways of contamination between water bodies and help to identify sources of contamination (including aging infrastructure)
Albany Times Union
Observation Framework
NASA TRMMNASA Aqua
NASA Terra
Top Down Observations(Currently temporally discrete, but spatially continuous)
Transects Across Gradients of Interest (Urbanization)
Regional (Integrators):Lot – Neighborhood:Infiltration, ET, Runoff, Water Use, Surface-Groundwater Interaction Atmosphere
(integrator of fluxes)City:
Surface water and ground water flow and contaminant fate and transport, Infrastructure, Diversion, Discharges
Water Bodies, Sediments & Biota (integrators of fluxes)
Bottom Up Observations(Currently temporally continuous, but spatially discrete)
Urban Terrain Characterization (Informatics)
Time Series Time Series (Land Cover (Land Cover
Change)Change)
Surveys/InferenceSurveys/InferenceSurface Characteristics, Buildings, Surface Characteristics, Buildings, Infrastructure, Development HistoryInfrastructure, Development History
LIDAR, SAR, SRTM, MultiLIDAR, SAR, SRTM, Multi--spectral, spectral, Thermal, RadarThermal, Radar
National Map, 133 cities, Urban Data National Map, 133 cities, Urban Data Federation, Population/Demographics, Federation, Population/Demographics, InfrastructureInfrastructure
National/Global DatasetsNational/Global DatasetsLocal/Regional DatasetsLocal/Regional Datasets
Land Use Planning/Zoning, Land Use Planning/Zoning, Infrastructure, Development HistoryInfrastructure, Development History
Remote SensingRemote Sensing
Spatial Spatial HeterogeneityHeterogeneity
Correlate hydrologic observations with urban environment characteristics (e.g., infiltration through disturbed soils – residential 1-yr old vs. residential 30 yrs old; leakage from 10-yr old ductile iron distribution line vs. leakage from 100-yr old ductile iron distribution line)
PredictionObservations must characterize past urbanization effects to aid prediction of future effects:
Must account for changing patterns Must account for changing patterns of development (alternative of development (alternative development approaches (LID, development approaches (LID, smart growth))smart growth))
Heterogeneous city center gradient Heterogeneous city center gradient to homogeneous suburban sprawlto homogeneous suburban sprawl
Observations must account for changes to water infrastructure system planning, design, operation, and management:
Engineering solutions to urban water Engineering solutions to urban water management are continuously evolvingmanagement are continuously evolving
Centralized versus decentralized Centralized versus decentralized managementmanagement
Combined versus separate sewer Combined versus separate sewer systems systems –– Los Angeles hybrid system Los Angeles hybrid system treating drainage flows (treating drainage flows (StenstromStenstrom 2004)2004)
Hydrologic Pathways, Fluxes, and Reservoirs in Urbanizing Watersheds
POLLUTION
URBAN LAND SURFACE
PRECIPITATION
RUNOFF &STORMWATER
DRAINAGE
CAPILLARY RISE
POLLUTION
PLANT EXTRACTION & TRANSPIRATION
SNOW/ ICE STORAGE
OCEANS
WELLS
SURFACE WATER-
LAKES, RIVERSETC.
INTERCEPTION & EVAPORATION
SEEPAGE
SOIL STORAGE
CONSUMING AND
NON-CONSUMING USES
WASTE &SEWAGE
EVAPORATION
POLLUTION
INFILTR
ATIO
N
GROUNDWATER
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
2000
1000
500
200
100
50
20
10
5
Rec
harg
e (m
m/y
r)
5000 2000 1000 500 200 100 50 20Precipitation (mm/yr)
Potential increasedrecharge
min. for sewered/drained
max. for unsewered/undrained
natural recharge
Foster et al., 1999; Lerner, 2002
HY SC
M L
HY=Hat YaiSC=Santa CruzM=MeridaL=Lima
Effects of Urbanization onGroundwater
Increase in recharge
Water importationLeakage of water mainsFocusing of precipitation
Degradation of water quality
2D: Cross-section recharge
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20TRITIUM UNITS (TU)
DEP
TH (M
)
Total = 16.7 TU-meters
1.4 TU-m
13 TU-m
Relation of peak chloride to tritium recharge rate
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Recharge rate, q (mm/yr)
Chl
orid
e co
ncen
tratio
n (m
g/L)
Tritium mass balance method
Corrected depth-to-peak method
Best fit (q=180(Clx10e-0.75)+1)
Average recharge rate = 6 mm/yr (2 to 28 mm/yr)
Highest rates occur beneath coarse soils and areas receiving run off
65 % of the intervals have low but significant recharge (<5 mm/yr), showing diffuse infiltration is substantial (contrary to alluvial basin studies)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Rec
harg
e ra
te, m
m/y
r
850 m
Urban Drinking Water Supply and Treatment
• ½ of all US drinking water wells show evidence of fecal contamination
• 750,000 to 5,900,000 illnesses, 1400 to 9400 deaths attributed to contaminated GW each year in US
• Milwaukee 1993, Cryptosporidiosis outbreak, 400,000 illnesses, 100 deaths
Bruce Whitteberry – HydrogeologistGreater Cincinnati Water Works
Scales
10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2Diameter (m)
moleculescolloids
suspended particles
1 um 1 mm1 A
bacteria
Concentrations vs x (Field) Riverbed responsible?
Bruce Whitteberry – Hydrogeologist, Greater Cincinnati Water Works
Where Does Removal Occur?Theory: Ln C/Co = (kf/v) x
Log removal versus distance according to deposition rate constant
Co
Bruce Whitteberry – Hydrogeologist, Greater Cincinnati Water Works
Ln C/Co kf
kf decreases with distanceRiverbed = point of removal?
Ln C/Co kfTheory expects homogeneousmaterials to yield constant kf
xWhat is the effect of flood scour onbiological and physical removal?
Deposition Rate (kf) vs x (Field)Bacteria – No riverbed
MLS14
MLS17
MLS19
MLS20
MLS21MLS11MLS10
MLS9
MLS2
-3.5
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Distance (m)
log
k f (h
r-1)
Constant deposition rate expected from theory
Concentration vs x (Column) (microspheres in quartz sand)
6.40
7.00
7.60
8.20
8.80
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Transport Distance (m)
LogC
Observed
Theory
Susan Hubbard – LBNL
Urbanization is part of the Hydrologic Cycle – and vice versa
Atmosphere
Groundwater Recharge Rate
(quantity, quality)
PrecipitationRate
Surface Water Flows(quantity, quality)
EvapotranspirationRate
Regional/Local Climate
+ +- -
~
~
Surface Water Groundwater
““Natural” Hydrologic SystemNatural” Hydrologic System
Water Available for Use(quantity, quality)
Groundwater Recharge Rate
(quantity, quality)
PrecipitationRate
Surface Water Flows(quantity, quality)
EvapotranspirationRate
Regional/Local Climate
Groundwater Stored(quantity, quality)
Surface Water Stored(quantity, quality)
+ +
+
+ +- -
+
~
~
+
Hydrologic System Yields Water for UseHydrologic System Yields Water for Use
Urban Land Area
Water Available for Use(quantity, quality)
Groundwater Recharge Rate
(quantity, quality)
PrecipitationRate
Surface Water Flows(quantity, quality)
EvapotranspirationRate
Regional/Local Climate
Urban Energy Use
Groundwater Stored(quantity, quality)
Surface Water Stored(quantity, quality)
+ +
+
+ +- -~ ~
+
~~
~
~
+
-+
Urban Impact on Hydrologic SystemUrban Impact on Hydrologic System
Water Available for Use(quantity, quality)
Groundwater Recharge Rate
(quantity, quality)
PrecipitationRate
Surface Water Flows(quantity, quality)
EvapotranspirationRate
Regional/Local Climate
Urban Land Area
Urban Energy Use
ArtificialGroundwater
Recharge
Groundwater Stored(quantity, quality)
Surface Water Stored(quantity, quality)
Inter-WatershedWater Transfers
~
+ +
++
+ +- -~ ~
+
~ ~
~
~
+~
Water Recycling Groundwater
Pumping
-
~
UpstreamWastewaterDischarge
~
~
-+
Expand Impacts on Hydrologic SystemExpand Impacts on Hydrologic System
Water Available for Use(quantity, quality)
Groundwater Recharge Rate
(quantity, quality)
PrecipitationRate
Surface Water Flows(quantity, quality)
EvapotranspirationRate
Regional/Local Climate
Urban Land Area
Urban Energy Use
ArtificialGroundwater
Recharge
Groundwater Stored(quantity, quality)
Surface Water Stored(quantity, quality)
Inter-WatershedWater Transfers
~
+ +
++
+ +- -~ ~
+
~ ~
~
~
Water Supply Infrastructure
Water Use(quantity, quality)
+
~
~
Water Recycling Groundwater
Pumping
-
+++
++
+
+
~
UpstreamWastewaterDischarge
~
StormwaterInfrastructure
~
Wastewater InfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructure
~
-+
Water Use(quantity, quality)
++
People
Jobs
PopulationGrowth
Local Economy
NationalEconomy
+
+ +
+
++
Urbanization
++
Urban SystemUrban System
Water Supply & ReuseChoices, Policies, Planning
Water Supply Cost Water SupplyInfrastructure
-
+
+
~
~
Water Use(quantity, quality)
++
People
Jobs
PopulationGrowth
Local Economy
NationalEconomy
+
+ +
+
++
Urbanization
++
Urban Impact: Urban Impact: Water SupplyWater Supply
WastewaterCost
+
~
WastewaterDischarge
(qantity, quality)
Wastewater Choices, Policies, Planning
WastewaterInfrastructure
+
+
+
~
Water Supply & ReuseChoices, Policies, Planning
Water Supply Cost Water SupplyInfrastructure
-
+
+
~
~
Water Use(quantity, quality)
++
People
Jobs
PopulationGrowth
Local Economy
NationalEconomy
+
+ +
+
++
Urbanization
++
Urban Impact: Urban Impact: WastewaterWastewater
Urban Energy Use
Urban Land Area
Urban Growth ManagementChoices, Policies, Planning
+
+
+
Water Supply & ReuseChoices, Policies, Planning
Water Supply Cost Water SupplyInfrastructure
-
+
+
~
~WastewaterCost
+
~
WastewaterDischarge
(qantity, quality)
Wastewater Choices, Policies, Planning
WastewaterInfrastructure
+
+
+
~
Water Use(quantity, quality)
++
People
Jobs
PopulationGrowth
Local Economy
NationalEconomy
+
+ +
+
++
Urbanization
++
Urban Impact: Urban Impact: Energy & Land Use Energy & Land Use
+~
StormwaterInfrastructure
StormwaterChoices, Policies, Planning
StormwaterCost
~
Urban Energy Use
Urban Land Area
Urban Growth ManagementChoices, Policies, Planning
+
+
+
Water Supply & ReuseChoices, Policies, Planning
Water Supply Cost Water SupplyInfrastructure
-
+
+
~
~WastewaterCost
+
~
WastewaterDischarge
(qantity, quality)
Wastewater Choices, Policies, Planning
WastewaterInfrastructure
+
+
+
~
Water Use(quantity, quality)
++
People
Jobs
PopulationGrowth
Local Economy
NationalEconomy
+
+ +
+
++
Urbanization
++
Urban Impact: Urban Impact: StormwaterStormwater
+~
StormwaterInfrastructure
StormwaterChoices, Policies, Planning
StormwaterCost
~
Urban Energy Use
Urban Land Area
Urban Growth ManagementChoices, Policies, Planning
+
+
+
Water Supply & ReuseChoices, Policies, Planning
Water Supply Cost Water SupplyInfrastructure
-
+
+
~
~WastewaterCost
+
~
WastewaterDischarge
(qantity, quality)
Wastewater Choices, Policies, Planning
WastewaterInfrastructure
+
+
+
~
Water Use(quantity, quality)
++
People
Jobs
PopulationGrowth
Local Economy
NationalEconomy
+
+ +
+
++
Urbanization
++
Personal Choice, Policies, PlanningPersonal Choice, Policies, Planning
+~
StormwaterInfrastructure
StormwaterChoices, Policies, Planning
StormwaterCost
~
Vote Today!Vote Today!
Voting
Voting
Voting
Voting
Urban Energy Use
Urban Land Area
Urban Growth ManagementChoices, Policies, Planning
+
+
+
Water Supply & ReuseChoices, Policies, Planning
Water Supply Cost Water SupplyInfrastructure
-
+
+
~
~WastewaterCost
+
~
WastewaterDischarge
(qantity, quality)
Wastewater Choices, Policies, Planning
WastewaterInfrastructure
+
+
+
~
Water Use(quantity, quality)
++
People
Jobs
PopulationGrowth
Local Economy
NationalEconomy
+
+ +
+
++
Urbanization
++
+~
StormwaterInfrastructure
StormwaterChoices, Policies, Planning
StormwaterCost
~
Regional/LocalClimate
~
~
~
~
Urban Energy Use
Urban Land Area
Urban Growth ManagementChoices, Policies, Planning
+
+
+
Water Supply & ReuseChoices, Policies, Planning
Water Supply Cost Water SupplyInfrastructure
-
+
+
~
~WastewaterCost
+
~
WastewaterDischarge
(qantity, quality)
Wastewater Choices, Policies, Planning
WastewaterInfrastructure
+
+
+
~
Water Use(quantity, quality)
++
People
Jobs
PopulationGrowth
Local Economy
NationalEconomy
+
+ +
+
++
Urbanization
++
Urban Impact: Climate Variability Urban Impact: Climate Variability
Urbanization is part of the Hydrologic Cycle – and vice versa
Summary• Urbanization effects on the atmospheric portion of the hydrologic cycle are
well documented but difficult to generalize. Need to understand effects of climate regime, surface hydrology, and development patterns.
• Need direct measurements of ET fluxes in urban and urbanizing environments in a wide variety of biomes.
• Need to understand urbanization impacts on hydrologic processes from the lot scale to the watershed scale. Need to develop infrastructure for spatially and temporally continuous observations from top down (remote sensing) and bottom up (ground based).
• Need more studies of effects of urban recharge in semi-arid environments. Planning needs to consider “recharge parks”.
• Need to understand spatial distribution and temporal continuity of contaminant removal and transformation zones during subsurface transport. Need to make least-invasive subsurface characterization technologies available to researchers.
• Hydrologic studies in urbanizing watersheds should monitor the interdependence of human decision-making, urban processes, and natural/engineered hydrologic systems.