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CHAPTER 3

Figure 3-9. A fluorescence micrograph of a solution of 95 mol% 1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphocholine (DPPC), 5 mol% cholesterol liposomes in Tris buffer encapsulating self-quenched 200 mM CF flowing through a microfluidic channel under an applied temperature gradient of 20°C – 64°C over a 2 mm distance at a flow rate of 5 µL / h. The increase in fluorescence down the channel is caused by the controlled thermal permeabilization of the liposomes. The graph shows a plot of temperature (dotted) and fluorescence (solid) in the channel as a function of lateral position. (Reprinted from Vreeland, W.N. et al., Using bioinspired thermally triggered liposomes for high-efficiency mixing and reagent delivery in microfluidic devices Analytical Chemistry, 75, 6906-6911, 2003, with permission from ACS Publications).

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Figure 3-10. Fluorescence images of solution of 97 mol% DPPC, 3 mol% cholesterol liposomes encapsulating self-quenched 100 mM sulforhodamine B in 0.5 M Tris buffer flowing through a polycarbonate microfluidic channel at a flow rate of 5 µL / h. The temperature gradient applied to the microchannel in each case is as follows; a) no temperature gradient; b) 20°C to 45°C; c) 20°C to 50°C. d) 20°C to 55°C e) 20°C to 60°C; f) 20 oC to 65 oC. (Reprinted from Vreeland, W. N. et al., Using bioinspired thermally triggered liposomes for high-efficiency mixing and reagent delivery in microfluidic devices Analytical Chemistry, 75, 6906-6911, 2003, with permission from ACS Publications).

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CHAPTER 4

Figure -23. Numerically calculated electric field and temperature distribution between two strip electrodes. The Figures A-D show a cross-section perpendicular to an electrode. The dashed lines in A-D mark the upper and lower medium-glass interfaces of the fluidic channel. Calculations were performed for electrodes of 20 µm width and 40 µm vertical spacing with ac drive (1 MHz, voltage drop between the electrodes of 1 Vrms) on a 300 x 300 grid (mesh

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350 width 0.5 µm). Lower values correspond to lighter colours. Only half of the electrode width is visible. For the numerical calculations, boundary conditions were different for the left sides and the right sides of Figures A-D. At the left side periodic boundary conditions were used whereas on the other sides the temperature was fixed to 20 °C and no flow was allowed for the calculation of the electric field. Ohmic and thermal conductivity (in W / mK) as well as relative permittivity of the liquid were assumed to be functions of the temperature (in °C):

( )( ) °==−+= 20/27.0*022.01* 0000 TmSTT σσσ

( ) ( )( )( )°−−°−−= −− 2510*86.810*6.4*251*54.78 63 TTε

( )( )TTTT 7555 10*9286.410*27.6*10*93.910*71.2555.0 −−−− −−−−=λ (fit function of λ, ε and σ for temperatures between 0 °C and 50 °C)

The properties of the glass were assumed to be: σ=10-10 S / m, ε = 5, and λ = 0.2 W / mK. F) Contour plot of the real part of the electric potential (potential range: +/-2-1/2 V) G) Contour plot of the imaginary part of the electric potential (potential range: +/-3.5 mV) H) Contour plot of mean square electric field range: 0-1010 V2 / m2 I) Contour plot of temperature, range: 20 °C-20.24 °C J) Top view on a funnel. Shown is a contour plot of the mean square electric field in the

central horizontal plane (field values increase from white to red, axis in µm). Arrows show the force on suspended particles resulting from combined action of DEP and flow. Note that the flow profile is not parabolic but almost constant in the central part of the channel due to the low ratio of channel height to width. (Modified from Müller, T., et al., The potential of dielectrophoresis for single-cell experiments. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine, IEEE, 2003. 22(6): p. 51-61).

Figure -24. Geometry, phase angles of electric driving and force potential of octode field cages. Electrodes are symbolised by spheres where the colours code the phase shift (0°-yellow, 90°-green, 180°-blue, 270°-red). The surface of a constant mean square electric field was determined for latex beads sized a fifth of the cage dimension. A) rotating mode; B) alternating mode I; C) alternating mode II.

351

Figure 4-11. A 500 nm diameter plastic particle (green) trapped in a cage of 20 µm tip-to-tip distance (red). Such cages are designed for the purpose of virus accumulation and detection. Image courtesy of Kentsch and Müller, Microdevices for separation, accumulation, and analysis of biological micro- and nanoparticles. IEE Proc.-Nanobiotechnol., 2003. 150: p. 82-89.

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352

CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-2. Bovine Pulmonary Artery Endothelial Cell (BPAEC) co-stained to show actin stress fibers (red) and focal adhesions (green). One focal adhesion is schematically highlighted to show some of the molecular details. (Reprinted from [11] with permission from Nature Publishing Group).

353

Figure7-5. Schematic outline of microcontact protein printing. Briefly, an elastomeric stamp is produced by casting a prepolymer of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) onto a photolithographically generated master. Following curing of the polymer and stamp removal, the stamp is inked with desired alkanethiol, stamped onto a substrate, remaining regions are blocked, and ECM protein is adsorbed to the adhesive regions. Panels A through E from [40], reprinted with permission of AAAS. Cells seeded onto these patterns assume the geometry of the stamped features (Panel E). Panel E from [47], reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

A

E

A

E

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354

Figure 7-10. Schematic outline of patterning with a four-level PDMS stamp. Application of increasing pressure to the stamp causes the stamp to collapse allowing for sequential or step-wise contact of stamp with substrate surface (Panel A). Panel B shows a fluorescence image of three labeled proteins stamped with this method. Adapted from [60], with permission from the National Academy of Sciences, USA.

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CHAPTER 8

Figure 8-5. FCM of phospholipid redistribution: Annexin V/ Propidium iodide assay. The technique was performed according to Vermes et al. [14]. Jurkat cells were cultured for 8 hours in the presence (right panel) and the absence (middle panel) of anti-Fas (100 ng/ml). One million cells were washed twice with 1 ml PBS. The pellet was resuspended in 740 µl calcium containing binding buffer (10 mM Hepes +140 mM NaCl + 2.5 mM CaCl2, pH = 7.4), 1.0 µg/ml (final concentration) FITC-Annexin V (APOPTESTTM-FITC, NeXins Research B.V. Hoeven, The Netherlands) and 1.0 µg/ml (final concentration) PI (Sigma, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.). The samples were analysed for green fluorescence (FITC) and for red fluorescence (PI) by flow cytometry. Cells incubated without calcium served as a negative control (middle panel). The assay gives not only information about the numbers of vital (AV-/PI-) versus apoptotic (AV+/PI-) cells, but concurrently provides also the number of secondary necrotic cells (AV+/PI+). From Vermes et al. [68] with permission of Elsevier Sci.

CHAPTER 9

Figure 9-11. (a) Differences in division time for two daughter cells of same mother cells (n= 80 pairs), and (b) initial dependence of division time differences on length.

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356

Figure 9 -23. Synchronization of two cardiac myocyte cells.

CHAPTER 11

Figure 11.9. Focusing BSA: 1D Pseudo-Time-Dependent Model

357

Figure 11-11. Three-dimensional model of mitochondrial isoelectric focusing in microfluidic channels.

Figure 11-12. Microfabricated IEF device with fraction collection channels.

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358

Figure 11-17. Separating nuclei from mitochondria in NR6wt cell lysate.

Figure 11-18. Enrichment of peroxisomes and mitochondria from HeLa cell lysate. Contrast was enhanced individually for the figures.

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CHAPTER 13

Figure 13-14. Tissue distribution of oxygen in the limiting case of reactors with zero cross-flow: The oxygen concentrations drop zero at a depth of 130 µm, as can be seen in the plane cross sections of the channel, in the first figure. A large volume of tissue (nearly 43%) in the zero cross-flow reactors is exposed to hypoxic conditions (Note: Symmetry reduces the problem to solving the concentration profile in one-quarter of the channel and tissue occupying volume of 150 x 150 x 230 µm).

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Figure 13-15. Tissue distribution of oxygen in bioreactors with cross-flow: In reactors with cross-flow rates in excess of 40 µl/min, the minimum oxygen concentration in the tissue (0.69-0.74) is significantly higher than concentrations at which tissue hypoxia effects have been reported in literature (0.36). (Note: Symmetry reduces the problem to solving the concentration profile in one-quarter of the channel and tissue).

INDEX

3

3D cell culture assays · 319

A

adaptation · 225, 226, 228, 230, 231, 239 adhesion · 6, 13, 21, 25, 27, 171-179, 182,

190, 274-282,, 329, 345, 352 agarose microchamber array (MEA) · 225 algebraic viewpoint · 225 alkanethiols · 171, 178, 179, 185 apoptosis · vi, xiv, 85, 138, 173, 197-

199, 200-217, 273, 282, 292, 297 apoptotic cascade · 197, 201, 205, 212,

215, 216 automated patch-clamp system (s) · 143,

158

B

biochemistry · 172, 185, 197, 200, 284, 297

biodegradable polymer · 299, 312, 313,

C

cardiac myocyte · 16, 225, 250, 251, 253, 356

cell(s) · vi, xiii, xiv, 1-16, 23-27, 30, 36-41, 50, 59, 60, 70, 71, 78, 83, 85-88, 91, 93, 96-99, 102, 105, 109, 114-119, 121-138, 143-168, 171-191, 197-202, 205-216, 225-251, 257-269, 273-283, 290-296, 299, 301-304, 308-312, 315, 319, 320-322, 326-330, 333, 337-339, 343, 344, 350, 352, 358

cell culture · vi, 13, 15, 16, 93, 137, 172, 176-178, 182, 183, 215, 257-259, 261-267, 273, 274, 277, 301, 308-312, 320, 321, 326, 329, 333, 344,

cell separation · 4, 23, 25, 36 cell therapy · 83 chip technology · 154, 163, 177, 197, 215 cytochrome p450 1A · 319

D

dielectrophoresis · 5, 8, 11, 83, 86-90, 96, 105, 109, 119, 121, 171, 187, 350

DNA extraction · 23, 27, 28, 44, 48

362 drug screening · 143-145, 147, 162, 166,

182, 191, 225, 226, 252

E

electroporation · xiv, 1, 9-11, 20, 80, 123-138, 274, 296

epigenetic information · 225, 226, 228, 230, 245, 251

Escheirchia coli (E. coli) · 4, 6, 25, 30, 225, 233-241

extracellular matrix · 13, 171, 173, 176, 192, 203, 261, 276, 321

F

field cage(s) · 7, 83, 94, 96, 101, 114, 121, 122, 350

G

genetic engineering · 123, 125, 136 genetic information · 87, 225-228, 231,

232 geometric viewpoint · 225

H

Hep G2 cells · 299, 303, 305, 306, 310- 315

hepatocytes · 134, 176, 184, 192, 194, 299, 304, 306, 315, 319, 328, 330, 331, 341, 343

Hif-3α · 319, 341 hippocampal cell · 225, 246-249 human stem cell · 257, 262 hydrodynamic focusing · 6, 59, 67, 80 hypoxia · 198, 204, 319, 330, 331, 340-

343, 360

I

individuality · 225, 252 inheritance · 225, 228, 238 ion channel recording · 143

L

Lab-in-a-Cell technology · 197 lab-on-chip · xiv, 83, 86-89, 97 liposome(s) · v, 59, 60-78, 124, 151, 347,

348

M

mass transport across the cell membrane · 123

measurements · 12, 15, 21, 42, 123, 127, 137, 138, 145, 151-160, 166, 189, 197, 214, 292, 310, 337, 339

mechanical force · 9, 16, 70, 171, 172, 175, 176, 182, 319

mechanotransduction · vi, 171-173, 176, 177, 190,

microchamber array · 225, 232, 233, 245, micro-electroporation · 20, 123, 124, 127,

130-138, microfabricated chip aperture · 143 microfabrication · 2, 55,171, 173, 231,

239, 242, 245, 246, 273, 274, 301, 297, 320

microfluidic · xiv, 1-3, 6-13, 23-26, 29, 31, 33, 37, 39, 41, 48, 49, 59, 61, 62, 65-78, 86, 89, 92, 93, 97, 98, 100, 101, 104, 106, 109, 110, 114-119, 133, 134, 138, 150, 161, 215, 216, 257, 258, 262-266, 269, 274, 275, 278-284, 286, 288, 296, 299, 300-315, 320, 347, 348, 357

microfluidic devices · 1-3, 6, 7, 9, 12, 23, 37, 39, 48, 49, 71-76, 110, 215, 216,

Index 363

263, 264, 274, 278, 284, 301, 308, 311, 313, 315, 347, 348

micropatterning · 171, 179, 180, 182-185, 188,

mixing · 12, 18, 25, 38, 40, 59, 61, 70-77, 101, 347, 348

modeling · 33, 70, 228, 273, 334, 336, 337, 339

morphology · 13, 197, 211, 214, 215, 267, 301, 307, 322

multi-electrode array (MEA) · 225, 245-249

N

nanoparticles · 59, 60, 68, 107, 108, 113, 351

necrosis · 123, 137, 197-199, 202, 205, 206, 209, 210, 216, 289

O

optical tweezers · 4, 14, 86, 97, 98, 119, 187, 188, 225, 231-233, 240, 252

organelles · 9, 11, 198, 199, 205, 231, 273, 282-286, 291-295

oxygen uptake in tissue · 319

P

patch-clamp on-chip · 143 PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) · 13, 14,

26, 33, 40, 4-49, 151, 155-158, 179, 180, 183, 187, 190, 266, 268, 269,

276, 278, 299, 301-304, 308-313, 320, 353, 354

perfused bioreactor · 319 perfusion culture · 299,304, 306, 311,

314 photolithography · 151, 171, 179, 245,

289 photo-thermal etching · 225, 243-247 protein microchips · 23

S

sample preparation · 23, 24, 29, 36, 42, 43, 49, 87, 216, 273

self assembled monolayers · 46, 171 single cell manipulation · 83 single-cell based cultivation/analysis

system · 225, 229 soft lithography · 7, 26, 46, 171, 189, 266 stem cell(s) · vi, xiv, 83, 85-88, 93, 176,

226, 252, 257-262, 264, 266-269 subcellular separation · 273 synchronization · 225, 250, 356

T

Tar · 225, 240, 241 tissue engineering · xiv, 2, 83, 299, 300,

306, 315, 319

V

variability · 182, 225, 230, 232, 234, 252 vesicle(s) · 59, 62, 70, 71, 151, 199