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COLONIAL LIFEIN CONRAD’S THE HEART OF DARKNESS AND FORSTER’S A PASSAGE TO INDIA (A COMPARATIVE STUDY BASED
ON GENETIC STRUCTURALISM PERSPECTIVE)
KEHIDUPAN KOLONIAL PADA KARYA CONRAD HEART OF DARKNESS DAN FORSTER A PASSAGE TO INDIA (KAJIAN PERBANDINGAN BERDASARKAN
PERSPEKTIF STRUKTURALISME GENETIK)
MUH FAUZI RAZAK
P0600215014
ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY
MAKASSAR
2017
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COLONIAL LIFEIN CONRAD’S THE HEART OF DARKNESS AND FORSTER’S A PASSAGE TO INDIA (A COMPARATIVE STUDY BASED
ON GENETIC STRUCTURALISM PERSPECTIVE)
Thesis
As a partial fulfilment to achive Master Degree
Program
English Language Studies
Arranged and submitted by
MUH FAUZI RAZAK
to
ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
HASANUDDIN UNIVERSITY
MAKASSAR
2017
ii
iii
PERNYATAAN KEASLIAN TESIS
Yang Bertanda tangan di bawah ini
Nama : MUH FAUZI RAZAK
Nomor Mahasiswa : P0600215014
Program Studi : ELS
Menyatakan dengan sebenarnya bahwa tesis yang saya tulis ini
benar-benar merupakan hasi karya saya sendiri, bukan merupakan
pengambilalihan tulisan atau pemikiran orang lain. Apabila di kemudian hari
terbukti atau dapat dibuktikan bahwa sebagian atau keseluruhan tesis ini
hasil karya orang lain, saya bersedia menerima sanksi atas perbuatan
tersebut.
Makassar, 22 November 2017
Yang menyatakan,
Muh Fauzi Razak
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, the researcher would like to express greatest praise to the
Almighty Allah SWT for the chances, the spirits, the health and the love that
has been given in the whole path of the writer’s life and also for the guidance
in finishing this thesis. The researcher sent greatest invocation to Prophet
Muhammad SAW for becoming the most perfect person in this universe.
The researcher would like to extend his grateful thanks to Prof. Drs. H.
Burhanuddin Arafah, M.Hum, Ph.DandDr. H. Mustafa Makka, M.Sfor their
valuable times, ideas, suggestions, corrections, critiques and guidance during
the supervision. Furthermore, the researcher would like to thank to
theexaminers team Dr. H. Fathu Rahman.M. Hum., Drs. Abidin Pammu. M.A.,
Dipl.TESOL., Dr. H. Sudarmin Harun. M. Hum., for their input and advices.
The researcher also expresses sincere gratitude to Pak Muhtar and Pak
Muhlar for their help in managing all formal deeds during his study and the
last but not least, the researcher express his gratitude to Daeng Nai’ for his
help in managing the administration process.
Unlimited and unbounded thanks are dedicated to the researcher’s
beloved parents, Dr. H. Mashur Razak. S.E., M.M and Hj.Harniati. S.E., for
their advice, love, support, and pray. The researcher also whises to express
his sincere thanks for his brother Muh Maula Razak. S.E for encouragement
to finish this thesis. The researcher also would like to thank for his beloved
wife Nur Sapta Riskiawati. S.S., M. Hum., for hersupport, helps, love, and
pray during his study.
The researcherwould like to express his appreciation to her closest
friends, Firdaus Wahyudi, Arifuddin, and Sofyan Sukwara Akfan, for their
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helps and friendship. Sincere thanks due to all friends of English Literature
2015 whose name cannot be mentioned one by one and without their help
and kindness this thesis would not have been completed in due time
Makassar, 19 Oktober 2017
The Writer
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title Page ...................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL SHEET ...................................................................................... ii
Certificate of the Authorship ............................................................................ iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................ iv
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. viii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1
A. Background ..................................................................................... 1
B. Research Questions ........................................................................ 11
C. Objectives of the Research .............................................................. 11
D. Significance of the Research ........................................................... 11
E. Scope of the Research .................................................................... 12
F. Sequence of the Chapters ............................................................... 12
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 14
A. Previous Related Studies ................................................................. 14
B. Theoretical Background ................................................................... 18
1. Genetic Structuralism ................................................................. 18
2. Comparative Literature ............................................................... 21
3. The Intrinsic and Extrinsic Element in Literature ........................ 23
4. Colonialism ................................................................................ 25
5. The Characteristics of Colonialism ............................................. 27
6. The History of Belgian Colony in Congo ..................................... 31
7. The British “Raj” or Rule in India ................................................ 32
8. British Impact on Society and Culture in India ............................ 34
C. Conceptual Framework ................................................................. 37
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CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................ 38
A. Type of Research ........................................................................... 38
B. Source of Data ............................................................................... 38
C. Method of Collecting Data .............................................................. 39
D. Method of Analyzing Data .............................................................. 40
CHAPTER IVFINDINGS AND DISCUSSION .................................................. 41
A. Findings ........................................................................................... 41
B. Discussion ...................................................................................... 67
CHAPTER VCONCLUSION ............................................................................ 75
A. Conclusion .......................................................................................... 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................. 77
APPENDICES
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents background, research questions, objective of the
research, significance of the research, scope of research and sequence of
chapters.
A. Background
The Industrial Revolution was a time of great age throughout the world.
It represented major change from 1760 to the period 1820-1840.The
movement originated in Great Britain and affected everything from industrial
manufacturing processes to the daily life of the average citizen.The main
industry at the time was the textile industry. It had the most employees, output
value, and invested capital. It was the first to take on new modern production
methods. The transition to machine power drastically increased productivity
and efficiency. It started in Great Britain and soon expanded into Western
Europe and to the United States. The actual effects of the revolution on
different sections of society differed. They manifested themselves at different
times. The ‘trickle down’ effect whereby the benefits of the revolution helped
the lower classes did not happen until towards the 1830s and 1840s. Initially,
machines like the Watt Steam Engine and the Spinning Jenny only benefited
the rich industrialists.
2
The effects on the general population, when they did come, were
major. Prior to the revolution, most cotton spinning was done with a wheel at
home. These advances allowed families to increase their productivity and
output. It gave them more disposable income and enabled them to facilitate
the growth of a larger consumer goods market. The lower classes were able
to spend. For the first time in history, the masses had a sustained growth in
living standards. Yet, where people supposed to live being also a problem,
Industrialists wanted more workers and the new technology largely confined
itself to large factories in the cities. Thousands of people who lived in the
countryside migrated to the cities permanently. It led to the growth of cities
across the world, including London, Manchester, and Boston. The permanent
shift from rural living to city living has endured to the present day.
The effects caused by the industrial revolution which has mentioned
above, can lead to another impact such as the emergence of where the
industry must obtain the availability of raw materials, and the next impact is
where the result of the raw material processessby the industry will be
marketed. To resolve these two impact due to the industrial revolution then,
the west began to invade a country which potentially has abundant of raw
materials.By finding countries which has raw materials abundantly for
industrial purposes, there was an intention to control the whole country and
make it as a new source of raw materials as well to the British empire.
Speaking about which one of the best country should be picked by the British
3
as a supplier of raw materials, Africa is one of the country with abundant of
raw materials supplier as well as with its large population constituted a ready
market for such products. Furthermore, as result of low wages paid to
workers, there was accumulation of profits by the industrialists at a faster rate
than they could invest back. There was under utilization of capital in Europe
at this time, and a need to find where these capitals will be transported and
invested for the creation of new products. It was during this process of
investment of the surplus capital, thosecolonialism and imperialism emerged.
For colonialism itself, generally it is the direct and overalldomination of
one country by another on the basis of state power being in the hands of
aforeign power. Specifically colonialism has two objectives, they are political
domination and the second one is to make possible the exploitation of
colonized country (Ocheni, 2012:46).
Colonialism involved an extraordinary range of different forms and
practices carried out with respect to radically different cultures, over many
centuries, and lists examples including settler colonies such as British, North
America, Australia, and French Algeria; administered territories established
without significant settlement for the purposes of economic exploitation, such
as British India and Japanese Taiwan; and maritime enclaves, such as Hong
Kong, Malta, and Singapore (Young, 2003:17). Exploitation term was strongly
related with colonialism since practically, colonialism exploit many aspect
toward their colonized country.
4
Talking about colonialism in Africa, we cannot separate from the
phenomenon which took place between 1800 until 1960s. It is a phenomenon
which is part and parcel of another phenomenon called imperialism. In fact,
colonialism is a direct form of imperialism. This is why it is often said that “all
colonialism is imperialism, but not all imperialism is colonialism” (Ocheni,
2012:46).
In Post Colonial Study the Key Concept, Aschroft explains imperialism
as the formation of an empire, and, as such, has been an aspect of all
periods of history in which one nation has extended its domination over one
or several neighbouring nations (2007:111). As a capitalist consequence, one
country should extend their domination to another so they will keep working
this industrialization of mass product. If they are not invading the others this
circulation of capitalist will break up and there is no any income to keep this
system of capitalist worked. Lenin also stated his conception about
imperialism as it is stated in Loomba (2005:27) “the growth of ‘finance-
capitalism’ and industry in the Western countries had created ‘an enormous
superabundance of capital”. This money could not be profitably invested at
home where labour was limited. As it is stated above imperialism is all about
extending particular power to another and from Lenin, he is more focusing on
imperialism as a certain place in west to make a capitalist system became
superabundances.
5
That is why they tried to invade another “colony” which is lacked capital
but were abundant in human resources to become a laborer. The word colony
itself, based on The Postcolonial Studies Dictionary, originates from Latin
words “colonye” meaning ‘to cultivate’, and referred to the Roman Empire that
colonized large parts of the world including Europe and England (Nayar,
2015:30).Therefore it needed to move out and subordinate non-industrialised
countries to sustain its own growth. Based on Lenin’s concept about
imperialism it is clear that with participation of the third coutrieslike Asia and
Africa as a new track to build the new industrial country with abundance of
human resources in it so this circulation of profit and money can be always
applied to fulfill European mission about being a powerfull country based on
industrial term.
Colonization (or colonisation) is a process by which a central system of
power dominates the surrounding land and its components. The term is
derived from the Latin word colere, which means "to inhabit".Also,
colonization refers strictly to migration, for example, to settler colonies in
America or Australia, trading posts, and plantations, while colonialism deals
with this, along with ruling the existing indigenous peoples of styled "new
territories" (Steele, 2003:6).
Colonialism and imperialism are two terms which has a similarity,
because both colonialism and imperialism involved forms of subjugation of
one people by another, but what makes them different is, imperialism always
6
related to those term such as empire, domination, and power.Those terms not
found in colonialism, the terms such as settlers, community, have been using
in it instead of empire, domination, and power in imperialism. In Loomba
(2005:21)also explained furtherly about in colonialism there is no any
existence of those settlers who tries to over dominate another settler, or tried
to make those settlers qonquered anything from another settler.
This research aims to analyze two works from Conrad and Forster that
each of them the researcher indicates that both works might be contained
colonialism during the colonial life. The researcher decided took those
authors since both have numerous works that always emphasized on colonial
life in their each of character, especially from their sitution of the works.
Joseph Conrad was born Jozef Teodor Konrad Nalecz Korzeniowski on
December 3, 1857, near Berdichev in the Ukraine, a region that had once
been part of Poland but was then ruled by Russia. His parents, Apollo and
Evelina Bobrowski Korzeniowski, belonged to the educated landowning
Polish gentry and fought for Polish independence. In 1862, Apollo
Korzeniowski, a talented writer and translator, was exiled to Vologda in
northern Russia. The difficult life there took its toll on the family, and Conrad’s
mother died in 1865 and his father in 1869. Conrad moved to Krakow to live
with his maternal uncle. He spent much of his time reading Charles Dickens
and Victor Hugo but also dreamed of the life of a sailor (Bloom, 2009:12).
Dreaming become as a sailor, Conrad actualized it as a sailor on 1878 as an
7
officer on a British ship. He ended up spending twenty years at sea. Conrad
interspersed long voyages with time spent resting on land. And In 1890, at
thirty one years of age, Joseph Conrad set off forAfrica, where he was to
command a riverboat on the Congo River, a waterway that flowed through the
very region the author had dreamed of exploring since he was a young boy.
This exploration in Congo became the influenced for him to create a great
story such as The Heart of Darkness.
Heart of Darkness tells us about the hipocricy of colonialism. It started
when the relationships between European nations and the other "not civilized"
countries changed since the last thirty years of the nineteenth century, in
Europe there was a very important development of the industrial capitalism.
Before then, the colonial expansion policy was a way to find new jobs for the
European people and especially to defend and control the colonies for the
resources they had, for example, they were the place of the raw material
extraction. Similar to the story by Conrad that began with the appearance of
two central figures, Marlow and Kurtz. Marlow and Kurtz both come to the
Congo and they take part in a violent and (somewhat) organized form of
exploitation and pillaging, working for a company that hauls ivory out of
Africa, exploiting the local population as a labor force and destroying the local
ecology.Claiming to educate the natives, to bring them religion and a better
way of life, European colonizers remained to starve, mutilate, and murder the
indigenous population for profit. As a short information, through his many
8
notable works, Conrad view colonialism as a huge crime that ever happen to
colonized country. In a certain journal from Al-Khaiat, he even categorized
Conrad as a writer of condemner colonialism. Through in his abstract he
stated,
Joseph Conrad’s attitudes to imperialism and races have been the object of an ever increasing flow ofwritings. It has been so hard to give him his due and to utter the final verdict concerning his real attitude as regards imperialism and races. His own fiction has provided evidence for both admirers and vilifiers (Khaiat, 2010).
From his statement, it proves that not only colonialism but also racial
perspective become the main subject from Conrad to depict character in his
work. One of consequences from colonialism itself is racial issues because
when west came to invade the colonized nation, the inhabitants will be differ
with the white race, because of that differ term, racial prejudice came to
appear.
Similar with Conrad, Forster also categorized as a one of author that
always concentrating colonialism as a main issues in his work. Srivastava in
his international journal state that,
Forster is considered as a humanist activist and an earlytwentieth century writer, Forster models the relationships between colonisers and colonised in terms of European exploitation versus non-European victimisation. He recreates the experience of the coloniser in a different setting and recalls the perceptions of imperial subjugation and its aftermaths (Srivastava, 2017).
9
Exploitation became the main priority for such an Europe came to the
nation which became colonized further. This exploitation has taken many
different types, it could exploit the inhabitants, and resources.
E. M. Forster was born on January 1, 1879, London. He died on June
7, 1970, at Coventry, Warwickshire. Forster’s father Edward Morgan
Llewellyn Forster, an architect, died when the son was a baby, and he was
brought up by his mother and paternal aunts. Both his parents died in his
childhood leaving him with a legacy of 8000 Pounds. This money helped him
in his livelihood and enabled him to follow his ambition of becoming a writer.
His schooling was done at Ton bridge School in Kent where the theater got
named after him. He attended Cambridge University where his intellect was
well groomed and he was exposed to the Mediterranean culture which was
much freer in comparison to the more unbending English way of life. After
graduating he started his career as a writer; his novels being about the
varying social circumstances of that time. He was a British novelist, essayist,
and social and literary critic. In 1953 he was awarded the Order of
Companions of Honor and in 1969 given Queen Elizabeth's Order of Merit
(Srivastava, 2017).
Forster’s novel through his novel, A Passage to India deals with human
relationships, relationship between west and east generally, but here the
British is not shown as tyrants, although they do fail to understand Indian
religion and culture. They are also convinced that the British Empire is a
10
civilizing force on the benighted "natives" of India, and they regard all Indians
as their inferiors, incapable of leadership. And yet, in their own way, the
English try to rule in a just way.Ronny, for example, in Forsters’s novel, is
completely sincere when he characterized as the City Magistrate and says
that the British "are out here to do justice and keep the peace" (chapter 5).
And there is no trace of satire in the passage that shortly follows this, which
describes Ronny's daily routine: "Every day he worked hard in the court trying
to decide which of two untrue account was the less untrue, trying to dispense
justice fearlessly, to protect the weak against the less weak, the incoherent
against the plausible, surrounded by lies and flattery." Ronny is also aware of
the hostility between Hindus and Moslems, and believes that a British
presence is necessary to prevent bloodshed.
From those reasons above, the researcherattempts to analyze it from
the view of genetic structuralism idea, and through colonialismconceptthe
researcher can find out the colonial life during colonial period in both
works.To make it more interesting the writer intends also using comparative
method by comparing both novels to reveal any kind of similarities and
differences in colonial lifeby knowing that as a historical context one differs
with the other, one is illustrated since 18th century in Africa and the other one
in 19th century from India.
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B. Research Questions
Based on the explanation above, here the researcher decided the
research questions as followed:
1. How is colonial life reflected by the charactersin Conrad’s Heart of
Darkness and Forster’s A Passage to India?
2. What are the similarities and differences of colonial life through the
performances of the characters in both works?
C. Objectives of the Research
Based on the research questions above, the objectives of this research
are as follows:
1. To elaborate the colonial life which reflected by the characters in
Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Forster’s A Passage to India.
2. To reveal the similarities and differences of colonial life which potrayed
through the performance of characters in both works.
D. Significance of Research
The significances of this research are divided into two categories,
theoretically and practically.The analysis of this research is fully expected to
provide significance for the readers in case of the information about how is
the existence of colonialism influenced in countries such as Africa and India
in colonial periodwhether in social and cultural aspect. In practical way, this
research goal is to offer some important insight to the readers about
12
thecolonial culture and ideas which brought by the British and its impact to
the society in their each colonizing country (Africa and India).
The analysis of this research is expected to provide some information
about colonialism in Africa and India. It certainly differs from period to periode
since the colonialism purpose does not only focuse about the way they can
exploit human physically, but they can also exploit them as a mentally.This
research also expected to encourage the reader to search more about
colonialism in literature and reveal more about the colonial culture’s impact to
the society of developing country in a contempt periodespecially in literary
works.
E. Scope of the Research
A limitation to the research is important in doing research to avoid the
excessive analysis on information and data that are not relevant to the main
topic of the research. In this research case, the limitation of the research is on
the colonialism and sociological perspective of the literary works which is
inspired by the colonizationby the west in both works and the similarities and
differences about colonial lifefrom what in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
andForster’s A Passage to Indiaexist.
F. Sequence of the Chapters
The content of the writing can be found in the sequence of chapters.
Therefore, the structure of the writing including the skeleton ideas that
13
explained in the writing. The sequence of the chapters in this writing is
divided into five chapters as follows:
Chapter I is introduction which consists of background, research
questions, objective of the research, significance of the research, scope of
the research and sequence of the chapters.
Chapter II is literature review which contains the subchapters, namely
previous related studies, theoretical background and the conceptual
framework.
Chapter III is research methodology. It consists of type of research, source
of data, method of collecting data, and research procedure.
Chapter IV presents the findings and discussion related to the subject
matter of the research. It contains the analysis of colonialism in Conrad’s
Heart of Darknessand Forster’s A Passage to India.
Chapter V includes the conclusion and suggestion, which contains sum up
of significant points of the previous chapters and it offers suggestions for
further research. The last are bibliography and appendices.
14
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This second chapter reveals the previous study that related to the
subject matter of this research, the theory used in this research and the
conceptual framework.
A. Previous Related Studies
A Passage to India and Heart of Darkness has been commented upon
by a host of critics from a number of perspectives and angles. One of them is
a thesis written by Nurprihatna (2012) from Hasanuddin University “Systems
of Representation in E. M. Forster’s Novel A Passage to India”. This thesis
uses sociological approach. She tried to investigate how eastern and western
cultures are portrayed in the characters point of views and identifying how the
character of the author’s point of view is represented in the novel. There are
three findings that she reveals, first most of main character in its novel such
as Dr Aziz, Hamidullah, and Professor Godbole are representing religious,
professional, and educational diversity, and different exposure to British
culture, with somehow the spirit of anti British ruling practices in India.
Second, western culture is depicted through the opinions and attitudes of
western characters such as Fielding, Mrs Moore, and Miss Adela. It
separated furtherly again into two terms: the one represents British such as
15
Fielding and Mrs Moore with the inclusiveness of ‘Britishness’ because of
their willingness to learn, understand, share, and respect indian people and
their culture. The other one who represents British culture in India such as
Rony Heaslop, Major Callender, Mr Turton with the exclusiveness of
‘Britishness’ that portray the opinions and attitudes of the empire. Lastly
Fielding’s figure is likely to represent the author’s E. M. Forster as a humanist
and liberalist because of his principles of equality and justice for mutual
benefits.
Berzenji (2013) under the research entitledThe Image of the Africans in
Heart of Darkness and Things Fall Apart.He examines two opposing images
of African culture presented in both novels: Conrad's Heart of Darkness and
Achebe's Things Fall Apart. Heart of Darkness depicts Africans as
marginalized, voiceless and primitive, which is considered by many critics as
an indictment of the hypocritical civilizing mission of the Europeans; whereas
Achebe's Things Fall Apart repudiates the cultural assumptions presented by
Conrad and delineates a totally different image of the African society in the
process of change, which is aware of its past history and strives to control its
future.
Karim (2010) had done a research entitledThe Roles of Mother in Pride
and Prejudice by Jane Austen and Little Women by Louisa May Alcott (A
Study of Comparative Literature). By using comparative and descriptive
qualitative method she tried to analyze and review four main researches, they
16
are mothers characteristics in both novels, mothers role in each novel, their
significant in managing their family life, and the last is the elements of
comparison especially about mothesr characteristics and mothers role in both
novel.
Loureiro(1992) in research entitled Subjective Reality in Joseph
Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. She examines subjectivity as an integral part of
perception and judgment. By using formalist approach she demonstrated that
personal and social values not only tain judgement partiality, but she also
highlights the petty discrimination founded on external differences which are
exemplified in Heart of Darkness and exercised in our society. The result of
this study is found to be an allusion so long as one is unaware of the biases
buried within cultural, social, and familial constructs. As it is stated above she
uses formalist approach while the researcher uses postcolonial study and
orientalism theory to examine the west construction of the east through
colonial discourse.
Guven (2013) had studied Post-Colonial Analysis of Joseph Conrad’s
Heart of Darkness. In his journal, he used post-colonial perspective by taking
European imperialism and colonialism over Africa into consideration in order
to clarify how Conrad has deconstructed binary oppositions of colonialism by
subverting the general idea of the Europeans towards Africa in the 19th
century.
17
Magfirah (2012) had conducted study entitled Imperialism in Central
Africa as Revealed in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. This research
aims to find out the imperialistic traits of the characters perform in their
respective position, and to reveal the impacts of imperialism on character’s
performance in Belgian Congo.
Jajja (2013) under the title A Passage to India : The Colonial Discourse
and the Representation of India and Indians as Stereotypes. The research
aimed to examine the operations of the colonialist ideology in A Passage to
India, to show that Forster meant to reinforce the colonialist ideology of
superiority, along with the representation of India and Indians as stereotypes
and marginalized people and culture in his novel. The study also wanted to
examine the link between imperialism and culture and the resultant mimicry
and hybridity among the Indians and the development of the identity of the
Indians. The study was based upon the analysis of the text of the novel in the
light of Postcolonial theories. The study found that A Passage to India like
any imperial discourse privileged the Europe and the European codes, and
ideologies while the Indians and their culture were presented as lesser and
inferior stereotypes.
Based on the previous research which has already mention above,
there are some simmilarities and differences between this current research
and those previous research; first,this research is different with another since
the researcher decided took two works to analyze and to compare the
18
colonial issues which reflected by the characters while some previous
research only focused on one literary work. Another difference is this
research analyzed colonialism while other previous research choosed to
analyzed imperialism as the main issues. In approach perspective also
different with another research, genetic structuralism perpective used by the
researcher to analyze the main issues of colonialism while the other research
used postcolonial perspective in analyzing European imperialism to African.
There is alsoused formalist approach to demonstrated personal and social values
not only tain judgement partiality in her object which made this previous one is
completely different with what the researcher aimed to analysis.
B. Theoretical Background
Theory is the main basic grip in every research or any scientific
writings in order to organize the scope of its research, either the role of the
research analysis. Every existing research should have a theory or even more
to support the analysis and furthermore to convince people most by changing
people’s common sense views which the research is worth studied.
1. Genetic Structuralism Approach
Genetic structuralism was emerged as a reaction from classic
structuralism that literary research only analyzes the intrinsic elements and
disregards other elements such as the author’s background and historical
background. These intrinsic structures are homologous to the mental
19
structure of the group of authors. Therefore, by understanding literary text
and disregarding author as the meaning will be incomplete the identity, and
values that have been used by the author.
Genetic structuralist analysis in the History of Literature is merely the
application to the particular general method that believing the only valid one
only in human science which is relate to all the sector human behavior
analyzing fundamental principles applied in human science in general and to
literary criticism in particular (Goldmann, 1975). From this point of view,
genetic structuralism is the scientific study of human facts, whether economic,
social, political, or cultural involves in some research to come up against a
whole series of problems.
Lucian Goldmann a Romanian theorist based in France rejected the
idea that text are creations of individual and argued that they are based upon
trans-individual mental structures belonging to particular groups or classes.
Despite of sustain his theory, Goldmann develop set of categories that
connect each other which are human fact, collective subject, and worldview.
20
a. Human Fact
Human fact or the fact of humanity is all of the result of activity or
human behavior, both of verbal or physical which seeks understood by
science (Faruk: 1994).
In concluding that, human fact can be some important issues that
researcher analyzes in both Conrad and Forster’s workHeart of Darkness
and A Passage to Indiabecause the story tells about the existence of
colonialism that shows about the influence of colonialism idea which
brought by the west and its impact toward the native of India and Africa in
the story.
b. Collective Subject
According to Goldmann (1975) text are not creation merely of an
individual consciousness but that literary works have their origins in a
trans-individual subject of cultural creation.
Collective subject a social group or class whose ideas and activities to
create a complete and united view of their social life in order to make the
ideas is more plural than just focus on the text. Goldmann specifies
collective subject as social class because these social class is the
collectivity that create a complete and coherent structure of society.
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c. World Views
Through worldview it is possible the literature is reflected the authentic
values which embrace life. Authentic values are values that implied in a
novel. Values that organize form completely. Goldmann believe there is
homology between literary structures with the society structure, because
both are product are the same structure activity. The relation between
society and literary structure cannot be understood as direct determinative
relation but trough by what he called worldview.
The worldview is a term suitable for the overall complex of ideas, aspirations, and feelings that connect together members of one social group to another. As a collective consciousness that worldview is evolving as a result of specific economic and social situation faced by collective subject who has it (Faruk, 1994).
So, worldview is a united ideas that develop in the collective subject
that has been created social reaction in certain community. This research
uses genetic structuralism to seek and understand about colonialism
existence and its influence toward the colonial life in both works by
Conrad and Forster.
2. Comparative Literature
Comparative study of literature basically enables us to understand the
literature of languages other than their own. Different personalities, different
eras and different movements can be taken up as the topics of the
comparative study. Comparative of literature implies a study of literature
22
which uses comparison as the main instrument. This could be seen in
whatZepetnek has stated in, “in principle, comparative literature” literature is a
method in the study of literature in at least two ways. First, comparative
literature means the knowledge of more than one national or language and
literature, and/or it means the knowledge and application of other disciplines
in and for the study of literature and second, comparative literature has an
ideology of inclusion to another, which it can be a marginal literature in its
several meanings of marginality, a genre, various text types,etc (1998).
Comparative study in literature has another definition, as it is states in
Damono, Comparative literatureis the study of literature beyond the
boundaries of a country as well as the relationship between literature and
other fields of knowledge and belief (2013:1). In another source by (Wellek &
Warren), in the “Theory of Literature” provided three senses when it comes to
the comparative literature, first, the study of oral literature, especially of folk
tale themes and their migration, yet the study of oral literature must be an
important concern of every literary scholar who wants to understand the
processes of literary development, the origin and the rise of our literary
genres and devices. Second is comparative literature confines it to the study
of relationships between two or more literatures, including its image, the
concept of particular author at a particular time, and travellers, the special
atmosphere, and the situation of literary into which the foreign author is
imported. And the third sense is identifying comparative literature with the
23
study of literature in its totality, with world literature with general or universal
literature (1956:46-48).
Etymologically, the term comparative literature denotes any literature
work or works when compared with any other literary work or works. As it is
stated by (Das, 2000: 2), the simple way to define comparative literature is to
say that it is a comparison between two literatures. Commonly it will analyses
the simmilarities and dissimilarities and paralles between two literatures.
Finding those various references about comparative method in
literature, mostly, comparative become the best method when one literary
work or works will be analysed in another literary work or works. Simmilarities
and dissimilarities put as the focus subject in comparative literature.
3. The Intrinsic and Extrinsic in Literature
Basically an approach is divided into two types, the intrinsic and
extrinsic approach. The intrinsic study was originally written by Rene Wellek
and Austin Warren in their book Theory of Literature. Rene Wellek introduced
intrinsic approach, which essentially is a study of literary work based on
analyzing the internal elements that build on literary work. According to
Wellek (1962: 332) the natural on sensible starting point for work in literary
scholarship is the interpretation and analysis of the works of literary
themselves. After all, only the works themselves justify all of interest in the life
of an author, in social environment, and the whole process of literature.
24
Wellek further explained by introducing elements from the foundation
of a literary work, plot, setting, theme, character, point of view, and style.
Even there are many elements in intrinsic approach, the researcher only
focus on the character since the researcher tries to identified the problems
through the performance by the character.
This character itself is one of the most important element since the
researcher have to analyzed literary work through the intrinsic approach. E.
M. Forster, in Aspect of the Novel (1972), introduced popular new terms for
an old distinction by discriminating between flat and round characters. A flat
character (also called a type, or “two dimensional”), Forster says, is built
around “a single idea or quality” and is presented without much individualizing
detail, and therefore can be fairly adequately described in a single phrase or
sentence. A round character is complex in temprament and motivation and is
represented with subtle particularity such a character therefore is as difficult
to describe with any adequasy as a person in real life and like real person, is
capable of surprising us (Abrams, 1999:33).
If intrinsic used to analyzed the elements inside the novel, extrinsic
used to analyzed the elements which is outside from the novel that indirectly
affect literature. The extrinsic elements take effect on the totality of a literary
work. Wellek and Warren (Waluyo, 2002:61) say that there are four
interrelated extrinsic factors in the literature: author’s biography,
psychological, sociological, and philosophical.
25
The researcher intends to use both elements since he wanted to
analysis the problem of issues through the character behaviors and by
involving the historical, and sociological fact outside the literary work.
4. Colonialism
The term colonialism is important in defining the specific form of
cultural exploitation that developed with the expansion of Europe over the last
400 years. Although many earlier civilizations had colonies, and although they
perceived their relations with them to be one of a central imperium in relation
to a periphery of provincial, marginal and barbarian cultures, a number of
crucial factors entered into the construction of the post renaissance practices
of imperialism.
Colonialism is the policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its
authority over other people or territories, generally with the aim of developing
or exploiting them to the benefit of the colonizing country.The European
colonial period was the era from the 15th century to the mid-20th century
when several European powers had established colonies in
the Americas, Africa, and Asia. At first, the countries followed a policy
of mercantilism, designed to strengthen the home economy at the expense of
rivals, so the colonies were usually allowed to trade only with the mother
country. By the mid-19th century, however, the powerful British Empire gave
26
up mercantilism and trade restrictions and introduced the principle of free
trade, with few restrictions or tariffs (Kohn, 2006).
Edward Said offers the following distinction: ‘“imperialism” means the
practice, the theory, and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan centre
ruling a distant territory; “colonialism”, which is almost always a consequence
of imperialism, is the implanting of settlements on distant territory’ (Aschroft,
2007:40).The meaning of the sentence about “imperialism is a consequence
of colonialism” is when every practice of colonialism arises, in which the
country only places their citizens in the colonized country, there is always the
intention to take full control of what the colonial country tries to posses, such
as controling of abundant raw materials for guarantees the industry to keep
working, controlling human resources to be recruited in order to participate in
increasing the number of workers in a factory. That practice is called
imperialism.
‘Colonialism’ in postcolonial studies is used primarily to describe the
European conquest, settlement and systematic administrative control (by
which we mean institutional structures of governance, legal apparatuses and
military dominance) over territories in Asia, Africa, South America, Canada
and Australia (Ireland and America were also England’s colonies). The term
has been associated primarily with European empires of the 19th century
although there have been empires for centuries before that of Europeans,
27
most created through the desire for wealth, resources and religious
expansion. The Roman, Assyrian, Babylonian, Ottoman, Chinese, Japanese
and Russian empires are a few of these (Burbank and Cooper 2010:31).
5. The Characteristics of Colonialism
In his book Colonialism and Postcolonialism Butt (2013)classified the
characteristics of colonialism into three parts, as follows:
a. Colonialism is typically described as a form of domination
Domination here involves the subjugation of one people by another,
Furtherly this domination here means the control by individuals or groups over
the territory and/or behavior of other individuals or groups. This domination
also has taken varied institutional forms, but in general has involved the
denial of selfdetermination, and the imposition of rule rooted in a separate
political jurisdiction.
1) Subjugation
Subjugation is the biased use of authority, law, or physical force
to prevent others from being free or equal. It can mean to keep
someone down in a social sense, such as an authoritarian government
might do in an oppressive society. It can also mean to mentally burden
someone, such as with the psychological weight of an oppressive idea
(Jaiswal, 2015:1).
2) Political Control
28
Political control related with colonialism is the policy and
practice of a strong powerextending its control territorially over a
weaker nation or people. The policy or practice of acquiring full or
partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers.
Colonialism arose out of the need for the strong European Powers to
have direct political control overanother country or territoryand it is
based on the concept of domination above (Oba & Ebo, 2011).
b. Colonialism is involved an attempt to impose the colonial
power’s culture and customs onto the colonized
This attempt of colonial power could be the result of a belief in the
racial and/or cultural superiority of the colonizing power; an evangelical desire
to spread particular religions or cultural practices; or as a mechanism for
establishing and consolidating political control.
1) Racial Prejudices
Racial prejudices is determination bythe division
andclassification of human beings through physical and biological
characteristics. Race often is used by various groups to either maintain
power or to stress solidarity. In the 18th and19th centuries, it was often
used as a pretext by European colonial powers (Baroroh, 2013:10).
2) Educated Natives
Colonialism and education are two main ways through which
European powers perpetuatedunderdevelopment in colonized country.
29
Though education predates colonialism, but the European nations
used theirstrong powers to introduce a system of education that were
so foreign, whose aim was to ensure thatnations were subjugated and
exploited. Education also one of cultural practices that brought by the
western to civilize native in order to get some “valuable” colonized
(Oba& Ebo, 2011:624).
c. Colonialism is deeply linked to the exploitation of colonized
peoples
This exploitation has taken many different forms, but it might mention,
among other policies, the exploitation of human and natural resources, the
exploitation toward the attitude of human being, the establishment of
exploitative trade relations, and the forcible introduction of capitalist forms of
production. As will be seen, the legacy of such practices is deeply contested.
1) The Exploitation of Human and Natural Resources
Human exploitation is the unethical, selfish use of human
beings for the satisfaction of personal desires and/or profitable
advantage. It also used to refer to when an individual is forced to
work against their own will, under threat of violence or other
punishment (Brace, 2004:24).Exploitation of natural environment or
resources is an essential state of human existence, throughout the
history of mankind; human have been manipulating natural
resources to produce various materials they needed to sustain
30
growing human populations. This likely to refer primarily for
economic development and food production but many other entities
from the natural environment have been extracted (Cronin,
2009:12).
2) The Exploitation of Human Being Attitude
Eventhough physical violence, and exploit of natural
resources are included one of exploitation indicators, the way west
perceive those natives as a human being is also one we should
consider as a exploitation from the western. In Yousafzai journal
(2011) stated attitude means a way of thinking, acting, or feeling, a
behavior which a community has towards others. Furtherly he
wrote, attitude is a reflection of what people feel about the people
of other communities. The role of the community here is very
important in changing the attitude of individuals. However, in
natives case, the west exploit them in negative attitude. negative
attitude always create problems andtension.
These three characteristics of colonialism seems like to show the
power of the west is bigger than the “others” out there. It tries to give an any
kind of influence to the east so the mission of dominating, imposing colonial
powers, and exploiting the east will be accomplished.
6. The History of Belgian Colony in Congo
31
The origins of Belgian colonialism in central Africa were rather peculiar.
Although the leading economic and political forces of his country were
opposed to any colonial ‘adventure’, Leopold II, the king of the Belgians
(1835-1909), relentlessly tried to get control of some overseas region which
would enable him to develop a lucrative commercial business. This would not
only enrich the king himself, but also, so he said, Belgium itself
(Vanthemsche, 2006). Looking at the background of why Belgium was
colonizing the central Africa because of many other european countries did,
such as economic, and politic business.
Under the reign of Leopold II, Congo is one the exploitation purpose
which was done by the Belgium empire. It assumed that he controlled over
the Congo, and exploited its resources and its inhabitants for material gain.
Leopold instituted a virtual slave labor system that used the Congolese as
tools to extract wild rubber, ivory, and other natural resources from the Congo
for the benefit of private enterprises owned or controlled by Leopold. He
exploited the vulnerability of the Africans, in an effort to amass enormous
wealth and fortune.
At the Berlin Conference in 1885, King Leopold was granted to the
exclusive right to privately exploit the Congo. Once in the Congo, Leopold
devised an economic system in which the Congo was sectioned into different
areas leased to different European corporations that paid Leopold 50 percent
of the extracted wealth. In setting up this structure, Leopold was like the
32
manager of a venture capital syndicate today. He had essentially found a
way to attract other people’s capital to his investment schemes while he
retained half the proceeds (Hochschild, 1998: 117).
The king of Leopold took the central figure in colonizing congo society,
because of his special treatment from the berlin conference, he can
capitalized and exploit any kind of source to gain his power under his reign.
7. The British “Raj” or Rule in India
India was accustomed to invaders by the time the English arrived in
the seventeenth century. Beginning with the great Indo Aryan invasion (2400-
1500 B.C.), the natives of the Indian subcontinent had seen parts of their land
overrun by conquering armies of Huns, Arabs, Persians, Tartars, and Greeks.
Buddhists, Hindus, and Moslems had ruled over parts of the vast country.
None had succeeded in ruling all of India none until Great Britain came onto
the scene. The English arrived at an opportune time, during the disintegration
of the Mogul Empire, which had controlled most of India from 1526 until the
death of Aurangzeb in 1707. As the empire dissolved, wars for power
between Marathas, Persians, and Sikhs began. The English took advantage
of these conflicts (Ostrander, 1967:7).
The English did not come as invaders or conquerors; they came as
traders. In one of international journal from (Singh, 2016:1) clearly stated in
his introduction that British came to India in 17th century as a trading
company and set up their first factory on the banks of Hughli river in Bangal.
33
The primary functioned of this trading company was to earn huge profit by
selling Indian products in British market as these products like spices, cotton,
and silk. Afterall since they came only as a trader, but looking at the great
potential to take over anything, the British then tried to not act as an trader
only, but more than that.
When the British East India Company was formed in 1600, its agents
were in competition with the French and Portuguese traders who had
preceded them. Whereas the other European traders kept aloof from Indian
affairs, the English became involved in them. Trade was their most important
consideration, but fortifications and garrisons were necessary to insure
security. Warring princes were very interested in obtaining European arms
and military skills for their own purposes and willingly paid for them with cash,
credit, or grants of land. Of course the arrival of British to this colony was not
without a rebellion from the Indian, there was a rebellion which attempted by
the Mogul empire against the British existence in India. This rebellion showed
a desire on the part of Indians to win back control of their own country. The
rebellion, which lacked organization, support, and leadership, left widespread
bitterness. In 1858 the British government took over rule of India, with power
in the hands of the British Parliament. Great Britain indirectly controlled
various territories, known as “Indian States,” where the rulers were rewarded
for support during the rebellion: titles were conferred, autonomy was granted,
and protection against possible revolts was assured.
34
From 1858 to 1914 England firmly established its rule over the country.
English governors at the head of each province were responsible to the
governorgeneral (or viceroy) who was appointed by the King of England and
responsible to Parliament. In 1877 Queen Victoria was declared Empress of
India. From this role of British governor, they took over control to the whole of
the areas which means not physically anymore but through the way more
modern than that.
8. British Impact on Society and Culture in India
Singh (2016) tried to formulate three impacts which is brought by
the western ideas in following areas:
a) Condition of India Women
In India, women were discriminated at all stages of life. Practices of
female infanticide, child marriage, polygamietc prevailed in Indian society.
The new British ideas resulted in to several reforms movement in different
parts of the country for the improvement of conditions of Indian women,
b) Education
The British took a keen interest in introducing the English language in
India. They had many reasons for doing so. Educating Indians in the English
language was a part of their strategy. The Indians would be ready to work as
clerks on low wages while for the same work the British would demand much
higher wages. This would reduce the expenditure on administration. It was
also expected to create a class of Indians who were loyal to the British and
35
were not able to relate to other Indians. This class of Indians would be taught
to appreciate the culture and opinion of the British. In addition, they would
also help to increase the market for British goods. They wanted to use
education as a means to strengthen their political authority in the country.
They assumed that a few educated Indians would spread English culture to
the masses and that they would be able to rule through this class of educated
Indians. The British gave jobs to only those Indians who knew English
thereby compelling many Indians to go in for English education. Education
soon became a monopoly of the rich and the city dwellers.
c) Reform movement
British idea of freedom, equality, liberty and human rights along with
western education resulted in to massive social religious, reform movements
and had great impact on the society.Indians were discriminated on grounds of
color. An attitude of contempt towards Indians was developed by the
AngloIndian bureaucracy. They looked upon the India as half Negroes and
half guarillas who could effectively work under force only. The white
Europeans always considered the Indians as people of an inferior race.
It can be concluded that the British rule proved as exploiter from the
very beginning. Altough, the British rule improve the new condition of the
women at the time, introduced a formal education to the Indians, but it ruined
the basic structure of India.
36
C. Conceptual Framework
Heart of Darkness andA
Passage to India
37
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Colonialism in A Passage
to India
Simmilarities and Differences of
Colonial life in Both Works
Colonialism inHeart of
Darkness
Colonialism
Perspective
Domination Exploitation Imposing Colonial
Culture
Genetic Structuralism
38
This chapter presents type of research, source of data, method of
collecting data, and research procedure.
A. Type of Research
This study is categorized as a descriptive qualitative research and for
the analysis of this work; the researcher usedColonialism andGenetic
Structuralism perspective. This study focusedon analyzing colonial life in
Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Forster’s A Passage to India and through the
related literary history, analyzing how the colonialism impact the colonial life
which influenced by the west to the east through the characters in both
Conrad’s and Forster’s, Heart of Darkness and A Passage to india.
B. Source of Data
The data were classified into two types. They were primary data and
secondary data. Those were explained further below:
1. Primary Data : Primary data were the important data of a research or the
data that were directly related to the object of research.The primary data
were taken from the Short story and Novel (Heart of Darkness and A
Passage to India).
2. Supporting Data : Supporting data included all sources which supported
the main data. The supporting data were taken from other sources, such
as books, article, encyclopedias, internet, and other sources related to
this writing as well as from library research.
39
C. Method of Collecting Data
This research is used a library research to obtain the data, and to make
this research much better, the researcher read intensively the works from
Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and Forster’s A Passage to India and
investigated the narration (sentence/s or dialogue/s) of the characters in the
story. The investigation that the researcher meant is gathering some
narrations (sentence/s or dialogue/s) of the characters which indicated the
potrait of colonialism perspective.
The narrations (sentence/s or dialogue/s) in the works that had been
gather, it was correlated and grouped into the explanation about colonialism
perspective based on the understanding in chapter II. The researcher also
conducted some library research to find some useful resources that were
related to this issue.
After gathered, correlated and grouped the narrations (sentence/s or
dialogue/s), the researcher determined the colonialism during colonial life that
the characters reflectedd in the story. The colonialism perspective was
determined after seeing the characters portrayed colonialism issues in the
story.
D. Method of Analyzing Data
40
In method of analyzing data, the researcher library research to obtain
the data that supported the researcher. The researcher used genetic
structuralism idea who stated by Goldmann and colonialism perspective as
the theory to conduct the researcher to analyze text, especially the narration
of the characters of the story, and used the comparative method to reveal the
simmilarities and disssimilarities about colonialism perspective in both works.
The analysis of data tended to be mainly focus on what the character’s
narration, conversation between another character.
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
41
This chapter deals with the presentation of the finding and discussion
upon the data found after identifying the source of data.
A. FINDINGS
In this part the researcher began to present the data that have been
found in the novel Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad and A Passage to
India by E.M Forster. The analysis firstly focuses on the colonial life which
inspired the situation of the event in which the characters get involved.
Secondly, the analysis concentrates on what the simmilarities and differences
exist in colonial life which inspired the situation of the event in which the
characters get involved in both novels.
1. Colonial life reflected by the characters in Conrad’s Heart of
Darkness.
The story of Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad mostly tells us about
the western took over the African Congo during 19th century. Through
dominating and exploiting their human and natural resources, slave trading
system, and cruel treatment to the natives of congo, all of those things has
portrayed most in the content of the novel. In the beginning of the story, the
voyage trough the congo river, Marlow in his quote stated that
Hunters for gold of pursuers of fame, they all had gone out on that stream, bearing the sword, and often the torch, messengers of the might within the land, bearers of a spark from the sacred fire. What greatness had not floated on the ebb of that river into the mystery of an uknown earth! (Conrad, 1999:4).
42
In the quotation above, it clearly shows that the colonizt are described
as typical of some people who did the colonial adventurous for the sake of
civilization. This is one of the purpose of colonizers that wanted to civillize the
“dark” country through their civilization idea. The domination became the first
priority for them to conquers anything in that land.
I was thinking of very old times, when the Romans first came here, nineteen hundread years ago, the other ... Light came out of this river (Conrad, 1999:5).
The point idea of colonialism basically from the uncivilized to the
civilized but it only affected to te east country that west assumes it is not
civilized yet. Based on Marlow story, he remembered when Roman came first
in Congo and lightened up all of the entire place. What we can understand
about “light” here means this idea of civilization has been applied to the native
of Congo but still in dominating mission.
They were conquerors, and for that you want only brute forcenothing to boast of, when you have it, since your strength is just an accident arising from the weakness of others. They grabbed what they could get for the sake of what was to be got. It was just robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a great scale, and men going at it blindas is very proper for those who tackle a darkness(Conrad, 1999:6).
In the quotation, Marlow sees how messed up colonization really is,
and he knows that the colonizing countries care only about efficiency and
profit. This is exactly same the reason why most of these colony created
only because of the desire for wealth, and resources. The explorers aren't
heroes they're robbers and murderers who just wanted to bring home profit.
43
I got my appointment of course; and I got it very quick. It appears the Company had received news that one of their captains had been killed in a scuffle with the natives. This was my chance, and it made me the more anxious to go. It was only months and months afterwards, when I made the attempt to recover what was left of the body, that I heard the original quarrel arose from a misunderstanding about some hens. Yes, two black hens. Fresleventhat was the fellow's name, a Danethought himself wronged somehow in the bargain so he went ashore and started to hammer the chief of the village with a stick (Conrad, 1999:9).
Marlow heard some news from the surface about the violence and
brutality who has done toward to the natives. Violence and brutality is a
general thing that we can found in the colonial period in Africa. It is not only
general in colonial period, this is also happen generally in slavery system
which is one of the part of colonialism itself.
We pounded along, stopped landed soldiers; went on, landed customhouse clerks to levy toll in what looked like a God forsaken wilderness, with a tinshed and flag pole lost in it; landed more soldiers to take care of the custom house clerks, presumably (Conrad, 1999:14).
Ruling the natural and human resources, the colony must need some
soldiers to take care all of those things. In the quotation above, Marlow
explains the daily activity about the soldiers who came to accomplish their
civilization mission.
It was paddled by black fellows. You could see from afar the white of their eyeballs glistening. They shouted, sang; their bodies streamed with perspiration; they had faces like grotesque masks these chaps; but they had bone, muscle, a wild vitality, an intense energy of movement, that was as natural and true as the surf along their coast (Conrad, 1999:14).
44
According to the above quotations, it emphasized about the physical
state of black people who are rowing the boat. Where, he has a bone,
muscle, wild and strong energy of vitality. The other information about
colonialism thought from this quotation is slavery act has done by those black
fellow. This is one of traits based on King Leopold II came to this place, to
exploit the natural and human resources.
A Lot of people, mostly black and naked, moved about like ants (Conrad, 1999:16).
Western presented the Africa always as a dark place or dark continent.
This is because of the civilization idea which brought by the west is not
reach the entire place of that dark continent yet, they also assumes those
people as black not only because of their skin but also their mind is not
civilized yet, in the description above, Marlow stated that the black moved
like ants and most of them are naked. This is one of the kind of western
treatment to the all people there.
They were building a railway. The cliff was not in the way or anything; but this objectless blasting was all the work going on (Conrad, 1999:17).
Previous quotation describes about how the black people moved like
ant and most of them are naked. The cruel tretament by the west is keep
continue to the black natives such as they have to build kind of a facility like
railway to prove the idea of civilization has been accomplished to the natives.
Six black men advanced in a file, toiling up the path. They walked erect and slow, balancing small baskets full of earth on their heads, and the
45
clink kept time with their footsteps. Black rags were wound round their loins, and the short ends behind waggled to and fro like tails. I could see every rib, the joints of their lambs were like knots in a rope; each had an iron collar on his neck, and all were connected together with a chain whose bights swung between them, rhythmically clinking. They were called criminals, and the outraged law, like the bursting shells, had come to them, an insoluble mystery from the sea (Conrad, 1999:17).
In Vanthemsche’s journal aboutthe history of colonialism in Congo, the
colonialist allow to take over control any kind of human and natural resources
in the land that they have newly found (2006). The cruel treatment toward the
natives is the fact that the colonialist really did the control over everyting to
the land. And the black people were oppressed in the circumstances in such
a way. How those blacks drained her energy and treated ruthlessly. Plus they
were wearing something that makes them totally like a slave such as iron
chain that always clinking everytime they moved in a certain places.
I've seen the devil of violence, and the devil of greed, and the devil of hot desire (Conrad, 1999:18). Violence, greed, devil, and hot desires, those terms are used by
Marlow to describe the cruelty act from colonialism which affected in the dark
continent. Since those colonialist has their legal policy, so they can act
whatever they want to the land, with the mission of civilization, they could
grab everything from the natural resources. The histroy told us that originally
King of Leopold II made his journey to the colony land with his army that will
take everything on the land, they have already a good preparation such as
46
they granted from the Berlin Conference in 1885 which allowedhimhaving the
exclusive right to privately exploit the Congo.
Black shapes crouched, lay, sat between the trees, leaning against the trunks, clinging to the earth, half coming out, half effaced within the dim light, in all the attitudes of pain, abandonment, and despair (Conrad, 1999:18). Marlow adressed the black natives as the black couch that after
receiving cruelty from the colonist, they just left by the pain, abandonment,
and despair.
Marlow became the real and one to be judge this cruel treatment
towards the native since he has already travel to this entire place and river in
the Congo. He told this story when doing his voyage in the river.
They were dying slowly it was very clear. They were not enemies, they were not criminals, they were nothing earthly now, nothing but black shadows of disease and starvation, lying confusedly in the greenish gloom. Brought from all the recesses of the coast in all the legality of time contracts, lost in uncongenial surroundings, fed on unfamiliar food, they sickened, became inefficient, and were then allowed to crawl away and rest (Conrad, 1999:18-19). Exploitation of human resources is clearly perform in the quotation
above. Slavery is a common way occured in most of the entire story in this
novel from Conrad. Colonialism gives a big impact to the natives so much,
cruelty, dying, disesase, and starvation. These impact gives by the colonist
who has a mission to civilized the dark country in order they can have a same
standard with what the west have in that period. But the idea of civilization is
47
the only reason for them to allow colonization in unknown place such as
Africa (Congo).
Near the same tree two more bundles of acute angles sat with their legs drawn up. One, with his chin propped on his knees, stared at nothing, in an intolerable and appalling manner: his brother phantom rested its forehead, as if overcome with a great weariness; and all about others were scattered in every pose of contorted collapse, as in some picture of a massacre or a pestilence. While I stood horror struck, one of these creatures rose to his hands and knees, and went off on all-fours towards the river to drink. He lapped out of his hand, then sat up in the sunlight, crossing his shins in front of him, and after a time let his woolly head fall on his breastbone (Conrad, 1999:19).
Here the quotation illustrates the true consequences of colonialism,
mistreated and overworked slaves who are left to die on their own. The slaves
are given no food, care, or medicine, and are left to die outdoors. Even
Marlow calls them "bundles," "creatures," and phantoms" They are treated so
inhumanely that Marlow cannot even see them as fully human. In previous
chapter, slavery is one of the consequences from colonialism itself, what
Marlow saw here is the slavery system which has done by the colonist to
bring the mission of civilization to the dark continent.
Everything else in the station was in a muddle, heads, things, buildings. Strings of dusty niggers with splay feet arrived and departed; a stream of manufactured goods, rubbishy cottons, beads, and brass-wire set into the depths of darkness, and in return came a precious trickle of ivory (Conrad, 1999:20). Even the slavery system have varied issues of working, but In the
slavery case of Congo, they have to built some facilities such as station and
railways. The quotation above shows us the situation and the condition of the
48
slavery which is very heartbreaking. Black or the west calls them as a nigger
came and return to the station all the time by bringing some ivory. Ivory based
on congo colonialism history is the main raw material which is King of Leopold
II became the reason why they have to colonized the land of Congo.
And then I saw this station, these men strolling aimlessly about in the sunshine of the yard. I asked myself sometimes what it all meant. They wandered here and there with their absurd long staves in their hands, like a lot of faithless pilgrims bewitched inside a rotten fence. The word `ivory' rang in the air, was whispered, was sighed. You would think they were praying to it (Conrad, 1999:26).
Still in the station, all the slaves seems hopeless walking around under
the sunshine of the yard. Marlow seems shock how could this happen to
them, how caould this happen to this human, but unfortunalely Marlow is one
of them which is giving the natives a cruel treatment. Marlow saw they are like
a pilgrims who brings the ivory as a stick. This quotation above stated that
they were like praying to the ivory because ivory at the time was one of the
main natural resource that became priority for the colonizt colonized the
Native of African Congo.
A Nigger was being beaten near by (Conrad, 1999:26).
That little quotation explained that nigger is really colonized by the
colonizt. In colonialism types, there are several kinds of way how the colonizt
treated the colonized, one of them are tortured them by no chance. In Heart
of Darkness there are so many cruel treatment which has done by the
49
colonizt and that really explain to us the practic of colonialism is totally chaos
and brutal.
It was as unreal as everything else as the philanthropic pretense of the whole concern, as their talk, as their government, as their show of work. The only real feeling was a desire to get appointed to a trading post where ivory was to be had, so that they could earn percentages (Conrad, 1999:27). One of the traits of colonialism is deeply linked to the exploitation, and
one kind of exploitation is the slave trade. The history also stated that slave
trade is happening in the Congo since the colony of west came, and ivory is
the main natural resources that west tried to exploit from the Land of Congo.
They can exploit the natural resources because the policy allowed the to do
that.
Black figures strolled about listlessly, pouring water on the glow, whence proceeded a sound of hissing; steam ascended in the moonlight, the beaten nigger groaned somewhere. ‘What a row the brute makes!’ said the indefatigable man with the moustaches, appearing near us. ‘Serve him right. Transgression punishment bang! Pitiless, pitiless. That’s the only way. This will prevent all conflagrations for the future (Conrad, 1999:29).
Through the quotation above, Marlow feels pity for the natives unlike
other the majority of colonizers. In the novel, the African “others” are
presented as the dark side of Europe. Their situation is shown as the
consequence of historical distance. This explanation may seem to strengthen
the concept of the Europeans “as civilized, enlightened, at a more advanced
state of intelligence and ability than the African. Marlow even heard of one of
50
that nigger said pitifully about his own condition because of this cruelty
tretament.
This devoted band called itself the Eldorado Exploring Expedition, and I believe they were sworn to secrecy.Their talk, however, was the talk of sordid buccaneers: it ywas reckless without hardihood, greedy without audacity, and cruel without courage; there was not an atom of foresight or of serious intention in the whole batch of them, and they did not seem aware these things are wanted for the work of the world. To tear treasure out of the bowels of the land was their desire, with no more moral purpose at the back of it than there is in burglars breaking into a safe. Who paid the expense of the noble enterprise I don‘t know; but the uncle of our manager was leader of that lot (Conrad, 1999:35). From the quote above it can be seen that the black people were
oppressed in the circumstances in such a way. Here Marlow explained there
are one of explorer also exist in the Congo river, they are devoted band called
the Eldorado Explorer. Based on Marlow’s story this devoted band grabbed
all the treasure of the native. This is probably the cause of the west policy so
they can grabb everything from the land. One characteristics of domination is
you can subjugated to another people, and this is what Eldorado explorer
tried to do, they subjugated people of the native by grabbing their treasure.
Now I had suddenly a nearer view, and its first result was to make me throw my head back as if before a blow. Then I went carefully from post to post with my glass, and I saw my mistake. These round knobs were not ornamental but symbolic (Conrad, 1999:40) One of improvement that should done by the colonist is civilizing the
natives by various cruel treatment such as violence, exploitation and so on.
Slavery system is one of those treatment that should applied to the natives
and to watch slaves activity, the colonist built some post to tell the slavery
51
system is going well. They can communicate one from another by this kind of
post slavery trading. Later on, Marlow through his confusion, he finds out that
they are human skulls. Kurtz uses these skulls to threaten the others and this
shows his brutality against the natives.
He was an improved specimen; he could fire up a vertical boiler. He was there below me, and, upon my word, to look at him was as edifying as seeing a dog in a parody of breeches and a feather hat, walking on his hind legs (Conrad, 1999:42). Civilization is not only the main idea of Colonization. West always
keeping in their mind about they are more superior than the east which is
inferior. Here, Marlow without any hesitation said that the black is another
specimen than him. He even described the black as a kind of dog which is
having a hind leg.
Not a very enthralling book; but at the first glance you could see there a singleness of intention, an honest concern for the right way of going to work, which made these humble pages, thought out so many years ago, luminous with another than a professional light. The simple old sailor, with his talk of chains and purchases, made me forget the jungle and the pilgrims in a delicious sensation of having come upon something unmistakablyreal (Conrad, 1999:44).
In this passage, even the natives’ views and pains are represented in a
European book. By reading this book Marlow says, this implies that the
Europeans dominate the natives’ lands and the book stands for European
discourse. Brannigan indicates that “Africa is merely the fictional projection of
a European fantasy in which Europe is the only truth. The natives are seen as
52
inferior when compared to the Europeans and there cannot be any other truth
for them.
Their headman, a young, broad chestlike black, severely draped in Dark blue fringed cloths, with fierce nostrils and his hair all done up artfully in oily ringlets, stood near me. ‘Aha!’ I said, just for good fellowship’s sake. ‘Catch ‘im,’ he snapped, with a bloodshot widening of his eyes and a flash of sharp teeth ’catch ‘im. Give ‘im to us.’ ‘To you, eh?’ I asked; ‘what would you do with them?’ ‘Eat ‘im!’ he said curtly, and, leaning his elbow on the rail, looked out into the fog in a dignified and profoundly pensive attitude. I would no doubt have been properly horrified, had it not occurred to me that he and his chaps must be very hungry (Conrad, 1999:47). The mindset of colonial idea is fullly thought about savages do many
things unproperly to describe them as a savages. In the quotation above,
there is no any concrete evidence of cannibalism throughout the novel, but
The Europeans deliberately regard the natives as cannibals so as to justify
their colonialism. It only justified European rule of Africa by demonstrating the
superiority of Europeans to their primitive African counterparts. In other
words, cannibalism is produced as the proof of the savagery of the natives by
the Europeans.
He began with the argument that we whites, from the point of development we had arrived at, must necessarily appear to them savages in the nature of supernatural beings we approach them with the might as of a deity, and so on, and so on (Conrad, 1999:52).
In this passage, it describes Kurtz’s idea of what natives saw in the
Europeans. This is also one example about dominating idea by colonist which
assumes that how Europeans are superior to the Africans and should help
them to develop by civilizing them but through the cruelty and violence. In this
53
passage also Kurtz honestly believes, or used to believe, in the goodness of
colonialism. He believed that the white man could bring goodness and
enlightenment to the black Africans. But to Kurtz, this is only possible if the
white man plays the part of a god. Kurtz envisions a utopia not of equality
between the two races, but of a peaceful and benevolent reign of the white
man over the blacka kind of master slave relationship. But Kurtz seriously
underestimates what that means.
In front of the first rank, along the river, three men, plastered with bright red earth from head to foot, strutted to and fro restlessly. When we came abreast again, they faced the river, stamped their feet, nodded their horned heads, swayed their scarlet bodies; they shook towards the fierce river demon a bunch of black feathers, a mangy skin with a pendent tail something that looked like a dried gourd; they shouted periodically together strings of amazing words that resembled no sounds of human language; and the deep murmurs of the crowd, interrupted suddenly, were like the response of some satanic litany (Conrad, 1999:79). Here, White men view the native Africans as "savages" in their paint
and armed with their strange weapons. Their language is so alien that it
sounds like a "satanic litany." Which, unless it says "here's to my sweet
Satan" when played backwards, sounds like a stretch to us. Colonialism ideas
stressed that white men always superior than the black men.
This is the reason why I affirm that Kurtz was a remarkable man. He had something to say. He said it. Since I had peeped over the edge myself, I understand better the meaning of his stare, that could not see the flame of the candle, but was wide enough to embrace the whole universe, piercing enough to penetrate all the hearts that beat in the darkness (Conrad, 1999:82).
54
In the quotation above, it tries to reveal the violence and brutality
through Kurtz who is the chief of Inner Station. Interestingly, Kurtz has a lot of
abilities from art to music although he is a cruel man. Kurtz also as a
European thinks that he has the right to control all the natives and Marlow is
critical about his meaningless authority over black people, since he does not
approve of European violence brought about by European colonialism. What
Kurtz perform here is the one of characteristic about colonist that always think
that they are more superior so they allow to do anything to the inferior one.
I had a vision of him on the stretcher, opening his mouth voraciously, as if to devour all the earth with all its mankind. He lived then before me; he lived as much as he had ever lived a shadow insatiable of splendid appearances, of frightful realities; a shadow darker than the shadow of the night, and draped nobly in the folds of a gorgeous eloquence (Conrad, 1999:86). In this quotation above, Marlow clearly describes Kurtz’s mistreatments
and greediness via his physical appearance. Additionally, Kurtz sees himself
responsible for education of the natives besides exploiting them and says that
“Each station should be like a beacon on the road towards better things, a
center for trade of course, but also for humanizing, improving, instructing”.
However, Kurtz tortures them rather than educating and it shows this reversal
in his novel.
55
2. Colonial life reflected by the characters in Forster’s A Passage to
India.
Another works that the author indicates the colonial life has potrayed is
from E.M. Forster (A Passage to India). Several of E.M. Forster’s novels take
as their subject ‘The British Abroad’, presenting characters who struggle to
experience a culture outside the confines of British social norms. A Passage
to India, however, takes this concept yet further, as Forster describes not only
members of the British Raj in India, but members of Indian society under
colonial rule. In his quote, Aziz said,
I do not think so. They all become exactly the same, not worse, not better. I give any Englishman two years, be he Turton or Burton. It is only the difference of a letter. And i gave any Englishwoman six months. All are exactly alike. Do you not agree with me? (Forster, 1978:8).
Aziz as the part of Indian native obviously has his own experience
since British came for the first time in India until now. From this quotation,
Aziz explains to his friend that, even firstly the English came quietly good, but
it does not even take a long time untill you see the true of English manner.
Aziz think that all English exactly the same and alike, first they just pretend to
be a good people toward the native of India, but then for Englishman after two
years and Englishwoman after six months they are all becoming purely bad.
The history of India under the colony explained that British came for the first
time not as a invader, but only as a trader. Trader means they just want to
56
promote their goods to the Indians, but after that they saw a great potential of
human and natural resources and finally they exploit it.
The roads, named after victorious generals and intersecting at the right angles, were symbolic of the net Great Britain had thrown over India. He felt caught in their meshes (Forster, 1978:17). Aziz feels isolated since the arrival of British to his land. Here we can
see the domination from the British empire over dominate the entire place of
India. Because of this Aziz like trapped in his own land due to several
principal that made natives like him feel restricted. Here also the rigid angles
marked out by the colonial roads stand in for the lines that the English draw to
organize and manage their colony. Aziz feels the effects of the British Empire
at a deep, feeling personally trapped by colonial life.
Indians are not allowed into the Chandrapore Club even as a guest, (Forster, 1978:28).
Many of reform movement has made by the British became so harsh
for the native of India, discrimination by the English to the Native could not
avoid it. Because of that reform also, British made a certain club which is only
for the English allowed to join it. Since it only special for the English, Indian
certainly did not allowed to join it. In another content of reform movement,
They looked upon the Indians as half Negroes and half guarillas who could
effectively work under force only. The white Europeans always considered the
Indians as people of an inferior race.
“Wanting to see Indians! How new that sounds!’ Another, “Natives! Why fancy!” A third, more serious, said, “Let me explain. Natives don’t
57
respect one, you see.” “That occurs after so many meetings.” But the lady, entirely stupid and friendly (Forster, 1978:33-34).
The arrogancy based on the thinking from the British that he or she is
more superior than the natives showed in this quote. Mrs Callender who is
one of the Englishwoman in the novel described the natives is not respecting
each other, and she knows that after many meetings to the natives. What has
been described by Mrs Callender is a characteristics from any Anglo indian
toward the natives, they always think that they are more superior and India is
inferior to them. The condition of Indian woman based in the History of British
Raj in India, they were discriminated at all stages of life.
“Why, the kindest thing one can do to a native is to let him die” (Forster, 1978:34). She continues her bad statement about native in the quotation above.
She said that the kindest thing one can do to a native is to let him die. Mrs
Callender is really showing herself as a typical of an arrogant Englishwoman
that she think she is more superior than the native. This is one of the impact
from the reform movement that allowed all the native get discriminated by the
Englishman or woman.
“He can go where he likes as long as he doesn’t come near me. They give me the creeps” (Forster, 1978:34).
When Mrs Moore asked her about if we let him die and goes to the
heaven what are we gonna do?, Mrs Callender confidently says that she
doesn’t care where they are going as long as they never come near to her.
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Mrs Callender seems like one of Englishwoman character that exist in the
novel as extremely superior to the native of Indian.
“I only want those Indians whom you come across socially as your friends. “well, we don’t come across them socially, “he said, laughing. “they’re full of all the virtues, but we don’t, and it’s now eleven thirty, and too late to go into the reason (Forster, 1978:35).
This conversation between Rony and Miss Quested indicates that
socially, Englishman and woman are not equal with the Native. This is one of
superiotity traits what has been showed by Rony to Miss Quested.
Historically, all of the western include British empire has an permanent idea
that they are more superior than any other country except west itself. So
people who do not have a western blood or do not have a white skin like
western, they are all included as a inferior. The last sentence in reform
movement paragraph in previous chapter stated that “The white Europeans
always considered the Indians as people of an inferior race”.
“The educated Indians will be no good to us if there’s a row, it’s simply not worth while conciliating them, that’s why they don’t matter. Most of the people you see are seditious at heart, and the rest ‘id run squealing” (Forster, 1978:54).
In the quotation above, it shows that even the educated native is
typically bad to them. English introduced the modern education to the natives
in order they can stand equally but in fact, it is only a discourse they created,
they never think the native will be equally same with the British men or
women, they will always looking down the natives, even the educated one.
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“We're out here to do justice and keep the peace. Them's my sentiments.India isn't a drawing-room." "Your sentiments are those of a god," Mrs. Moore said quietly, but it was his manner rather than his sentiments that annoyed her. Trying to recover his temper,Ronny said, "India likes gods." "And Englishmen like posing as gods" (Forster, 1978:71).
From this quote, Ronny As the Civil Magistrate represents the British
idea of colonial justice. Justice is not an abstract ideal, but a way of keeping
the peac of controlling the natives. This inevitably entails the feeling that the
British are far superior to the Indians. Ronny's comment that "India likes
gods" is a reference to the many religions of India: he is suggesting that in
this mess of religious diversity, the British can bring order. This is also one of
the attempt by the colony to impose their culture to the natives. Something
that the native can trust and assuming those English like their god.
“What do you and Adela want me to do? Go against my class, against all the people i respect and admire out here? Lose such power as i have for doing good in this coutry because my behaviour isn’t pleasant? You neither of you understand what work is, or you i’d never talk such eyewash. I hate talking like this, but one must occasionally. We’re not pleasant in India, and we don’t intend to be pleasant. We’ve something more important to do” (Forster, 1978:72).
Since the arrival of Mrs Moore and Miss Quested in India, they were
both looking ethusiastic with the society and even culture from the natives.
Here, Ronny Heaslop as the civil magistrate in Chandrapore was making his
mother surprised about his son attitude. Because of her surprising, he
questioned it directly to his son about his strange manner since he became a
civil magistrate. Then Ronny explained that in this place, British came with
60
highly pride, more superior than any other native,so he has to act fully
controlled the Indians. Domination over the native has shown very clearly
from this description, Ronny apparently does not have any plesant mission
coming to this place, all he only knows is to spread their domination as a
class of higher than any other races, spreading his superiority to those whom
are inferior.
Aziz was exquisitely dressed, from tie-pin to spats, but he had forgotten his back collar-stud, and there you have the Indian all over: inattention to detail, the fundamental slackness that reveals the race (Forster, 1978:123).
British came to India by spreading their bad stereotypes to all the
natives, in this case, Ronny's racism makes him jump to conclusions. Earlier
in the novel that Aziz is missing his collar stud because Fielding needed one
and Aziz was just being a good friend. But Ronny just assumes that Aziz is
acting according to the stereotype of the lazy native. In the eyes of British,
native always look more inferior the them, they only looked upon the Indians
as half Negroes and half guarillas who could effectively work under force
only. The white Europeans always considered the Indians as people of an
inferior race.
“All unfortunate natives are criminals at heart, for the simple reason that they live south of latitude 30” (Forster, 1978:261).
Here, Professor Mcbryde through his racist perspective, assuming that
all the natives was born as a criminal at heart. He does not have any clear or
61
logic reason why someone like natives like that. In his point of view, criminal
or any word similarly has choosen to be the part if Indian native from the first.
He had not gone mad at the phrase "an English girl fresh from England," he had not rallied to the banner of race. He was still after facts, though the herd had decided on emotion. Nothing enraged Anglo-India more than the lantern of reason if it is exhibited for one moment after its extinction is decreed (Forster, 1978:259).
In this passage, it describe a little bit about the irony of the British
colonial justice system in India. According to Fielding the system which is
administered by the British, always actionbased on their colored, literally, by
their racial views. Their racial hatred is cruelly ironic considering that their
view of the superiority of the white race is based on the supposed fact that
the white race is more "rational."
"Ah, dearest Grasmere!" Its little lakes and mountains were beloved by them all. Romantic yet manageable, it sprang from a kindlier planet” (Forster, 1978:213).
Through his racist point of view, McBryde also even compare his origin
place in England than India. He though that in contrast to India, Grasmere, a
pleasant little place in England, is a source of comfort. It's not threatening in
the way India is in its vastness: it's homey and sounds kind of cute with its
"little lakes and mountains.
“But i wanted to ask her. I want someone who believes in him to ask her.” “what difference does that make?” “she is among people who disbelieved in Indians” (Forster, 1978:267).
62
In this case, Aziz accused as a someone who tried to violence Miss
Quested inside the cave. In the middle of the judgement, Mr Fielding tried to
convince Miss Quested that it was not Aziz, he never intended to do that
since Aziz and Fielding is quite close as relation between native and British.
Fielding strongly though that this is absolutely missunderstanding between
Miss Quested and Aziz. What really make Miss Quested judged Aziz like that
because of she thinks based on the perspective of the English perceived the
native as a general. In the quotation above it clearly showed that Miss
Quested was living near from around someoone who hate the native, so it
influenced her to think the same with someone who always perceive native as
inferior or savage.
"You're superior to them, anyway. Don't forget that. You're superior to everyone in India except one or two of the Ranis, and they're on an equality” (Forster, 1978:58).
Even the first came of the British empire does not have any purpose to
colonize the Indians, but after all they spread their idea of civilization to them.
After became a trader for several years, but looking at the great potential,
they spread their civilzation reform to all the Indians by creating some rules
such as reform movement. Because of that reform, Indians were
discriminated on grounds of color. An attitude of contempt towards Indians
was developed by the AngloIndian bureaucracy. They looked upon the
Indians as half Negroes and half guarillas who could effectively work under
force only. The white Europeans always considered the Indians as people of
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an inferior race. Mrs. Turton's comment here exemplifies the racism typical of
Englishwomen in the novel. Here she attempts to convince the
progressiveminded Adela that they are superior to Indians in every way,
including the heads of state.
One touch of regret not the canny substitute but the true regret from the heart would have made him a different man, and the British Empire a different institution."I'm going to argue, and indeed dictate," she said, clinking her rings. "The English are out here to be pleasant" (Forster, 1978:74).
The passage suggests that Ronny's attitude is representative of the
British Empire's as a whole toward its "civilizing mission." By questioning
Ronny, Mrs. Moore questions the whole notion of a civilizing mission here.
Ronny's callous attitude toward Indians suggests that the civilizing mission is
just an excuse to gain power, and no more.
When the villagers broke cordon for a glimpse of the silver image, a most beautiful and radiant expression came into their faces, a beauty in which there was nothing personal, for it caused them all to resemble one another during the moment of its indwelling, and only when it was withdrawn did they revert to individual clods(Forster, 1978:449).
One of the impact from the reform movement and the entire mission of
civilization by the British empire is Indians were discriminated on grounds of
color. Even they looked upon the Indians as half Negroes and half guarillas
who could effectively work under force only. In this passage, again and again
attacks race, the color of your skin, as the basis for a community, whether it's
the white Anglo-Indians or the Indians. Instead, when communities come
together for a worthy cause, as in this religious festival, their faces acquire a
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"beautiful and radiant expression": it is this expression, rather than the color
of their skin, that represents their belonging to a community. Compare this
expression to the similarly beautiful expression on the Anglo-Indians when
they come together in support of Adela. Of course, this expression quickly
dissipates when they use Adela's case as an excuse to vent their ugly racist
attitudes.
“You don’t because you can’t, you have smuggled her out of the country; she is Mrs. Moore, she would have proved his innocence, she was on our side, she was poor Indian’s friend” (Forster, 1978:354).
In this passage, Aziz friend of him explained that even as a educated
Indians, he or Aziz can not do nothing about Aziz’s case. They planned to
invite Mrs Moore since she and most Indians are quite close as a socially. But
in fact it did not change anything, since Mrs Moore also has already be friend
of those poor Indians.
“I ruin my career, no matter; we are all to be ruined one by one.” “This is no way to defend your case,” counselled the magistrate. “I am not defending a case, nor are you trying one. We are both of us slaves” (Forster, 1978:355).
What can explain by this short quote from Aziz’s friend is they both
controlled and dominated by the British. In Aziz’s accusation case, he felt so
intimidated becuase those British are in charged to decide wheter Aziz
proved guilty or not. In British parliament even the educated Indian, it does
not give any change, as long as you are the inferior race, they can not do
nothing over the British qoncuerors. Hamidullah even stated both of them are
65
still slaves in British perspective. Here also domination is playing its part, it
involves the subjugation of one people by another, Furtherly this domination
here means the control by individuals or groups over the territory and/or
behavior of other individuals or groups. It was fit with what has been
performed by Aziz as the individual which controlled by the British.
“I remember when Turton came outfirst … you fellows will not believe me, but I have driven with Turton in his carriage Turton! Oh yes, we were once quite intimate. He has shown me his stamp collection” The Red nose boy has againinsulted me. I do not blame him he was told that he ought to insult me. Until lately he was quite a nice boy, but the others have got hold of him” (Forster, 1978). Throughout the novel, the situation between west and east became so
tense. In the previous explanation, what became the signal of negative
attitude is the tensious and problem. Here it draws a picture of the tense
situation between colonial rulers and the Indians. The comments and
treatment, the Indians receive from the English, show their aggrandizement.
The disgusting attitude towards the Indians is due to historical, psychological,
philosophical, cultural and traditional behavior.
“Old Calendar wants to see me in his bungalow, he said. Some case, I dare say. I dare say not. I dare say nothing. He has found out our dinnerhourthat’s all and chooses to interrupt us every time in order to show his power. Unintentionally, he rushes, leaves his friends, party, feast, invitation, rest, everything, “because his soul was servile but because his feelings the sensitive edges of him feared a gross snub.”He hires a tonga and reaches the Callendar’s bungalow. The Tongawallah isasked to wait for him outside the bungalow. However, he is told that the civil surgeon is out and left no message for him. It is very shocking forDr Aziz. No courtesy and no politeness! He faces a shocking response, a rude attitude. The servant says to him that no
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message is left for him, he only understood from the master, “He had as a matter of fact said, ‘Damn Aziz words that the servant understood” (Forster, 1978). Major Callander, due to negative attitude towards the Indians,does not
like to take pains and leave a clear message. This shows his insulting
behavior. Insulting behaviour coul revert to the definition of negative attitude.
tense and problem always comes around when everytime negative attitude
was portrayed by the west to the east.
He didn’t come into the Club. He said he wasn’tallowed to. There upon the truth struck him, and he cried: Oh,good gracious! Not a Muhammedan? Why ever didn’t you tell me? You’d been talking to a native? I was going all wrong…What a mix up! Why hadn’t she indicated by the tone of her voice that she was talking about an Indian? Scratchy and dictatorial, he began to question her, “he called to you in the mosque. Did he? How? Impudently what was he doing him there himself at that time of night? … Now, it’s not their prayer time.” … So he called to you over your shoes then it was impudence. It’s an old trick. I wish you had had them on (Forster, 1978).
Here, Ronny Heaslop as the son of Mrs Moore and as the civil
magistrate as well in the chandrapore express his emotion when he knew that
his mother has come to the mosque and meet with one of the “dirty” Indian,
Aziz. This meeting was nothing to Mrs Moore but we can see the tension,
emotion from Ronny seems like there is something wrong or there’s problem
here. Commonly indian was treated unproperly by the English due to his
status as an Indian. Rude, and negative behaviour was attributed as having a
bad manner, rude, and so forth. That is why Ronny felt suspicious with his
mother.
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B. Discussion
This discussion is to show about the similarities and differences related
to colonialism perspective which is portrayed in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
and Forster’s A Passage to India.The simmilarities and differences will be
based on the analysis in the previous session on findings, and it presented
with the table form and discussing quote by qoute to show that its
simmilarities and differences. The discussion contains the data which are
related to the theory of colonialism perspective by using genetic structuralism
approach.
1. Comparison of Colonialism Perspective in Both Novels.
a. Subjugation
What the researcher has got from his analysis about subjugation in
both novels, he indicated that both novels contained several issues about
subjugation. It proves in Conrad’s Heart of Darknes there are several datas
which the researcher has investigated as a types of domination specifically
subjugation. And in Forster’s novel A Passage to india even only one data
about subjugation but still it really exist in the novel. The researcher found its
simmilarities since subjugation by controlling individual or groups happened in
both works. For example in several citation from Conrad’s novel Heart of
Darkness, Marlow explained about some gold hunter which appear in the
fresh land of Africa, brought any tools such as sword that they can use to
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grab and take everything that potentially it could make them secure their
wealth and fame.
The evil side from domination especially subjugation is they did not
care about what if they took everything from this land except their desire to
pursue their wealthy as a colonizers. It also happened in the other works from
Forster’s A Passage to India. Through the main character Aziz, we can figure
out the Empire of British has thrown their colony almost over in India. Based
on data, since India is under controled by British, Aziz as a native in his own
land felt trapped and could not avoid himself to follow the rules from the
colony at the time.
Subjugation also illustrated in many citation. Through the Conrad’s
novel Heart of Darkness and like the typical domination from what Conrad
has been described in his work, the act of exploit everything is really
performed by violently. It was quite different with domination from Forster’s
novel A Passage to India, Aziz only describe the British empire that has
already thrown their colonial influenced almost over in India. There is no any
specifical what they were doing while they intend to spread their domination
in entire place of India.
b. Political Control
This indicators has performed clearly in several quotes from Forster’s
novel A Passage to India. In such data, historically, Indians has so many god
69
and they like to praise their various god. In the middle of debate among his
mother Mrs Moore, Ronny Heaslop as a civil magistrateexplained his
important role toward the native. According to him, in this place native has no
any chance to be pleasant by us, bureaucracy, reform movement, and
various kind of rules by the British has been established in order to defend
the natives out from their savageness behaviour. In fact, it is only reason for
the British to justify their power under the native. Ronny uses the god which
used to praise by the native to also justify the British empire in the India as a
politically. God here refers to those English people who posses land act like
a god, and the reference of native love their god will be justifiable.
Political control also performed by the continous quote from Ronny to
his mother, based on Ronny statement, he could not establish something like
this in his own origin place, this thing would be working unless you find a
country which still depend in their savageness, barbarism and so on. This is
why his mother, Mrs Moore questioned his son’s attitude because of she
wandered about his new son’s behaviour. His son Ronny also only follow
what had been applied by his class and race in India, that is why he felt
terrible if he against or betray his own people. Indicator of colonialism such a
political control did not found in Conrad’s novel Heart of Darkness by any
citation. Since the distance of one century, Africa is mostly told purely about
the way human exploit cruelty by the Colony.
c. Racial Prejudices
70
Based on the finding and analysis by the researcher, he found several
information based on the citation related with superior and inferior in both
works. As short brief, superior was an opposite word from inferior which mean
superior is higher than inferior. Higher here interpreted by the west was all
position, race, civilization is more higher than what inferior has. But this term
was recently appear after west tried to spread their civilization mission toward
the wilderness country such as India and Africa. In data, even there is no any
citation about superior and inferior, but from what Marlow judge about the
black has officially prove that west claimed themselves more superior than
the black. In data, there is a strange act from the native that made Marlow
looked very surprised. Cannibalism is marked as a savageness trait that
made Marlow surprised because this act was human eating flesh or organ of
other human beings. From the west point of view, this act obviously did not
make any sense to them and so Marlow judge them as an inferior race.
Data also shown the depiction about superior and inferior, through the
other main character in Conrad’s short story Heart of Darkness Kurtz derived
himself as a remarkable man who able can bring the enlighment to the
savage land such as Africa. Similarly in Forster’s novel A Passage to India, it
clearly indicates that there was a superior and inferior contained in the novel.
In the first chapter of Forster’s novel, there was a story about the club which
special only for those English allowed to enter. In data 30, it stated that
“Indians are not allowed into the Chandrapore Club even as a guest”. Even
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there is no any quote that who is superior and inferior, but from the statement
the researcher could conclude that the club which is only special for the
English and it was not allowed for the Indians even as a guest. This will be
conclude that English here as a superior and those who could not allow enter
to the club is an inferior.
Superior and inferior became the main priority for such a west to
enlarge their civilization mission toward the land that they claim still include as
an uncivilized. The relationship between anglo indian and native indian could
not avoid from the stereotype that West is superior than Indian which is
inferior. In data 34, it clerly stated that socially English cannot accross equally
with the Indians because superior and inferior cannot be equall forever. In the
last sentence of reform movement paragraph in previous chapter stated that
the white Europeans always considered the Indians as people of an inferior
race.
d. Educated natives
Since the ariival of British in India with their mission of civilization, idea
of colonialism, it has a several impact directly toward the society culturally,
socially etc. Socially, since the idea of colonialism was to civilize all of the
natives which means they also have a modern mind like the western, British
made a political movement such as to educate the natives. It proved by many
character such as Aziz, Hamidullah has a good English as their second
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language, they even use it fluently. Even they are properly educated, but still
the British claimed that they never have the same standard with those
Englishmen or women. In data 35, Professor McBryde was mocking the
native who get some proper education from the British. McBryde claimed
they did not matter even the educate one, they still never equal to us. In the
case of Conrad’s short story Heart of Darkness, there is no any native which
treated educatevily by the colony. They were purely tretaed cruelly, brutally,
all the physical side. That thing was making this story differ from the other.
e. The Exploitation of Human and Natural Resources
There are two kinds of exploitation here, Human and resources.
Human exploitation always involvedviolence and forced human to work
against their will. In order to obtain provit and materials, colonizers
implemented this method. In another references about History of Colonialism
in Congo, when under the reign of Leopold II, he exploited its resources and
its inhabitants for material gain. These whole traits has been found in
Conrad’s short story Heart of Darkness. The whole story of Conrad’s Heart of
Darkness was a story from the narrative of the main character, Marlow. Every
event that happened in that story was based from the story teller of Marlow.
The act of human exploitation has clearly shown based on the analysis from
the researcher above. The researcher found many of these human
exploitation activity in the Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad. Several
datas has been found and identified as a human exploitation. Marlow saw six
73
black native was walking erect and slow wearing some iron collar and chain in
their several part of the body such as head and neck. Marlow also saw how
those black people were oppressed in the circumstances in such a way,how
those blacks drained her energy and treated ruthlessly.
In another quotation has shown the viciousness of colonization toward
the African. The depiction such as cruelty, dying, disesase, and starvation
became the daily treatment toward the native as an object of human
exploitation. These treatment gave by the colonist who has a mission to
civilized the dark country in order they can have a same standard with what
the west have in that period. Two citationwere not different with previous
citation. Data has shown vividly about the ferocity by the colonization with let
the nigger or native die without any help from the colony. They were given no
food, medicine and so on. They were treating with unpleasantly and
inhumanly by the colony. Those act of human and natural exploitationis not
found in any citation from Forster’s novel A Passage to India.
f. The Exploitation Attitude of Human Being
It is more considerable to put natives’s attitude as an object by the
colonizers to stronger their position as high race. What attitude here means
the way colonizers perceive or thought the native India as having a negative
attitude. negative here means the attitude toward the natives always create a
problem or tension. Most of this indicator has found in Forster’s A Passage to
India. Even there is no any physical treatment, violences through body
74
contact, but in Forster’s work through A Passage to India seems portrayed
more “violences” through the one that we call human attitude exploitation.
Historically, india has been colonized by the west since early of 20th century.
At the time, most colony establish their colony only wanted to be as a trader.
But since there is another potential of taking control over the territory, and
built some civilization institute such as bureaucracy, law office, even college,
colony will get their guarantee position over the natives of India. In the
previous indicator, even there are some little native also work through this
institute, but for the English, nothing will fall down our bridge to distinguish
which one is west and which one is the east. This is illustrated through
Forster’s work by depicting western negative attitude toward the east, in the
way they act, they feel, and they behave. Western perceive those attitude
means negative attitude.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
Generally both works have its own way to illustrate the colonialism
perspective. In the previous chapter, colonialism has taken in a various
characteristics, racial prejudices was one of the impact of its colonialism
which brought by the west to the east. But before that idea spread to the
entire place of colony land, first the west had to subjugate the land, people
and even resources. This subjugation has found in several quotation in both
works. In Conrad’s work, subjugation has performed through the story of
voyage by the main character, Marlow.
In another work by Forster, subjugation has illustrated by also the main
character, Aziz. Here Aziz as a native India felt trapped by his own place
because of the colonist took over India. Another thing that can be seen
through the work is the act of human exploitation. itis became the great
consequences from colonial adventure by the west settlement. Because of
that, African had to face the hard living became the exploit one. Exploitation
of human and resources can be performed through this masterpiece work by
Conrad. Cruel treatment, violence, physical exploitation, resources
exploitation has clearly performed through the story from Marlow.Instead of
human and natural exploitation, Forster’s work through his novel illustrated
about the attitude’s of human being exploitation through negative attitude by
the west toward to the natives
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The second problem research about elaborating the simmilarities and
differences of colonialism perspective which reflected by the characters in
both works has illustrated through the several citation from varied characters.
Subjugation has shown by each one main character in both works.
Itillustrated when western came and subjugate the land by using civilization
idea. In exploitation idea, human and natural resources exploitation became
the main indicator of colonialism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and the
exploitation toward human being attitude strongly depicted in Forster’s A
Passage to India. Human exploitation thorugh violences, cruel treatment does
not potray in Forster’s work due to the historical track of colonialism itself,
which is in 20th century, most of colonialism had been portrayed through the
superiority of western class toward the infeirority of the natives.
77
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Appendices
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Appendix I
Synopsis of Heart of Darkness
Heart of Darkness centers around Marlow, an introspective sailor, and his journey up the Congo River to meet Kurtz, reputed to be an idealistic man of great abilities. Marlow takes a job as a riverboat captain with the Company, a Belgian concern organized to trade in the Congo. As he travels to Africa and then up the Congo, Marlow encounters widespread inefficiency and brutality in the Company’s stations. The native inhabitants of the region have been forced into the Company’s service, and they suffer terribly from overwork and ill treatment at the hands of the Company’s agents. The cruelty and squalor of imperial enterprise contrasts sharply with the impassive and majestic jungle that surrounds the white man’s settlements, making them appear to be tiny islands amidst a vast darkness.
Marlow arrives at the Central Station, run by the general manager, an unwholesome, conspiratorial character. He finds that his steamship has been sunk and spends several months waiting for parts to repair it. His interest in Kurtz grows during this period. The manager and his favorite, the brickmaker, seem to fear Kurtz as a threat to their position. Kurtz is rumored to be ill, making the delays in repairing the ship all the more costly. Marlow eventually gets the parts he needs to repair his ship, and he and the manager set out with a few agents (whom Marlow calls pilgrims because of their strange habit of carrying long, wooden staves wherever they go) and a crew of cannibals on a long, difficult voyage up the river. The dense jungle and the oppressive silence make everyone aboard a little jumpy, and the occasional glimpse of a native village or the sound of drums works the pilgrims into a frenzy.
Marlow and his crew come across a hut with stacked firewood, together with a note saying that the wood is for them but that they should approach cautiously. Shortly after the steamer has taken on the firewood, it is surrounded by a dense fog. When the fog clears, the ship is attacked by an unseen band of natives, who fire arrows from the safety of the forest. The African helmsman is killed before Marlow frightens the natives away with the ship’s steam whistle. Not long after, Marlow and his companions arrive at Kurtz’s Inner Station, expecting to find him dead, but a half-crazed Russian
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trader, who meets them as they come ashore, assures them that everything is fine and informs them that he is the one who left the wood. The Russian claims that Kurtz has enlarged his mind and cannot be subjected to the same moral judgments as normal people. Apparently, Kurtz has established himself as a god with the natives and has gone on brutal raids in the surrounding territory in search of ivory. The collection of severed heads adorning the fence posts around the station attests to his “methods.” The pilgrims bring Kurtz out of the station-house on a stretcher, and a large group of native warriors pours out of the forest and surrounds them. Kurtz speaks to them, and the natives disappear into the woods.
The manager brings Kurtz, who is quite ill, aboard the steamer. A beautiful native woman, apparently Kurtz’s mistress, appears on the shore and stares out at the ship. The Russian implies that she is somehow involved with Kurtz and has caused trouble before through her influence over him. The Russian reveals to Marlow, after swearing him to secrecy, that Kurtz had ordered the attack on the steamer to make them believe he was dead in order that they might turn back and leave him to his plans. The Russian then leaves by canoe, fearing the displeasure of the manager.Kurtz disappears in the night, and Marlow goes out in search of him, finding him crawling on all fours toward the native camp. Marlow stops him and convinces him to return to the ship. They set off down the river the next morning, but Kurtz’s health is failing fast.
Marlow listens to Kurtz talk while he pilots the ship, and Kurtz entrusts Marlow with a packet of personal documents, including an eloquent pamphlet on civilizing the savages which ends with a scrawled message that says, “Exterminate all the brutes!” The steamer breaks down, and they have to stop for repairs. Kurtz dies, uttering his last words“The horror! The horror!”in the presence of the confused Marlow. Marlow falls ill soon after and barely survives. Eventually he returns to Europe and goes to see Kurtz’s Intended (his fiancée). She is still in mourning, even though it has been over a year since Kurtz’s death, and she praises him as a paragon of virtue and achievement. She asks what his last words were, but Marlow cannot bring himself to shatter her illusions with the truth. Instead, he tells her that Kurtz’s last word was her name. (http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/heart/summary.html).
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Appendix II
Synopsis of A Passage to India
Two englishwomen, the young Miss Adela Quested and the elderly Mrs. Moore, travel to India. Adela expects to become engaged to Mrs. Moore’s son, Ronny, a British magistrate in the Indian city of Chandrapore. Adela and Mrs. Moore each hope to see the real India during their visit, rather than cultural institutions imported by the British.
At the same time, Aziz, a young Muslim doctor in India, is increasingly frustrated by the poor treatment he receives at the hands of the English. Aziz is especially annoyed with Major Callendar, the civil surgeon, who has a tendency to summon Aziz for frivolous reasons in the middle of dinner. Aziz and two of his educated friends, Hamidullah and Mahmoud Ali, hold a lively conversation about whether or not an Indian can be friends with an Englishman in India. That night, Mrs. Moore and Aziz happen to run into each other while exploring a local mosque, and the two become friendly. Aziz is moved and surprised that an English person would treat him like a friend.
Mr. Turton, the collector who governs Chandrapore, hosts a party so that Adela and Mrs. Moore may have the opportunity to meet some of the more prominent and wealthy Indians in the city. At the event, which proves to be rather awkward, Adela meets Cyril Fielding, the principal of the government college in Chandrapore. Fielding, impressed with Adela’s open friendliness to the Indians, invites her and Mrs. Moore to tea with him and the Hindu professor Godbole. At Adela’s request, Fielding invites Aziz to tea as well.
At the tea, Aziz and Fielding immediately become friendly, and the afternoon is overwhelmingly pleasant until Ronny Heaslop arrives and rudely interrupts the party. Later that evening, Adela tells Ronny that she has decided not to marry him. But that night, the two are in a car accident together, and the excitement of the event causes Adela to change her mind about the marriage.
Not long afterward, Aziz organizes an expedition to the nearby Marabar Caves for those who attended Fielding’s tea. Fielding and Professor Godbole miss the train to Marabar, so Aziz continues on alone with the two
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ladies, Adela and Mrs. Moore. Inside one of the caves, Mrs. Moore is unnerved by the enclosed space, which is crowded with Aziz’s retinue, and by the uncanny echo that seems to translate every sound she makes into the noise “boum.”
Aziz, Adela, and a guide go on to the higher caves while Mrs. Moore waits below. Adela, suddenly realizing that she does not love Ronny, asks Aziz whether he has more than one wifea question he considers offensive. Aziz storms off into a cave, and when he returns, Adela is gone. Aziz scolds the guide for losing Adela, and the guide runs away. Aziz finds Adela’s broken field-glasses and heads down the hill. Back at the picnic site, Aziz finds Fielding waiting for him. Aziz is unconcerned to learn that Adela has hastily taken a car back to Chandrapore, as he is overjoyed to see Fielding. Back in Chandrapore, however, Aziz is unexpectedly arrested. He is charged with attempting to rape Adela Quested while she was in the caves, a charge based on a claim Adela herself has made.
Fielding, believing Aziz to be innocent, angers all of British India by joining the Indians in Aziz’s defense. In the weeks before the trial, the racial tensions between the Indians and the English flare up considerably. Mrs. Moore is distracted and miserable because of her memory of the echo in the cave and because of her impatience with the upcoming trial. Adela is emotional and ill; she too seems to suffer from an echo in her mind. Ronny is fed up with Mrs. Moore’s lack of support for Adela, and it is agreed that Mrs. Moore will return to England earlier than planned. Mrs. Moore dies on the voyage back to England, but not before she realizes that there is no “real India”but rather a complex multitude of different Indias.
At Aziz’s trial, Adela, under oath, is questioned about what happened in the caves. Shockingly, she declares that she has made a mistake: Aziz is not the person or thing that attacked her in the cave. Aziz is set free, and Fielding escorts Adela to the Government College, where she spends the next several weeks. Fielding begins to respect Adela, recognizing her bravery in standing against her peers to pronounce Aziz innocent. Ronny breaks off his engagement to Adela, and she returns to England.
Aziz, however, is angry that Fielding would befriend Adela after she nearly ruined Aziz’s life, and the friendship between the two men suffers as a consequence. Then Fielding sails for a visit to England. Aziz declares that he is done with the English and that he intends to move to a place where he will not have to encounter them.
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Two years later, Aziz has become the chief doctor to the Rajah of Mau, a Hindu region several hundred miles from Chandrapore. He has heard that Fielding married Adela shortly after returning to England. Aziz now virulently hates all English people. One day, walking through an old temple with his three children, he encounters Fielding and his brother-in-law. Aziz is surprised to learn that the brotherinlaw’s name is Ralph Moore; it turns out that Fielding married not Adela Quested, but Stella Moore, Mrs. Moore’s daughter from her second marriage.
Aziz befriends Ralph. After he accidentally runs his rowboat into Fielding’s, Aziz renews his friendship with Fielding as well. The two men go for a final ride together before Fielding leaves, during which Aziz tells Fielding that once the English are out of India, the two will be able to be friends. Fielding asks why they cannot be friends now, when they both want to be, but the sky and the earth seem to say “No, not yet. . . . No, not there.”(http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/passage/summary.html).
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Appendix III
Biography of Joseph Conrad
Joseph Conrad, one of the English language's greatest stylists, was born Teodor Josef Konrad Nalecz Korzenikowski in Podolia, a province of the Polish Ukraine. Poland had been a Roman Catholic kingdom since 1024, but was invaded, partitioned, and repartitioned throughout the late eighteenth-century by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. At the time of Conrad's birth (December 3, 1857), Poland was one-third of its size before being divided between the three great powers; despite the efforts of nationalists such as Tadeusz Kosciuszko, who led an unsuccessful uprising in 1795, Poland was controlled by other nations and struggled for independence. When Conrad was born, Russia effectively controlled Poland.
Conrad's childhood was largely affected by his homeland's struggle for independence. His father, Apollo Korzeniowski, belonged to the szlachta, a hereditary social class comprised of members of the landed gentry; he despised the Russian oppression of his native land. At the time of Conrad's birth, Apollo's land had been seized by the Russian government because of his participation in past uprisings. He and one of Conrad's maternal uncles, Stefan Bobrowski, helped plan an uprising against Russian rule in 1863. Other members of Conrad's family showed similar patriotic convictions: Kazimirez Bobrowski, another maternal uncle, resigned his commission in the army (controlled by Russia) and was imprisoned, while Robert and Hilary Korzeniowski, two fraternal uncles, also assisted in planning the aforementioned rebellion. (Robert died in 1863 and Hilary was imprisoned and exiled.) All of this political turmoil would prove to be predictably disturbing to young Josef, who could only stand idly by as he watched his family embroiled in such dangerous controversy. The notion of the strong oppressing the weak and the weak powerless to revolt surfaces in Heart of Darkness, where the White traders wantonly murder the Congolese in pursuit of riches and power.
Conrad's father was also a writer and translator, who composed political tracts, poetry, and satirical plays. His public urgings for Polish freedom, however, eventually caused Russian authorities to arrest and
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imprison him in 1861; in 1862, his wife (Conrad's mother), Eva, was also arrested and charged with assisting her husband in his anti-Russian activities. The two were sentenced to exile in Vologda, a town in northern Russia. Their exile was a hard and bitter one: Eva died of tuberculosis in 1865 and Apollo died of the same disease in 1869. Conrad, now only twelve years old, was naturally devastated; his own physical health deteriorated and he suffered from a number of lung inflammations and epileptic seizures. His poor health would become a recurring problem throughout the remainder of his life. Poland did not gain independence until 1919, and although patriots such as Apollo were instrumental in this eventual success, their martyrdom left many children (such as Conrad) without parents or hope for their future.
After his father's death, Conrad was returned to Krakow, Poland, where he became a ward of his maternal uncle, Thaddeus Bobrowski. His uncle sent Conrad to school in Krakow and then to Geneva under the guidance of a private tutor. However, Conrad was a poor student; Despite his having studied Greek, Latin, mathematics, and (of course) geography, he never completed the formal courses of study that he was expected to finish. His apathy toward formal education was counterbalanced by the reading he did on his own: During his early teenage years, Conrad read a great deal, particularly translations of Charles Dickens' novels and Captain Frederick Marryat, an English novelist who wrote popular adventure yarns about life at sea. (He also read widely in French.)
Marryat's novels may have been partly responsible for the sixteen-year-old Conrad's desire to go to sea and travel the world as a merchant marine (an exotic wish for a boy who grew up in a land-locked country); in 1874, his uncle reluctantly granted him permission to leave Poland and travel, by train, to the French port city of Marseille to join the French Merchant Navy. After his arrival, Conrad made three voyages to the West Indies between 1875 and 1878; During this time, he smuggled guns for the Carlists, who were trying to put Carlos de Bourbon on the throne of Spain. In 1878, Conrad suffered from depression, caused in part by gambling debts and his being forbidden to work on any French ships due to his lying about having the proper permits. He made an unsuccessful attempt at suicide, shooting himself through the shoulder and missing his vital organs. (Biographers differ in their interpretations of this attempt: Some contend that Conrad was depressed about his squandering all his money, while others report that the attempt was a ruse designed to put Conrad out of work and thus escape the grasp of creditors.) Later that year, Conrad boarded an English ship that took him to the eastern port-town of Lowestoft; there, he joined the crew of a ship that made six voyages between Lowestoft and Newcastle. During this time, he
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learned English. Conrad's determination to succeed as a seaman was impressive: Although he began his career as a common sailor, by 1886 he had sailed to the Asia and was made master of his own ship. He then became a British subject and changed his name to Joseph Conrad (partly to avoid having to return to Poland and serve in the Russian military).
In 1888, Conrad received his first command of the Otago, a ship harboring in Bangkok whose master had died. Surprisingly, Conrad hated the day-to-day life of a sailor and never owned a boat after becoming famous; The sea, however, offered Conrad the opportunity to make a living. One of Conrad's most important voyages occurred in 1890, when he sailed a steamboat up the Congo River in central Africa. Conrad was attracted to this region partly because of the adventure he thought it could offer him and (perhaps more importantly) because working in the Congo could earn him some much-needed money. During this voyage, Conrad witnessed incredible barbarity, illness, and inhumanity; his recollections of this trip would eventually become the basis of his most famous work, Heart of Darkness. During this time, Conrad was considering turning his seafaring adventures into novels, and he eventually published Almayer's Folly, which he had been composing during the early 1890s in 1895. The success of his first novel lured him away from the sea to his new adventures as an English novelist. He settled in England, married Jessie George (in 1896), and began the career for which the world would remember him best.
After the publication of Almayer's Folly, Conrad began producing a number of books in rapid succession, many of which featured plots about sailors and travel to explore moral ambiguity and the nature of human identity. The Nigger of the "Narcissus" (1897) concerns a tubercular Black sailor whose impending death affects his fellow crewmen in a number of profound ways. Lord Jim (1900) examines the effects of a cowardly act and how this act's moral repercussions haunt a man until his death. (Lord Jim's story is told by ">Marlow, the narrator of Heart of Darkness.) In 1902, Conrad published Heart of Darkness, a short novel detailing Marlow's journey into the Belgian Congo — and the metaphorical "heart of darkness" of man. All three books were highly regarded in their time and are still widely read and studied today. In 1904, Nostromo was published; the complex tale of an imaginary South American republic. The effects of greed and foreign exploitation helped to define Conrad's oblique and sometimes difficult narrative style. Although he produced a large body of work, Conrad was often a slow writer who felt the pressure of deadlines and the need to keep writing to keep his family financially solvent. His struggles were eased, however, in 1910, when John
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Quinn, an American lawyer, bought all of Conrad's manuscripts and awarded him a small pension.
Conrad continued writing tales of travel, but also turned his attention to novels of political intrigue. The Secret Agent (1907) concerns a group of anarchists who plan to blow up the Greenwich Observatory; Under Western Eyes (1911), set in nineteenth-century Czarist Russia, follows the life of a student who betrays his friend the assassin of a government official to the authorities. His story "The Secret Sharer" (1912) uses the "Doppelganger theme" (where a man meets his figurative double) to examine what Conrad viewed as the shifting nature of human identity and the essential isolation of all human beings. In 1913, Chance was a great success both critically and financially; the novel, like Heart of Darkness, explores the ways in which an innocent person (like Marlow) becomes hardened by the horrors that surround her. Other novels marked by these essential Conradian themes include The Inheritors (cowritten with Ford Maddox Ford, 1901), Victory (1915), and The Shadow-Line (1917). Conrad also turned to autobiography: The Mirror of the Sea (1906), A Personal Record (1912), and Notes on Life and Letters (1921). All treat his seafaring days and development as an artist.
Conrad died of heart failure on August 3, 1924. He was buried in Canterbury Cemetery and survived by his wife and sons (Borys and John). Still honored by millions of readers as one of the greatest modern writers, Conrad left behind a large body of work whose nature he defined (in his Preface to The Nigger of the "Narcissus") as "a single-minded attempt to render the highest kind of justice to the visible universe, by bringing to light the truth, manifold and one, underlying its every aspect." (https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/h/heart-of-darkness/joseph-conrad-biography-2)
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Appendix IV
Biography of E.M. Forster
Edward Morgan Forster was born in London in 1879, the son of an architect. He attended Tonbridge School, which he hated; he caricatured what he termed "public school behavior" in several of his novels. A different atmosphere awaited him at King's College, Cambridge, which he enjoyed thoroughly.
After graduation, he began to write short stories. He lived for a time in Italy, the scene of two of his early novels: Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905), and A Room with a View (1908). Cambridge is the setting for The Longest Journey (1907). It was in this year that he returned to England and delivered a series of lectures at Working Men's College. His most mature work to date was to appear in 1910 with the publication of Howards End.
Forster then turned to literary journalism and wrote a play which was never staged. In 1911 he went to India with G. Lowes Dickinson, his mentor at King's College. During World War 1, Forster was engaged in civilian war work in Alexandria. He returned to London after the war as a journalist.
In 1921 he again went to India, to work as secretary to the Maharajah of Dewas State Senior. He had begun work on A Passage to India before this time, but on reading his notes in India, he was discouraged and put them aside. The book was published in 1924, having been written upon his return to England. This was his last novel. It is considered to be his magnum opus, and it won for the author the Femina Vie Heureuse and the James Tait Black Memorial prizes in 1925.
In 1927 Forster delivered the William George Clark lectures at Trinity College, Cambridge. Titled Aspects of the Novel, the lectures were published in book form the same year. Also in 1927 he became a Fellow of Cambridge.
Forster's writing after that time has been varied. A collection of short stories (The Eternal Moment) was published in 1928. Abinger Harvest (1936) is a collection of reprints of reviews and articles. During World War II he
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broadcast many essays over the BBC. He has written a pageant play (England's Pleasant Land), a film (Diary For Timothy), two biographies (Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson in 1934 and Marianne Thornton in 1956), a libretto for Benjamin Britten's opera, Billy Budd (with Eric Crozier), and numerous essays. In 1953 he published The Hill of Devi, an uneven collection of letters and reminiscences of his experiences in India.
In 1960 A Passage to India was adapted for the stage by Santha Rama Rau. After playing in London for a year, the play opened on Broadway on January 31, 1962, and ran for 110 performances. Although Forster was "delighted" with the adaptation, most of the American critics felt the play did not measure up to the novel.
In 1946, Forster moved to King's College in Cambridge to live there as an honorary fellow. Mr. Forster's numerous awards included membership in the Order of Companions of Honour, a recognition bestowed in 1953 by Queen Elizabeth II.Forster died on June 7, 1970. (https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/p/a-passage-to-india/critical-essays/the-british-raj-in-india).
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Table 1: Colonialism Indicators based on Butt’s Book (Colonialism and Postcolonialism) Which Exist in Both Novels.
No Colonialism
Indicator/Types
Heart of Darkness A Passage to India
1. Domination
a. Subjugation
Hunters for gold of pursuers of fame, they all had gone out on that
stream, bearing the sword, and often the torch, messengers of the might within the
land, bearers of a spark from the sacred fire.
What greatness had not floated on the ebb of
that river into the mystery of an uknown
earth! (Conrad, 1999:4).
I was thinking of very old times, when the
Romans first came here, nineteen hundread
years ago, the other ... Light came out of this river (Conrad, 1999:5).
They were conquerors, and for that you want
only brute forcenothing to boast of, when you
have it, since your strength is just an
accident arising from the weakness of others.
They grabbed what they could get for the sake of
what was to be got. It was just robbery with
The roads, named after victorious generals and
intersecting at the right angles, were symbolic of the net Great Britain had thrown over India. He felt caught in their meshes
(Forster, 1978:17).
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violence, aggravated murder on a great scale,
and men going at it blindas is very proper for those who tackle a
darkness(Conrad, 1999:6).
We pounded along,
stopped landed soldiers; went on, landed
customhouse clerks to levy toll in what looked
like a God forsaken wilderness, with a
tinshed and flag pole lost in it; landed more soldiers to take care of
the custom house clerks, presumably (Conrad, 1999:14).
This devoted band
called itself the Eldorado Exploring Expedition,
and I believe they were sworn to secrecy.Their talk, however, was the
talk of sordid buccaneers: it ywas
reckless without hardihood, greedy
without audacity, and cruel without courage; there was not an atom
of foresight or of serious intention in the whole
batch of them, and they did not seem aware
these things are wanted for the work of the
world. To tear treasure
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out of the bowels of the land was their desire, with no more moral
purpose at the back of it than there is in burglars
breaking into a safe. Who paid the expense of the noble enterprise I
don‘t know; but the uncle of our manager was leader of that lot (Conrad, 1999:35).
Not a very enthralling book; but at the first
glance you could see there a singleness of intention, an honest concern for the right way of going to work,
which made these humble pages, thought out so many years ago, luminous with another
than a professional light. The simple old sailor, with his talk of chains and purchases, made
me forget the jungle and the pilgrims in a
delicious sensation of having come upon
something unmistakablyreal
(Conrad, 1999:44).
He began with the argument that we
whites, from the point of development we had
arrived at, must necessarily appear to
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b. Political Control
them savages in the nature of supernatural beings we approach
them with the might as of a deity, and so on, and so on (Conrad,
1999:52).
“We're out here to do justice and keep the peace. Them's my sentiments.India isn't a
drawing-room." "Your sentiments are those of
a god," Mrs. Moore said quietly, but it was his manner rather than his sentiments that
annoyed her. Trying to recover his
temper,Ronny said, "India likes gods."
"And Englishmen like posing as gods" (Forster, 1978:71).
“What do you and Adela want
me to do? Go against my class, against all the people i respect and admire out here? Lose such power as i have for
doing good in this coutry because my behaviour isn’t
pleasant? You neither of you understand what work is, or
you i’d never talk such eyewash. I hate talking like
this, but one must occasionally. We’re not
pleasant in India, and we don’t intend to be pleasant. We’ve something more important to
do” (Forster, 1978:72).
He had not gone mad at the phrase "an English girl fresh from England," he had not
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rallied to the banner of race. He was still after facts, though
the herd had decided on emotion. Nothing enraged Anglo-India more than the
lantern of reason if it is exhibited for one moment after
its extinction is decreed (Forster, 1978:259).
One touch of regret not the
canny substitute but the true regret from the heart would have made him a different
man, and the British Empire a different institution."I'm going to argue, and indeed dictate," she said, clinking her rings.
"The English are out here to be pleasant" (Forster, 1978:74).
2.
Imposing Colonial Culture
a. Racial Prejudices
He was an improved specimen; he could fire up a vertical boiler. He was there below me,
and, upon my word, to look at him was as
edifying as seeing a dog in a parody of breeches
and a feather hat, walking on his hind legs
(Conrad, 1999:42).
Their headman, a young, broad chestlike black, severely draped
I do not think so. They all become exactly the same, not worse, not better. I give any
Englishman two years, be he Turton or Burton. It is only the
difference of a letter. And i gave any Englishwoman six months. All are exactly alike. Do you not agree with me?
(Forster, 1978:8).
Indians are not allowed into the Chandrapore Club even as a
guest, (Forster, 1978:28).
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in Dark blue fringed cloths, with fierce
nostrils and his hair all done up artfully in oily
ringlets, stood near me. ‘Aha!’ I said, just for
good fellowship’s sake. ‘Catch ‘im,’ he snapped,
with a bloodshot widening of his eyes and a flash of sharp
teeth ’catch ‘im. Give ‘im to us.’ ‘To you, eh?’ I
asked; ‘what would you do with them?’ ‘Eat ‘im!’
he said curtly, and, leaning his elbow on the rail, looked out into the fog in a dignified and profoundly pensive attitude. I would no doubt have been
properly horrified, had it not occurred to me that he and his chaps must
be very hungry (Conrad, 1999:47).
In front of the first rank,
along the river, three men, plastered with bright red earth from
head to foot, strutted to and fro restlessly. When we came abreast again,
they faced the river, stamped their feet,
nodded their horned heads, swayed their scarlet bodies; they
shook towards the fierce river demon a bunch of
“Wanting to see Indians! How
new that sounds!’ Another, “Natives! Why fancy!” A third, more serious, said, “Let me
explain. Natives don’t respect one, you see.” “That occurs
after so many meetings.” But the lady, entirely stupid and
friendly (Forster, 1978:33-34).
“Why, the kindest thing one can do to a native is to let him
die” (Forster, 1978:34).
“He can go where he likes as long as he doesn’t come near me. They give me the creeps”
(Forster, 1978:34).
“I only want those Indians whom you come across
socially as your friends. “well, we don’t come across them socially, “he said, laughing. “they’re full of all the virtues,
but we don’t, and it’s now eleven thirty, and too late to go
into the reason (Forster, 1978:35).
Aziz was exquisitely dressed, from tie-pin to spats, but he
had forgotten his back collar-stud, and there you have the Indian all over: inattention to
detail, the fundamental slackness that reveals the race
(Forster, 1978:123).
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black feathers, a mangy skin with a pendent tail something that looked like a dried gourd; they
shouted periodically together strings of
amazing words that resembled no sounds of human language; and
the deep murmurs of the crowd, interrupted
suddenly, were like the response of some
satanic litany (Conrad, 1999:79).
This is the reason why I affirm that Kurtz was a remarkable man. He
had something to say. He said it. Since I had peeped over the edge myself, I understand better the meaning of
his stare, that could not see the flame of the candle, but was wide
enough to embrace the whole universe, piercing enough to penetrate all the hearts that beat in the darkness (Conrad,
1999:82).
“All unfortunate natives are criminals at heart, for the
simple reason that they live south of latitude 30” (Forster,
1978:261).
"Ah, dearest Grasmere!"Its little lakes and mountains were beloved by them all. Romantic yet manageable, it sprang from
a kindlier planet” (Forster, 1978:213).
“But i wanted to ask her. I want someone who believes in him to ask her.” “what difference
does that make?” “she is among people who disbelieved in Indians” (Forster, 1978:267).
"You're superior to them, anyway. Don't forget that.
You're superior to everyone in India except one or two of the
Ranis, and they're on an equality” (Forster, 1978:58).
“You don’t because you can’t, you have smuggled her out of the country; she is Mrs. Moore,
she would have proved his innocence, she was on our side, she was poor Indian’s friend” (Forster, 1978:354).
“I ruin my career, no matter;
we are all to be ruined one by one.” “This is no way to defend
your case,” counselled the magistrate. “I am not defending a case, nor are you trying one.
We are both of us slaves”
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b. Educated Natives
(Forster, 1978:355).
“The educated Indians will be no good to us if there’s a row,
it’s simply not worth while conciliating them, that’s why they don’t matter. Most of the
people you see are seditious at heart, and the rest ‘id run
squealing” (Forster, 1978:54).
3. Exploitation
a. The Exploitation of
Human and
Natural Resources
I got my appointment of course; and I got it very
quick. It appears the Company had received news that one of their
captains had been killed in a scuffle with the
natives. This was my chance, and it made me the more anxious to go. It was only months and
months afterwards, when I made the
attempt to recover what was left of the body, that
I heard the original quarrel arose from a
misunderstanding about some hens. Yes, two
black hens. Fresleventhat was the
fellow's name, a Danethought himself wronged somehow in
the bargain so he went ashore and started to
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hammer the chief of the village with a stick (Conrad, 1999:9).
It was paddled by black fellows. You could see from afar the white of
their eyeballs glistening. They shouted, sang;
their bodies streamed with perspiration; they
had faces like grotesque masks these chaps; but they had bone, muscle, a wild vitality, an intense
energy of movement, that was as natural and true as the surf along their coast (Conrad,
1999:14).
A Lot of people, mostly black and naked, moved about like ants (Conrad,
1999:16).
They were building a railway. The cliff was not in the way or anything;
but this objectless blasting was all the work
going on (Conrad, 1999:17).
Six black men advanced
in a file, toiling up the path. They walked erect
and slow, balancing small baskets full of earth on their heads,
and the clink kept time with their footsteps.
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Black rags were wound round their loins, and the short ends behind waggled to and fro like tails. I could see every rib, the joints of their
lambs were like knots in a rope; each had an iron collar on his neck, and
all were connected together with a chain whose bights swung
between them, rhythmically clinking.
They were called criminals, and the
outraged law, like the bursting shells, had come to them, an
insoluble mystery from the sea (Conrad,
1999:17).
I've seen the devil of violence, and the devil of greed, and the devil of hot desire (Conrad,
1999:18).
Black shapes crouched, lay, sat between the
trees, leaning against the trunks, clinging to the earth, half coming out, half effaced within the dim light, in all the
attitudes of pain, abandonment, and despair (Conrad,
1999:18).
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They were dying slowly it was very clear. They were not enemies, they were not criminals, they
were nothing earthly now, nothing but black
shadows of disease and starvation, lying confusedly in the
greenish gloom. Brought from all the recesses of
the coast in all the legality of time
contracts, lost in uncongenial
surroundings, fed on unfamiliar food, they sickened, became
inefficient, and were then allowed to crawl
away and rest (Conrad, 1999:18-19).
Near the same tree two more bundles of acute angles sat with their legs drawn up. One,
with his chin propped on his knees, stared at
nothing, in an intolerable and appalling manner: his brother phantom
rested its forehead, as if overcome with a great
weariness; and all about others were scattered in every pose of contorted
collapse, as in some picture of a massacre or
a pestilence. While I stood horror struck, one of these creatures rose
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to his hands and knees, and went off on all-fours
towards the river to drink. He lapped out of his hand, then sat up in the sunlight, crossing
his shins in front of him, and after a time let his woolly head fall on his breastbone (Conrad,
1999:19).
Everything else in the station was in a muddle, heads, things, buildings. Strings of dusty niggers with splay feet arrived
and departed; a stream of manufactured goods, rubbishy cottons, beads, and brass-wire set into the depths of darkness,
and in return came a precious trickle of ivory
(Conrad, 1999:20).
And then I saw this station, these men
strolling aimlessly about in the sunshine of the yard. I asked myself sometimes what it all
meant. They wandered here and there with their
absurd long staves in their hands, like a lot of
faithless pilgrims bewitched inside a
rotten fence. The word `ivory' rang in the air, was whispered, was
sighed. You would think
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they were praying to it (Conrad, 1999:26).
A Nigger was being
beaten near by (Conrad, 1999:26).
It was as unreal as
everything else as the philanthropic pretense
of the whole concern, as their talk, as their
government, as their show of work. The only real feeling was a desire
to get appointed to a trading post where ivory was to be had, so that
they could earn percentages (Conrad,
1999:27).
Black figures strolled about listlessly, pouring
water on the glow, whence proceeded a
sound of hissing; steam ascended in the
moonlight, the beaten nigger groaned
somewhere. ‘What a row the brute makes!’ said the indefatigable
man with the moustaches, appearing
near us. ‘Serve him right. Transgression punishment bang!
Pitiless, pitiless. That’s the only way. This will
prevent all conflagrations for the
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b. The Exploitation
Attitude of Human
Being
future (Conrad, 1999:29).
Now I had suddenly a
nearer view, and its first result was to make me throw my head back as if before a blow. Then I went carefully from post to post with my glass, and I saw my mistake.
These round knobs were not ornamental but
symbolic (Conrad, 1999:40)
I had a vision of him on the stretcher, opening his mouth voraciously, as if to devour all the
earth with all its mankind. He lived then before me; he lived as much as he had ever
lived a shadow insatiable of splendid
appearances, of frightful realities; a shadow
darker than the shadow of the night, and draped nobly in the folds of a gorgeous eloquence (Conrad, 1999:86).
“I remember when Turton came outfirst … you fellows
will not believe me, but I have driven with Turton in his
carriage Turton! Oh yes, we were once quite intimate. He
has shown me his stamp collection” The Red nose boy
has again insulted me. I do not blame
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him he was told that he ought to insult me. Until lately he was quite a nice boy, but the others
have got hold of him” (Forster, 8:1978).
“Old Calendar wants to see me in his bungalow, he said. Some case, Idare say. I dare say not.
I dare say nothing. He has found out our dinnerhourthat’s all and chooses to interrupt us every time in order to show his
power. Unintentionally, he rushes, leaves his friends, party, feast, invitation, rest,
everything, “because his soul was servile but because his
feelings the sensitive edges of him feared a gross snub.”He
hires a tonga and reaches the Callendar’s bungalow. The
Tongawallah isasked to wait for him outside the bungalow. However, he is told that the
civil surgeon is out and left no message for him. It is very
shocking forDr Aziz. No courtesy and no politeness! He faces a shocking response, a
rude attitude. The servant says to him that no message is left for him, he only understood
from the master, “He had as a matter of fact said, ‘Damn Aziz
words that the servant understood” (Forster,
265:1978).
He didn’t come into the Club. He said he wasn’tallowed to.
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There upon the truth struck him, and he cried: Oh,good
gracious! Not a Muhammedan? Why ever
didn’t you tell me? You’d been talking to a native? I was going
all wrong…What a mix up! Why hadn’t she indicated by the tone of her voice that she was talking about an Indian? Scratchy and dictatorial, he began to question her, “he
called to you in the mosque. Did he? How? Impudently what was he doing him there himself at that time of night? … Now,
it’s not their prayer time.” … So he called to you over your
shoes then it was impudence. It’s an old trick. I wish you had
had them on (Forster, 40:1978).
