COLEGIO VILLA RICA

HIGH SCHOOL

This anthology belongs to _______________________________________

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Contents

Forms of Literature ................................................................................................................................. 3

Short Stories ................................................................................................................................... 4

Nonfiction ....................................................................................................................................... 6

Drama ............................................................................................................................................. 8

Poetry............................................................................................................................................ 10

Folk Literature .............................................................................................................................. 12

Narrative Genre ................................................................................................................................ 14

Greek Myths ......................................................................................................................................... 18

The Story of Arachne ................................................................................................................... 18

The Myth of Prometheus .............................................................................................................. 22

The Myth of Daedalus & Icarus ................................................................................................... 24

The Myth of Orpheus ................................................................................................................... 28

The Myth of Perseus..................................................................................................................... 30

Eris and the Apple of Discord ...................................................................................................... 35

The Iliad and The Odyssey ................................................................................................................... 37

The Iliad ....................................................................................................................................... 42

The Odyssey ................................................................................................................................. 53

Appendix .............................................................................................................................................. 66

The Iliad character map ................................................................................................................ 66

The Iliad Study Guide .................................................................................................................. 66

Plot Summary ............................................................................................................................... 68

Organization and structure of the Iliad ......................................................................................... 68

The Odyssey character map .......................................................................................................... 69

Odyssey Chronology .................................................................................................................... 70

Odyssey Plot Summaries and Study Questions ............................................................................ 70

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Forms of Literature

Short Story • Nonfiction • Drama • Poetry • Folk Literature

Just as there are different styles of music, such as classical or rock, so too are there different forms of

literature. Each is called a genre and has its own distinct characteristics. These pages present a brief

explanation and an example of each genre. They will help you understand and appreciate the

literature when you read these various works in their entirety.

Short Story

A short story is a brief work of fiction. In most short stories, one main character faces a conflict that

is resolved in the plot. In addition, a short story usually conveys a theme, or message about life. Good

craftsmanship goes into the writing of a good story, which must accomplish its purpose in relatively

few words.

What do you learn about a character's conflict in this story's opening?

She was one of those pretty, charming young women who are born, as if by an error of Fate, into a

petty official's family. She had no dowry, no hopes, not the slightest chance of being appreciated,

understood, loved, and married by a rich and distinguished man; so she slipped into marriage with a

minor civil servant at the Ministry of Education. From “THE NECKLACE”, Guy de Maupassant.

Nonfiction

Nonfiction is writing that tells about real people, places, objects, events, and ideas. Many of the

nonfiction articles in this book are either essays or biographical or autobiographical sketches. All

discuss the real world as opposed to an imaginary one. The author of a nonfiction article may wish to

convey and explain information, convince readers to accept a particular idea or opinion, or simply

entertain and amuse readers.

Based on its opening, what do you sense is the author's purpose in this nonfiction article?

The essence of childhood, of course, is play, which my friends and 1 did endlessly on streets that we

reluctantly shared with traffic. As a daring receiver in touch football, 1 spent many happy years

running up and down those asphalt fields, hoping that a football would hit me before a Chevrolet did. From “GO DEEP TO THE SEWER”, Bill Cosby.

Drama

Drama is written to be performed by actors. The script is made up of dialogue and monologue-the

words the actors say-and stage directions, which comment on how and where the action occurs.

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How does the appearance of this dramatic text differ from the appearance of a short story?

HORACE. That's a pretty piece.

MARY CATHERINE. Yes, it is.

[A pause. They dance again. HORACE stops.]

HORACE. I'm ready to go if you are, Mary Catherine.

MARY CATHERINE. I'm ready. [They start out.] Scared? From “THE DANCERS”, Horton Foote.

Poetry

Poetry is literature that appears in verse form. It often has a regular rhythm and, sometimes, a rhyme

scheme. Some poems tell a story, while other poems present a single image or express a single

emotion or thought. Most poems use concise, musical, and emotionally charged language to convey

an idea.

How do the lines of poetry below differ in form from the prose paragraphs on the facing page?

Some say the world will end in fire,

Some say in ice.

From what I've tasted of desire

I hold with those who favor fire. From “FIRE AND ICE”, Robert Frost.

Folk Literature

Folk literature is the unwritten lore of a specific people or culture, passed down through the

generations by word of mouth until, at some point, it is put into writing. Folk literature includes

myths, folk tales, fairy tales, legends, and fables. Such stories express the hopes, fears, loves, dreams,

and values of the people who tell them and pass them on.

What does the beginning of this myth indicate about the values of people in ancient Greece?

King Acrisius of Argos had only one child, a daughter, Danaé, She was beautiful above all the other

women of the land, but this was small comfort to the King for not having a son. From “PERSEUS”, Edith Hamilton.

Short Stories

Plot • Characters • Setting • Point of View • Theme

Short stories invite you to travel to fictional places, meet interesting and unusual people, and get

involved with the problems they face. This book presents a variety of short stories. No two are

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exactly the same, although all the stories share certain characteristics and follow a prescribed

structure.

Plot

The plot of a short story is its sequence of events. It involves both characters and a problem, or

conflict. The plot begins with an exposition that introduces the characters, setting, and basic story.

The action rises as characters try to resolve the problem. Tension increases as events lead to a climax,

or high point of interest or suspense. The climax is followed by falling action, leading to the

resolution of the conflict.

Which plot details do you learn from the opening sentence of this short story?

I had called upon my friend, Mr. Sherlock Holmes, one day in the autumn of last year and found him

in I deep conversation with a very stout, florid-faced, elderly gentleman with fiery red hair. From “THE RED-HEADED LEAGUE”, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.

Characters

The characters in a short story are the people or animals who participate in the action. Writers can

develop characters in a variety of ways. Details about characters are revealed through their physical

description and their words and actions. In addition, writers reveal characters through their interaction

with other characters in the story.

What do the details in the following passage tell you about Nat's character?

Nat Hocken, because of a wartime disability, had a pension and did not work full-time at the farm. He

worked three days a week, and they gave him the lighter jobs: hedging, thatching, repairs to the farm

buildings.

Although he was married, with children, his was a solitary disposition; he liked best to work alone. It

pleased him when he was given a bank to build up, or a gate to mend at the far end of the peninsula,

where the sea surrounded the farmland on either side. Then, at midday, he would pause and eat the

pasty that his wife had baked for him, and, sitting on the cliff's edge, watch the birds. From “THE BIRDS”, Daphne Du Maurier.

Setting

Exposition Resolution

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The setting of a story is the time and place of the action. Time can include not only the historical

period-past, present, or future- but also a specific year, season, or time of day. Place may involve not

only the geographical place-a region, country, state, or town-but also the social, economic, or cultural

environment.

In some stories, setting serves as a decorative but nonessential background. In contrast, the setting of

other stories may drive the action by providing a problem that the characters must face and overcome.

Which details in this passage help you to identify the setting of the story?

I belong in Cleveland, Ohio. One winter's night, two years ago, I reached home just after dark, in a

driving snowstorm, and the first thing I heard when I entered the house was that my dearest boyhood

friend and schoolmate, John B. Hackett, had died the day before, and that his last utterance had been

a desire that I would take his remains home to his poor old father and mother in Wisconsin. I was

gready shocked and grieved, but there was no time to waste in emotions; I must start at once.

From “THE INVALID'S STORY”, Mark Twain.

Point of View

The point of view in a story is the vantage point from which the story is told. In first-person narration,

the storyteller is a character in the action. In third-person narration, the story- teller reports events,

taking no direct part in the action.

Which clues in this sentence indicate the point of view of this short story?

I was six when my mother taught me the art of invisible strength. From “RULES OF THE GAME”, Amy Tan. Theme

The theme of a short story is the central message or insight into life revealed through the work. In

some stories, the theme may be stated directly. In most stories, however, the theme is only implied.

You must use the story's events to help you draw conclusions about its theme.

Based on the following passage, what might be the theme of this story?

He also felt the warmth of the earth. He sensed he was inside someone. Then he understood what Don

Trine was doing. He was not crazy; he simply liked to feel the earth when it was sleeping. From “THE HARVEST”, Tomás Rivera.

Nonfiction

Autobiography • Biography • Essay • Informational Text

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Nonfiction is prose writing that presents and explains ideas or that tells about real people. Among

nonfiction forms are essays, newspaper and magazine articles, journals, travelogues, biographies, and

autobiographies. In this book, you will read several kinds of nonfiction and have the opportunity to

explore the similarities and differences among them.

Autobiography

An autobiography is a form of non- fiction in which a person relates his or her own life story. It may

tell about the person's whole life or only part of it. The author's purpose may be to explain his or her

values, to teach lessons about life, to entertain or amuse readers, or any combination of these.

What does this passage from Rosa Parks’ autobiography suggest about her purpose for writing?

As I sat there, I tried not to think about what might happen. I knew that anything was possible. I

could be manhandled or beaten. I could be arrested. People have asked me if it occurred to me then

that I could be the test case the NAACP had been looking for. I did not think about that at all. In fact

if I had let myself think too deeply about what might happen to me, I might have gotten off the bus.

But I chose to remain. From “ROSA PARKS: MY STORY”, Rosa Parks.

Biography

A biography is a form of nonfiction in which a writer tells the life story of another person.

Biographies have been written about many famous people, historical and contemporary, but they can

also be written about "ordinary" people. As with an autobiography, a biography is factual and may be

written to express a person's values, to teach lessons about life, or to entertain or inspire readers. A

biography usually emphasizes the causes and effects of a person's actions.

Why might a writer have included the information presented here in a biography of Arthur Ashe?

He once described his life as "a succession of fortunate circumstances." He was in his twenties then.

More than half of his life was behind him. His memory of his mother was confined to a single image:

in a blue corduroy bathrobe she stood in a doorway looking out on the courts and playing fields

surrounding their house, which stood in the center of a Richmond playground. Weakened by illness,

she was taken to a hospital that day, and died at the age of twenty-seven. He was six. From “ARTHUR ASHE REMEMBERED”, John McPhee.

Essay

An essay is a short nonfiction work about a particular subject. It presents a main idea and supports it

with examples, facts, statistics, or anecdotes.

A narrative essay tells a true story.

An expository essay gives information, discusses ideas, or explains a process.

A persuasive essay tries to convince readers to do something or to accept the writer's point of view.

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A reflective essay presents the writer's reflections or thoughts on a topic of personal importance.

What does this opening from an essay suggest about its main idea?

It has taken me a good number of years to come to any measure of respect for summer.

I was, being May-born, literally an "infant of the spring" and, during the later childhood years,

tended, for some reason or other, to rather worship the cold aloofness of winter… For the longest

kind of time I simply thought that summer was a mistake. From “ON SUMMER”, Lorraine Hansberry.

Informational Text

Informational text is writing that provides the knowledge to guide and educate you. Informational

texts include magazine and newspaper articles on current topics, as well as instructional manuals and

textbooks.

Based on this lead paragraph from a newspaper article, how might you expect the text to educate or

enlighten you?

San Francisco-In dim light they appear to be sleeping, but they've been dead up to 4,000 years: more

than 100 astoundingly well-preserved mummies unearthed in a Chinese desert, whose inexplicably

blond hair and white skin could topple dogmas about early human history. From “CAUCASIAN MUMMIES MYSTIFY CHINESE”, Keay Davidson.

Drama

Types of Plays • Dialogue and Monologue • Stage Directions • Plot and Conflict

Drama consists of writing that is intended to be performed by actors for an audience. The script

combines dialogue-the words the actors say-with stage directions-the author's comments on how and

where the actors should move and speak. As you read drama, you "set the stage" in your own mind,

using your imagination to visualize the scenery, lighting, costumes, and actors.

Types of Plays

Not all plays are the same in their tone, style, or message. A comedy is a humorous play with a happy

ending. A tragedy is a play in which a hero suffers a major downfall. A drama is a serious play,

although the consequences are not necessarily as dire as those in a tragedy.

From what type of play do you think the following passage comes? Why?

BENVOLIO. O noble Prince, I can discover all. The unlucky manage of this fatal brawl. There lies

the man, slain by young Romeo, That slew thy kinsman, brave Mercutio. From “THE TRAGEDY OF ROMEO AND JULIET”, William Shakespeare.

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Dialogue and Monologue

The action of a play is conveyed mainly through dialogue-the conversations between two or more

characters. A monologue is a lengthy speech that one character addresses to others on stage. Both

dialogue and monologue reveal character traits and advance the story action in drama.

What do you learn about the speakers in this brief piece of dialogue?

MARY CATHERINE. 1 love to dance.

HORACE. Well ... I don't dance too well.

MARY CATHERINE. There's nothing to it but confidence.

HORACE. That's what my sister says ....

MARY CATHERINE. 1 didn't learn for the longest kind of time for lack of confidence and then

Emily gave me a long lecture about it and 1 got confidence and went ahead and learned. Would you

like to come in for a while?

HORACE. Well ... if it's all right with you ....

MARY CATHERINE. I'd be glad to have you.

HORACE. Thank you. From “THE DANCERS”, Horton Foote.

Stage Directions

Stage directions are the instructions for performing the play and the descriptions of settings,

characters, and actions. When you read dramatic literature, the stage directions can help you visualize

the play. Using a staging chart like the one shown above, you can imagine where the scenery is and

how the actors move by following the indications of downstage, upstage, left, and right.

What information in these stage directions helps you visualize the setting of the play?

[Scene: The stage is divided into four acting areas: downstage left is the living room of INEZ and

HERMAN STANLEY. Downstage right is part of a small-town drugstore. Upstage right is the living

room of ELIZABETH CREWS. Upstage left, the yard and living room of MARY CATHERINE

DAVIS.] From “THE DANCERS”, Horton Foote.

Plot and Conflict

A play, much like a short story, contains a plot, or series of events, involving a conflict, or problem,

that one or more characters face. The conflict is introduced early in the play, perhaps in its opening

scene. Tension builds to the climax, and by the final scene of the play, the conflict has been resolved,

either happily or unhappily, for the main characters.

What kind of conflict is indicated in this dialogue?

EMILY. I don't feel good.... [She begins to cry.] Oh, Mother, I don't want to go to the dance tonight.

Please, ma’am, don't make me. I'll do anything in this world for you if you promise me...

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ELIZABETH. Emily. This is all settled. You are going to that dance. Do you understand me? You are

going to that dance. That sweet, nice brother of Inez Stanley's will be here any minute....

From “THE DANCERS”, Horton Foote.

Poetry

Types of Poetry • Poetic Form • Figurative Language • Rhyme and Rhythm

Poetry is writing that combines language, images, and sounds to create a special emotional effect. A

poem's sound and structure are different from those of prose, the writing you find in short stories and

nonfiction. Poetry is arranged in lines and stanzas, and its language is more visual and musical than

prose. A story speaks to readers, but a poem sings to them.

Types of Poetry

There are many different types of poems. A narrative poem, like a short story, tells a story that

includes a plot, characters, and a setting. A lyric poem expresses the observations and feelings of a

speaker in a musical way. A dramatic poem uses the techniques of drama in the form of a monologue

for one speaker or dramatic dialogue for two or more speakers.

Which details in this passage help you to recognize it comes from a lyric poem?

I like hot days, hot days

Sweat is what you got days

Bugs buzzin from cousin to cousin

Juices dripping

Running and ripping

Catch the one you love days From “SUMMER”, Walter Dean Myers.

Poetic Form

Poetic form refers to the way the lines of a poem are shaped and arranged. Often, a poet groups lines

into formal units called stanzas. A stanza may have any number of lines. Poetic form affects the way

the poem is read aloud and, to a degree, the message that the poem conveys.

Why do you think the last lines of this poem have been set apart?

Harlem

What happens to a dream deferred?

Does it dry up

like a raisin in the sun?

Or fester like a sore––

And then run?

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Does it stink like rotten meat?

Or crust and sugar over––

like a syrupy sweet?

Maybe it just sags

like a heavy load.

Or does it explode? From “Dream Deferred”, Langston Hughes.

Figurative Language

Figurative language is writing or speech that is not meant to be taken literally. It is often used to

create vivid impressions by setting up fresh comparisons between dissimilar things.

In a simile, like or as is used to compare two basically different things. For example, the simile “I

wandered lonely as a cloud” compares the speaker to a cloud and emphasizes the speaker's

aimlessness.

In contrast to a simile, a metaphor states a comparison of two things directly. In the metaphor “if

dreams die / Life is a broken-winged bird”, the poet compares life to an injured bird and shows the

effect of losing hope.

In personification, a nonhuman subject is given human characteristics. In the lines “Let the rain kiss

you. / Let the rain sing you a lullaby” the poet personifies the rain, making it seem vital and alive.

What comparisons do you find in these lines of poetry?

Continuous as the stars that shine

And twinkle on the Milky Way,

They stretched in never-ending line

Along the margin of a bay:

Ten thousand saw I at a glance,

Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. From “I WANDERED LONELY AS A CLOUD”, William Wordsworth.

Rhythm and Rhyme

In addition to poetic conventions like figurative language and stanza structure, the elements of rhythm

and rhyme give poetry its musical qualities.

Rhythm in a poem is the pattern of stressed ( ´ ) and unstressed ( ~ ) syllables in each line. Notice the

regular rhythm in this line:

Once upon a midnight dreary...

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Rhyme in a poem is the repetition of sounds at the ends of words. For example:

Once upon a midnight dreary,

While I pondered, weak and weary...

What rhythm and rhyme do you find in these lines of poetry?

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,

And sorry 1 could not travel both

And be one traveler, long I stood

And looked down one as far as I could

To where it bent in the undergrowth; From “THE ROAD NOT TAKEN”, Robert Frost.

Folk Literature

Myth • Folk Tale • Epic

Not all stories were written down when they were first told. Folk literature comes from generations of

peoples or cultures that passed down their favorite tales orally before ever recording them. Folk

literature includes myths, folk tales, tall tales, and epics. Like a favorite family recipe, folk literature

holds special enjoyment for all those who know it and pass it on.

Myth

A myth is a fictional tale that explains the actions of gods or the causes of natural phenomena. It

involves supernatural elements and has little historical truth to it. Among the most familiar myths

today are those of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Myths have several purposes. They serve as a cultural history, explaining natural phenomena such as

oceans and mountains. They also reinforce a culture's values. Finally, they are a source of

entertainment.

Which details in this passage indicate that it is from a myth?

King Acrisius of Argos had only one child, a daughter, Danaé. She was beautiful above all the other

women of the land, but this was small comfort to the King for not having a son. He journeyed to

Delphi to ask the god if there was any hope that someday he would be the father of a boy. The

priestess told him no, and added what was far worse: that his daughter would have a son who would

kill him. From “PERSEUS”, Edith Hamilton.

Folk Tale

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A folk tale is a story composed orally and then passed from person to person by word of mouth. As

part of an oral tradition, folk tales originated among people who could neither read nor write. They

entertained one another by telling stories aloud, often about heroes, adventure, magic, or romance.

Like mythology, folk tales also help reinforce a culture's values and explain the natural world.

This passage comes from an African folk tale. Which elements make it an appealing story to hear?

Once, not far from the city of Acera on the Gulf of Guinea, a country man went out to his garden to

dig up some yams to take to market. While he was digging, one of the yams said to him, "Well, at last

you're here. You never weeded me, but now you come around with your digging stick. Go away and

leave me alone!" From “TALK”, Harold Courlander and George Herzog.

Epic

An epic is a long narrative poem about the deeds of gods or heroes in war or travel. An epic is written

in ornate, poetic language. It incorporates myth, legend, and history and often includes the

intervention of the gods in human affairs.

In an epic, the poet begins by announcing the subject and asking a Muse, one of the nine goddesses of

the arts, literature, and sciences, to help. Homer's epic Odyssey tells the story of the Greek hero

Odysseus, the king of Ithaca.

Which characteristics of an epic do you find in this opening verse of Homer's Odyssey?

Sing in me, Muse, and through me tell the story of that man skilled in the ways of contending, the

wanderer, harried for years on end, after he plundered the stronghold of the proud height of Troy. From “THE ODYSSEY”, Homer.

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Narrative Genre

A narrative or story is a construct created in a constructive

format (written, spoken, poetry, prose, images, song, theater or

dance) that describes a sequence of fictional or non-fictional

events. It derives from the Latin verb narrare, which means "to

recount" and is related to the adjective gnarus, meaning

"knowing" or "skilled". The word "story" may be used as a

synonym of "narrative", but can also be used to refer to the

sequence of events described in a narrative. A narrative can also

be told by a character within a larger narrative. An important part

of narration is the narrative mode.

Along with exposition, argumentation and description, narration,

broadly defined, is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse.

More narrowly defined, it is the fiction-writing mode whereby

the narrator communicates directly to the reader.

Stories are an important aspect of culture. Many works of art, and most works of literature, tell

stories; indeed, most of the humanities involve stories.

Stories are of ancient origin, existing in ancient Egyptian, ancient Greek, Chinese and Indian culture.

Stories are also a ubiquitous component of human communication, used as parables and examples to

illustrate points. Storytelling was probably one of the earliest forms of entertainment.

For general purposes in semiotics and literary theory, a "narrative" is a story or part of a story. It may

be spoken, written or imagined, and it will have one or more points of view representing some or all

of the participants or observers. In stories told verbally, there is a person telling the story, a narrator

whom the audience can see and/or hear, and who adds layers of meaning to the text non-verbally. The

narrator also has the opportunity to monitor the audience's response to the story and modify the

manner of the telling to clarify content or enhance listener interest. This is distinguishable from the

written form in which the author must gauge the readers' likely reactions when they are decoding the

text and make a final choice of words in the hope of achieving the desired response.

In written forms, the reader hears the narrator's voice both through the choice of content and the style

— the author can encode voices for different emotions and situations, and the voices can be either

overt or covert —, and through clues that reveal the narrator's beliefs, values, and ideological stances,

as well as the author's attitude towards people, events and things. It is customary to distinguish a first-

person from a third-person narrative: Gérard Genette uses the terms intradiegetic and extradiegetic

narrative respectively. An intradiegetic narrator describes his or her personal and subjective

experiences as a character in the story. Such a narrator cannot know anything more about what goes

on in the minds of any of the other characters than is revealed through their actions, whereas an

extradiegetic narrator describes the experiences of the characters who appear in the story and, if the

story's events are seen through the eyes of a third-person internal focalizer, this is termed a figural

narrative. In some stories, the author may be overtly omniscient, and both employ multiple points of

view and comment directly on events as they occur.

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Tzvetan Todorov (1969) coined the term "narratology" for the structuralist analysis of any given

narrative into its constituent parts to determine their function(s) and relationships. For these purposes,

the story is what is narrated as usually a chronological sequence of themes, motives and plot lines;

hence, the plot represents the logical and causal structure of a story, explaining why its events occur.

The term discourse is used to describe the stylistic choices that determine how the narrative text or

performance finally appears to the audience. One of the stylistic decisions may be to present events in

non-chronological order, using flashbacks, for example, to reveal motivations at a dramatic moment.

Myths, legends, epic poems, fables, short stories and novels are part of the narrative genre, because

you will find a story, told by a narrator and lived by characters.

Narrative Perspective

The Basic Modes of Narration

Since grammar classifies pronouns generally into three persons (1st: I, we;

2nd: you; 3rd: he, she, it, they), narration also has three basic modes. Each

mode of narration — in the first, second, or third person — has unique

characteristics that distinguish it from the other modes and determine what

can and cannot be accomplished when narrating in that mode.

Throughout the history of Western literature, narration in the first or third

person has predominated while the second person has remained, for the

most part, a rare and experimental form.

Linguists use a simple diagram to illustrate the elements of what they call a

“speech act,” that is, a spoken utterance or written words:

Addressor —>

Code

|

Message

—> Addressee

The addressor is the speaker or writer.

The code is the spoken or written words

The message is the meaning of the words as encoded by the addressor and decoded by the addressee.

The addressee is the listener or reader.

In a speech act, any one of these elements can be made paramount. Emphasis can be placed:

On the addressor, “I made that!”

On the addressee, such as in the vocative mode, “You told me.”

On the message, such as the word “STOP” in a stop sign,

Or on the code itself, such as in poetry.

Types of narrative

1. Protagonist narrative – The story is told by the protagonist of the story. This narrator uses the first

person point of view.

2. Witness narrative – A character of the story tells it, but he/she is not the main character. This is a

narrator in the first person point of view telling the story of somebody else.

3. Limited or objective narrative – This is a narrator in the third person point of view who does not

know everything that is happening in the story. This narrator will tell the story as he/she learns it.

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4. Omniscient narrative – This is the narrator that knows everything in the story, events, thoughts,

ideas, past, present and future. The omniscient narrator will tell the story from the third person point

of view.

5. Second person narrative – This is a narrative voice that invites the reader to put themselves in the

place of the characters in a text and also serves as a conscience that the characters speak to in a text.

Characters

Imaginary people created by the writer; perhaps the most important element of literature.

A character is any person, persona, identity, or entity that exists in a work of art.

The process of conveying information about characters in fiction

is called characterization.

Characters may be entirely fictional or based on real, historical

entities. Characters may be human, supernatural, mythical,

divine, animal, or personifications of an abstraction.

Characters are the vehicles that often help to drive the plot. They

make you care about what happens, and you may grow

emotionally attached to them (wishing for their happiness and

success). But, not all characters are very exciting.

There are no limits on the types of characters who can inhabit a

story: male or female, rich or poor, young or old, prince or

pauper. What is important is that the characters in a story all

have the same set of emotions as the reader: happiness, sorrow,

disappointment, pain, joy, and love.

Some characteristics

- Characters may be real or imaginary.

- They express ideas and emotions.

- They portray human attitudes.

- Characters make things happen.

- They are independent.

Classification of characters

Protagonist – Major character at the center of the story.

Antagonist – A character or force that opposes the protagonist.

Minor character – 0ften provides support and illuminates the protagonist.

Incidental character – A character that shows in a specific part of the story and then disappear.

Absent character – He / she does not participate in the story, it is only mentioned or remembered.

Dynamic character – A dynamic character would be a character that changes through the story.

Static character – A character who remains the same.

A static character is one which does not change much during the progression of the text.

They're pretty much the same at the end as they were in the beginning. This is opposed to a

dynamic character who changes dramatically during the story. For example, the prince is

essentially a static character in Romeo and Juliet.

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Round character – A complex literary character with fully developed and dynamic traits.

Round characters tend to be more fully developed and described than flat, or static, characters. If you

think of the characters you most love in fiction, they probably seem as real to you as people you

know in real life. This is a good sign that they are round characters.

Flat character – A flat character is a character without depth or dimension, like a cardboard cutout.

A flat character has one dimension. They are filling a space in the story and have no life outside their

function. Stereotypes are flat characters. Villains who are totally evil are flat characters. Heroes who

always do the right thing and never have doubts or fears are flat characters. Characters that exist only

to aid or hinder the main character are flat characters.

Classification of time

Time, in a work of literature, is the sequence of events, the order in

which the events in a story take place. You can think of it as ‘how the

story is told?’

Depending on the story, the author may use different techniques to

‘play’ with time. In a story the character could remember and relive

his past, or travel to the future.

Most of the stories will have a chronological order, they will start

with one event, and problems will start, and then resolved, so the

story will end. But this is not a law, because the author may start with

the end, and go back in time to explain how did everything happen,

or just keep changing throughout the story.

Classification of time

1. Objective or chronological – This is the time used when stories are

told from beginning to end. A baby boy is born; he grows up, falls in

love with a girl, gets married, and lives happily ever after.

2. Subjective or psychological – This is the time registered in the mind of the character.

a. Flashback: An interruption in a chronological narrative that tells about something that

happened before that point in the story or before the story began. A flashback gives readers

information that helps to explain the main events of the story.

b. Foreshadowing: The use of clues by an author to prepare readers for events that will happen

in a story.

3. Seasonal games – A story is presented with seasonal games when the author does not respect the

sequence of events at all. The time in the story keeps changing like in Juan Rulfo’s novel “Pedro

Páramo” without a logical order.

4. Absence of time – An absence of time happens when the writer does not include clues about the use

of time in the story. The reader cannot know when things happen.

5. Circular – This is the time used when events keep starting all over again.

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Greek Myths

The Story of Arachne

Athena, goddess of wisdom, was a proud and talented young goddess. In times of peace, Athena

taught Grecians about the arts. She herself was a skillful weaver and potter and always took pride in

her pupils' work, as long as they respected her.

One of Athena's pupils was a maiden whose name was Arachne. Arachne was a poor, simple girl who

lived in the country. Her father was a quiet man of humble birth. He dyed sheep's wool to earn money

for a living. Arachne wove beautiful fabrics of delicate designs, and people began to comment to her

that surely she had been taught by the goddess Athena. Arachne denied this and stated that she was

certainly better than Athena and that she had learned little or nothing from Athena's teachings. She

even went as far as to say that she was a better weaver than Athena!

Arachne was known to have said, "I have achieved this marvelous skill due to my own talent, hard

work, and efforts."

Soon Athena heard of the boastings of Arachne and decided to speak to her. Athena disguised herself

as an old woman and went before Arachne stating, "It is foolish to pretend that you are like one of the

gods. You're simply a mortal whose talents are paled in comparison to those of the goddess Athena."

Arachne charged back to the old lady, "If Athena doesn't like my words, then let her show her skills

in a weaving contest."

Suddenly, the disguise of the old woman was removed and there stood the radiant goddess Athena

standing in front of Arachne. Athena accepted the contest challenge.

As the contest began, it was clear that the beauty of both Athena's and Arachne's tapestries were

lovely. However, the goddess worked more quickly and skillfully. Arachne's attitude about her work

showed that she felt her weaving was lovelier, but Athena felt it was an insult to the gods. This

angered Arachne especially since Athena requested an apology. Arachne refused, and Athena slapped

Arachne in the face. Almost instantly Arachne felt her head begin to shrink and her nimble fingers

grow into long, thin legs.

"Vain girl, since you love to weave so very

much, why don't you go and spin forever."

Athena had turned Arachne into a spider.

So it is said that all spiders have been punished

for Arachne's boasting, since they are required

to live wit hin their own webs. Since then spiders

have been called arachnids.

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Arachne’s worksheet

Answer: Why was Arachne punished by Athena?

Who was the better of the two weavers?

In your opinion, why was Athena angry about Arachne's weaving?

Why was Arachne so unkind to Athena?

Why was it that Arachne did not know she was speaking to Athena?

What was wrong with Arachne’s behavior?

Why did people come from all over the world to see Arachne?

What is Arachnophobia?

Unscramble and tell the significance of the words in relationship to the story:

aoolpyg

aaerchn

rteyspat

iesprd

dceotcien Arachne

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21

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The Myth of Prometheus

Prometheus was a Titan from Greek myth, born from the union of the Titan Iapetus and the Nymph

Asia. He was one of four children born to the pair. The siblings of Prometheus included his twin

brother Epimetheus, Menoetius, and Atlas, all of them Titans. The name Prometheus means

“foresight,” and his twin brother's name Epimetheus means “hindsight.”

Their father, Iapetus led the revolt against the Gods. His children Menoetius and Atlas joined with

him, while his other two sons, Prometheus and Epimetheus sided with the Gods. Menoetius was

killed during the revolt and Atlas was given the weight of the world to bear for his actions during the

revolt.

Prometheus and Epimetheus journeyed from Mt. Olympus to Earth

and visited the Greek province of Boitia where they made clay

figures. Athena took the figures and breathed life into them. The clay

figures that Prometheus had created became Man and honored him.

The figures that his brother Epimetheus created became the beasts,

which turned and attacked him.

Zeus was angered by the brothers’ actions of creating people and

animals, and he forbade the pair from teaching Man the ways of

civilization, Athena chose to cross her father Zeus and taught

Prometheus so that he might teach Man.

Zeus was angered by the actions of Man and

Prometheus. He forbade the Gods to give fire to Man. Prometheus

was upset with Zeus' proclamation and was determined to bring fire

to Man, but Zeus had guarded the entrance to Olympus. Athena told Prometheus about an unguarded

back entrance to Olympus where he would be able to enter with ease. Prometheus wanted Man to

have all the benefits and progress that fire would bring.

Prometheus covertly entered Olympus at night through the back entrance that Athena had told him

about. He made his way to the Chariot of the Sun and lit a torch from the fires that burned there. He

touched the torch to coal, and then extinguished the torch. Prometheus then carried the still hot coals

down the mountain in a pithy fennel stalk to prevent anyone from discovering the fiery coals. Upon

reaching the lands of Men, Prometheus gave them the coals, breaking Zeus' order by giving fire to

Man. In some versions of this myth, Athena did not breathe life into Prometheus’ clay figures to

make the people. Instead, the myth explains that Prometheus needed the energy of the fire to give the

clay figures the “spark of life.”

Zeus was extremely angered by Prometheus' actions since he had not wanted fire to be given to Man.

Zeus set out to make a trap for Prometheus. Zeus gathered the gifts of the Gods and created Pandora

and her box. Into the box he placed all the horrors of the world. Pandora was sent to Prometheus as a

gift from Zeus himself.

Prometheus, with his foresight, saw the curse that Pandora and her box carried. He refused the gift,

giving it instead to his brother Epimetheus who opened the box and released the chained horrors upon

the world.

Zeus was upset at having his plan thwarted. Prometheus had refused a direct “gift” from the chief

God, after all. At Zeus order Prometheus was chained to a rock in the Caucasus Mountains where his

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torture was to be carried out. Every day a great Eagle would

come to Prometheus and eat his liver, leaving only at nightfall

when the liver would begin to grow back once more. At

daybreak, the eagle would return to the chained Prometheus and

again attack his body, eating his liver. The daily ritual would

repeat itself into eternity…or so it seemed.

Zeus offered to free Prometheus (who still had the gift of

foresight) if he would tell the secret of the prophecy that told of

the dethroning of Zeus one day. Prometheus refused. The mother

of Prometheus, the Nymph Asia, also had the gift of foresight.

Her son’s continuing torture plagued her, so she finally went to

Zeus and told him the secret of the prophecy. The prophecy

explained that the offspring of Zeus and the Nymph Clymene

would one day rise up and destroy Zeus and Gods.

Zeus sent Heracles to free Prometheus from the rock once he

learned the revelation of the prophecy. He still required that

Prometheus be bound to a rock for the rest of eternity. A link of the chain he had been bound with

was set with a chip of the rock. Prometheus was required to carry it with him always. Men on Earth

also created rings with stones and gems set into them to commiserate with him and to honor

Prometheus for the actions he had taken on their behalf.

Prometheus’s worksheet

Complete the sentences.

Prometheus and Zeus argued because Prometheus felt that humans should be given the gift of

_________________________________. He believed that this gift would make people

_________________________________. Zeus believed that the humans already suffered from a

swollen sense of _________________________________. He was convinced that giving humans this

would poison them and make them think and act like the ____________________________.

But Prometheus went against the wishes of Zeus, which made Zeus furious. Zeus commanded his

giant guards to_________________________________.

After reading the myth answer the following questions using complete sentences. How do Zeus and Prometheus differ in their views of man?

Why does Prometheus want men to have fire?

How has fire changed men’s lives?

What does Zeus predict men will do with fire?

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Why does Zeus make Prometheus’ punishment so severe?

Who are the gods or goddesses involved in this myth?

What is the problem?

What is the climax?

What is the resolution?

What is the moral of the myth?

Do you agree with consequences / actions of Prometheus?

The Myth of Daedalus & Icarus

Beating his wings harder and harder, Icarus soared up into the sky and out over the Aegean Sea. It

was hard to believe it but the plan had worked. For here he was now, flying alongside his father,

Daedalus, as they left the island of Crete behind them and travelled on towards their freedom. Icarus

glanced over at his father and grinned.

"Come along, Father," he shouted over the sound of the wind rushing past them. "Smile, we’ve done

it, we’ve escaped and we’re free."

“When my feet are back on solid ground and that island is many, many miles behind us, then you will

see me smile,” Daedalus yelled back. “Now, keep your mind on what we have to do and remember,

not too high, not too close to the sun.”

Daedalus thought back to the moment, a few days before, when he had thought up the plan that would

help them escape - not only from the labyrinth but from the kingdom of King Minos as well. He cast

his mind back even further, to the day when he realised that his own life and that of his son were in

great danger. How had they come to this moment?

Only a short time ago Daedalus was being hailed as the great architect, the skilled inventor, the

master craftsman. His incredible inventions and constructions were known and admired throughout

many lands and when he arrived in Crete, many years earlier, King Minos was happy to welcome him

to his land and quickly began to make use of his talents.

One of his first tasks was to construct a huge labyrinth, a vast underground maze of tunnels which

twisted and turned in every possible direction, so that, on entering the labyrinth, a person would very

quickly become lost and would be unable to find their way out again.

This giant maze served one simple purpose. It was to contain the Minotaur, a huge beast, half man,

half bull. Standing twice as high as any man, the Minotaur had horns, as long as a man’s arm, with

25

sharp points, on which it skewered its victims. It had almost unbelievable strength and was constantly

hungry – hungry for the flesh of humans.

King Minos had come up with his own special way of satisfying the Minotaur’s hunger. Every year,

he demanded that Athens send him a tribute of seven young men and seven young women and these

would be sacrificed to satisfy the creature’s hunger.

One by one they would be forced to enter the labyrinth. They would then wander, sometimes only for

hours but sometimes for many days before, somewhere in the pitch black tunnels, they would

encounter the Minotaur.

It goes without saying that none of them was ever seen again. Well, that’s not quite true actually, as

one of the young men, not only found and killed the Minotaur, but also found his way out again.

This superhuman was Theseus, the son of King Aegeus of Athens. He had forced his father to agree

to let him be sent as one of the seven young men, swearing that he would somehow kill the Minotaur

and return home safely.

As their ship docked in the harbour below the mighty palace of Knossos, and the youths were

dragged from the ship, Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos, was watching.

She saw Theseus and found herself falling in love with him there and then. She vowed to herself that

somehow she would help him when it was his turn to enter the maze. And this was the moment when

Daedalus found himself involved, in a way which he knew would not end well for him and his young

son. Ariadne went to him and asked him to help her save Theseus from the jaws of the Minotaur. He

gave her a great ball of flaxen thread.

“Somehow you must get this thread to Theseus. Tell him to tie one end to the door of the labyrinth

and hang on to the other end. He can then use it to find his way back out again. But you must be

ready to flee the moment he escapes, for, when your father finds out what you have done, your life

will be in great danger.”

And so will mine, he thought to himself, so will mine.

Their plan worked well. Theseus found the Minotaur and, after a long battle in the dark passages of

the maze, he killed the beast. Using the thread, he made his way back to the door and to Ariadne.

Making their way quickly to his ship, they set sail for Athens.

Daedalus was left behind to face the consequences and it took very little time for Minos to find him.

The King was angrier than anyone could remember (and this was a man who was noted for his evil

temper). He blamed Daedalus for the whole thing and dragged both him and Icarus to the door of the

labyrinth.

“This is where you two will end your days,” he screamed. “In there, in the dark, along with the rats.”

With that the guards threw them inside and swung the heavy door shut.

Immediately they were plunged into total darkness. They could not see their hands in front of their

faces, let alone the tunnels and passages in which they now found themselves. But all was not lost,

for, of all the people who had ever entered the labyrinth, these two were the only ones who knew its

secrets.

They had designed it, they had taken charge of its construction and Daedalus knew the layout of the

labyrinth like the back of his hand. It took them little or no time to find their way out of the labyrinth

but that was only the first hurdle. They still needed to escape from Crete, if they wanted to survive for

more than a few days.

Daedalus knew there was no way to escape by sea, as Minos controlled all the seas around the island.

So Daedalus, the great inventor, the master craftsmen, drew on all his skills and made, for each of

them, a pair of huge wings. These wings were made from hundreds of feathers they collected from

the birds around the island and were held together with a strong wax.

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“These wings will take us away from this place and to

freedom,” he told his son. “However, there is one

thing you must not forget. These wings are held

together by wax. If it gets too hot, it will melt and the

wings will fall apart. So do not fly too close to the sun.

Stay low and we will be safe.”

So here they were now, gliding across the brilliant

blue sky, the sun shining above them and the Aegean

sea glinting beautifully far below them. Daedalus

glanced back nervously over his shoulder again, to see

the island of Crete getting smaller and smaller as they

flew away from their prison. But Icarus could not

contain his excitement a moment longer.

“We’re free,” he yelled to the empty sky around him. “Free and we’re flying, we’re flying with the

birds.”

With a whoop of excitement, he soared up and up, gliding around the sky, zooming back down

towards his father and then up again, up, up, up towards the dazzling sun.

“Icarus, not too high, not too close to the sun,” his father screamed in desperation. “The wax on your

wings will melt. Stay close to me and stay low.”

But his words fell on deaf ears. The boy continued to soar up into the bright blue sky, edging nearer

and nearer to the sun and, as Daedalus flew along below him, he saw a bright white feather flutter

through the sky and, looking up, watched in horror as more and more feathers detached themselves

from his son’s wings.

He watched in despair as his son began to lose height and his despair turned to total anguish as he

heard the terrified cry from his son, as he tumbled and spun past him towards the sea below.

It took only seconds, but it seemed like a lifetime, as Daedalus saw his son plummet through the sky

with increasing speed to hit the waters below with a resounding splash.

Daedalus flew low in the hope of seeing the boy appear on the surface of the churning waters but he

knew that nobody could have survived such a fall and that all hope was lost.

With a heavy heart, and almost exhausted, Daedalus regained the height he needed and, without

looking back, set his course for the island of Sicily. There he

hoped that he would be welcomed and be allowed to live a

trouble-free life for the rest of his days.

But however long he lived, he would never be able to forget the

sound of his son’s final cry as he sped towards the water. It was

only the briefest of sounds but he heard it clearly, even above

the sound of the foaming waves and crying gulls – “Father, help

me”.

Daedalus and Icarus’ worksheet

Answer: What is at the heart of the maze?

What causes Icarus's wings to fall off?

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What instructions does Daedalus give Icarus before Icarus flies away?

What happens to Icarus at the end of the story?

Why is Icarus more content with being a prisoner than Daedalus is?

Who is Icarus?

Who is Daedalus?

Where does Daedalus get the idea for his escape?

Where did Daedalus and Icarus live?

Why didn’t Icarus understand his father’s unhappiness?

What did Daedalus make?

What did Daedalus use to stick the wings on Icarus?

Why was Icarus scared?

What warning did Daedalus give to Icarus?

Why did Icarus fly higher?

Why didn’t Icarus hear Daedalus’ reminder not to fly too high?

Why did Icarus keep flying higher and higher?

What happened when Icarus flew too high?

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Why should Icarus have listened to his dad?

Why did Daedalus and Icarus need to fly?

What risk did Icarus take? Was it a good choice or a poor one?

The Myth of Orpheus

The greatest of all musicians was named Orpheus. He sang a wide

variety of songs. Sometimes he sang high-pitched songs about the

mystical creation of the universe. Other times he played low notes on

his lyre as he sang of the battles of Zeus ad the Olympians gods who

clashed against the Titans. Orpheus even had songs about people who

were changed into flowers or birds.

But whatever he sang, the rich clear words and the silvery notes from

his harp were so enchanting that they always had a magical effect on

everything around him. His songs could charm even rocks and rivers as

well as humans and animals. Once when Orpheus was playing his

splendid music in the forest, the oak trees pulled up their roots. They

followed him down the mountainside and planted themselves by the

seashore where Orpheus ended his song.

When the great adventurer Jason was about to set out on his search for

the Golden Fleece, Orpheus was invited to go along. Orpheus proved to

be of great help on the long journey. When the tempers of the heroes of the ship flared up, Orpheus

would sing a peaceful song and calm those who had been arguing. Sometimes when the rowing was

long and tedious, Orpheus would begin to stroke his lyre. Then time would seem to float by and the

rowers would not feel tired and they listened to the soft rippling music.

The time came when Jason and the Argonauts had to sail past the dangerous isle of the Sirens. The

Sirens were beautiful creatures who were part human, part bird. Their songs were so wonderful that

any person who heard them would become enchanted. All the sailors who heard the Sirens' songs

would hurl themselves overboard and swim to the island of the Sirens'. Lured by these strange

maidens the men would die upon the jagged rocks around the isle. But as the Argonauts came close to

the rocky island of the Sirens, Orpheus began a splendid song of his own. Jason and this crew did not

listen to the Sirens and were able to sail past the island unharmed.

After the Argonauts returned to Greece Orpheus fell in love with a beautiful woman named Eurydice.

They were married and a great feast was held in their honor. On the day of their wedding, Eurydice

strolled through a nearby field and talked joyfully with her friends. But as she walked through the

bright green meadow, she stumbled upon a poisonous snake. The huge serpent bit her and she died.

Orpheus was heartbroken over this cruel fate. He had been married and widowed on the same day.

After many weeks of mourning, he decided that he would go to the Underworld, the land of the dead.

There he would plead for his wife.

He came to the gates that lead to the underworld, playing on his harp. No living mortals were allowed

to cross into the shadowy regions of the underworld. But Orpheus' sweet dad music moved the ferry

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and of the dead and he gave Orpheus a ride across the dark murky river Styx. Thus Orpheus entered

the purple-darkened realm of the dead. Formless ghosts and spirits gathered around him. But Orpheus

was unfrighten and continued to play his slow music about his lost wife. The Spirits began to weep

and the huge vultures of the underworld listened to his song. The three-headed dog that guarded the

Underworld stopped growling and lay down and whimpered at the dad tine. Orpheus passed by the

coal-black stallions that pulled the chariot of Hades. The horses' ears stood straight up when they

heard the enchanting song. Finally the musician came before the King of the Underworld, called

Hades. All the jewels and precious metals that lie in the ground rightfully belonged to Hade's domain.

Thus he and his wife, Persephone, sat on the most magnificent thrones imaginable. Beside Hades lay

a magic helmet that would make anyone who wore it invisible. Here, before the King and Queen,

Orpheus sang his sad, sweet song and pleaded to have his bride back. Even the rulers of the

underworld were moved by his music. Eurydice was called forth and she came still limping from the

wound where the serpent had bitten her. Hades agreed that Orpheus could have his wife back, but

only on the condition that he did not look back until he had reached the land of the living.

Orpheus began walking up the long steep path that led to the sunlit world of men. The winding

pathway was gloomy and silent. Behind his in the darkness he could hear the soft pad of Eurydice's

bare feet upon the rocky steps. At last Orpheus saw sunlight coming through the opening to the over

world. He forgot himself and turned to look at his wife. There stood Eurydice, as lovely as a spring

morning with her dark wavy hair and her snowy cheeks. But as he looked Orpheus saw his lovely

wife begin to fade. He desperately tried to embrace her but she only had time to whisper "Farewell"

before she vanished.

Orpheus once again tried to cross the River Styx in hopes of regaining his

wife. But the ferryman would not listen to Orpheus' enchanting music this

time and he could not cross the river. He sadly returned to the land of

Thrace. On a hill in Thrace, Orpheus remained the rest of his life, singing

songs that enchanted the beast and the trees of the forest.

It is said that when Orpheus finally met his death, the birds wept on the

hillside. The trees shed their leaves and the nearby streams were swollen

with their own tears. Orpheus' spirit went down to the Underworld and he

soon found Eurydice. Although it is a shadowy existence the two walk

together for eternity without fear of another separation.

Orpheus’ worksheet

Answer: What instrument did Orpheus play?

How did Orpheus help Jason and the Argonauts?

Why was Orpheus ' wedding day such a sad time?

Name several of the underworld creatures that Orpheus encountered in the Underworld?

30

What happened when Orpheus looked back at his wife?

Write a paragraph telling what would have happened if Orpheus had not looked back at his wife.

Pretend you are a reporter going with Orpheus to the Underworld. Create the report you would give

to explain what happened.

Section A: Answer the following questions about the story in COMPLETE SENTENCES,

punctuation, and spelling.

What magical powers does the lyre have?

How did Eurydice die?

Who are Hades and Persephone?

Why did Orpheus look behind him on the way back to the living world?

How did Orpheus finally die?

Section B: Character Details. Write Orpheus’ good personality characteristics and his bad

personality characteristics.

Good Bad

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

The Myth of Perseus

Acrisius married Aganippe and had no sons, but one daughter Danae. She was beautiful above all the

women of Argos. Acrisius asked an oracle how to have a son. The priestess told him he would never

31

have a son, and that his grandson would someday kill him. The only escape would be to kill his

daughter himself. That he couldn't do, so Acrisius locked up Danae in a dungeon with brazen doors.

Zeus came upon her in a shower of golden rain which fell in her lap, and she bore a son named

Perseus.

When Acrisius discovered Perseus, Danae told him that Zeus was his father. He did not believe her,

but he was afraid to kill them for fear of the gods, so he locked them in a wooden ark and launched

them into the sea. They were washed up on an island named Seriphos among many islands. A kind

fisherman named Dictys found the chest, opened it and found them still alive. He and his kind wife

had no children and took them home and cared for both of them for many years, until Perseus was

grown.

Dictys' brother, Polydectes, was the local king, who fell in love with the still very beautiful Danae.

Perseus, now grown, was a formidable defender of his mother against Polydectes. So Polydectes

sought a plan to get rid of Perseus. He pretended to be in love with Hipposdameia, daughter of

Pelops, and called his subjects together to announce their marriage. He asked each to give him gift of

a horse, and all did so, except Perseus, who had no horse. Perseus announced that declared he would

bring back a better gift than anyone else. This is what Polydectes wanted, so he asked Perseus to

bring back the head of Medusa as a gift.

The Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters. They were monsters who lived on an island, who

were known far and wide because of their deadly power. They had tusks like boars, protruding

tongue, thick dragon scales, hands of brass, wings of gold, and a face so ugly that all who looked at it

were turned to stone. Medusa was distinguishable from the others because she had snakes for hair.

Medusa had been beautiful in her youth, especially her hair, but had lain with Poseidon in the temple

of Athena. For punishment, Athena had cursed Medusa to look as she does. She was the daughter of

Phorcys who had offended Athena by leading the Libyans of Lake Tritonis in battle.

Perseus left on a ship, without telling his mother where he was going, and sailed to Greece to find out

where the Gorgons lived. The priestess at Delphi told him to seek the land where they eat only

acorns. He went to Dodona, the land of talking oak trees which declare Zeus's will and where the

Selli lived who made bread of acorns. They did not know where the Gorgons lived, but told him he

was under the protection of the gods.

As he continued, he met a man carrying a wand of gold with wings at one end, wearing a winged hat

and winged sandals. It was Hermes, messenger of the gods. Hermes told him he must be properly

equipped to fight Medusa, and what he needed was in the possession of the Nymphs of the North

(Stygian Nymphs). Their location was known only to the Gray Women, who were the sisters of the

Gorgons. These women dwelt in a land where all was dim and shrouded in twilight. No ray of sun

looked ever on that country, nor the moon by night. They were very old and withered, and had only

one eye and one tooth between the three of them. It was their custom to take turns with it: when one

was done using it, she would remove it from her forehead and hand it to another.

All this Hermes told Perseus, and then unfolded his plan. Because the Gray women were the sisters of

the Gorgons, he would have to trick them. He must keep hidden until he saw one of them remove the

eye from her forehead. Then he must rush forward and take the eye and refuse to return it until they

told him how to find the Nymphs of the North.

Hermes then presented him with a sword made of diamond made by Hephaestus, which could not be

broken by Medusa's scales. Athena then appeared and gave him her breastplate of polished bronze

which he carried on his left arm and the sword in his right. She told him to look at Medusa only in its

reflection, to avoid being turned to stone.

Hermes then guided Perseus on a long journey across the ocean to the foot of Mount Atlas where the

Gray sisters acted as lookouts. He found the Gray Women sitting in their thrones, in the dim light

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looking like gray swans. They had the form of swans, but human heads, and under their wings they

had arms and hands. Perseus executed the plan exactly. When he snatched the eye and the tooth it

was a moment before the three realized they had lost it, for each thought the other had it. But Perseus

told them he had it, and they reluctantly told him the location of the Nymphs of the North. Then he

gave them back the eye.

He and Hermes then left for the Land of Hyperboria, the land beyond the North Wind. It is said of

that land, "Neither by ship nor yet by land shall one find the wonderous road to the gathering place of

the Hyperboreans." But Perseus had Hermes with him, so the road lay open. He found a host of happy

people who are always banqueting and joyous. They showed him great kindness and welcomed him

to their feast, and the maidens dancing to flute and lyre paused to get him the gifts he sought. These

were a) winged sandals enabling him to fly, b) a magic silver pouch that would adjust itself to the size

of whatever it held, and c) a cap or helmet of darkness from Hades which made the wearer invisible.

Hermes knew where the Gorgons lived, so the two flew back across the Ocean and over the sea to the

Terrible Sisters' Island.

The Gorgons were all three asleep when Perseus found them. In the mirror he could see them clearly:

they had great wings, bodies covered with golden scales, and hair a mass of twisted snakes. Athena

now appeared beside him and told him which one was the Medusa. The other two, Stheno and

Euryale, were immortal. Perseus looked at them in the shield, and Athena guided his hand as he cut

off her head. To his surprise the winged horse Pegasus and the warrior Chrysaor grasping a golden

curved sword sprang full grown from her dead body. Perseus was unaware that these had been

begotten on Medusa by Poseidon in the temple of Athena. He decided not to antagonize them and

dropped her head into the pouch. The other two sisters were awakened by their new nephew, but

could not find him because of his cap of invisibility. He escaped southward and Hermes left him.

Strong winds blew him across the sky like a raincloud, so he stopped to rest near the palace of the

Titan Atlas, who refused him hospitality. As a punishment, Perseus showed the Gorgon's head to

Atlas and turned him into a range of mountains that now bear his name. The next day he flew across

the Libyan Desert and some drops of the Medusa's blood fell on the sand and bred a swarm of

poisonous snakes, one of which later killed Mopsus the Argonaut.

As he rounded the coast of Philistia (Palestine) he caught sight of Andromeda, who was chained to a

cliff on the seashore. She was the daughter of Cepheus, the Ethiopian King of Joppa (Tel- Aviv,

nearest port to Jerusalem), and his wife Casseiopeia. Casseiopeia had boasted that both she and her

daughter were more beautiful that the Nereids, some very beautiful sea nymphs. They complained to

Poseidon who sent a flood and a sea monster to devastate the coast near Joppa (the Gaza Strip). When

Cepheus consulted the Oracle of Ammon he was told that his only hope of deliverance was to

sacrifice his daughter Andromeda to the sea monster. His subjects chained her to a cliff, wearing

certain jewels, and left her to be devoured.

As Perseus flew over, he at first almost mistook her for a marble statue. Only the wind ruffling her

hair and the warm tears on her cheeks showed that she was human. Perseus instantly fell in love with

Andromeda. As Perseus flew to her and asked her why she was chained there. Shy Andromeda,

totally different from her vainglorious mother, at first did not answer. Finally, she told Perseus her

story, but broke off with a scream as she saw the monster approaching.

Perseus saw Cepheus and Cassiopeia watching anxiously nearby and quickly went to consult with

them. They agreed that if he rescued her, she should be his wife and Cepheus offered him his

kingdom as a dowry. They also agreed to let Perseus take her back to his home at Seriphos. He took

to the air, grasped his sword and diving murderously from above, and beheaded the approaching

monster, which was deceived by his shadow on the sea. He had drawn the Medusa's head from the

pouch in case the monster had looked up. The headless body of the monster dropped back into the

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water. He laid Medusa's head face down on some seaweed, which turned instantly to coral. He then

cleansed his hand of blood and made three altars, on which he sacrificed a calf, a cow, and a bull to

Hermes, Athena, and Zeus respectively.

On Andromeda's insistence, the wedding took place immediately, even though Cassiopeia insisted

that the pledge of her hand had been forced on them by the circumstances, and that Agenor (Phineas),

King Belus's twin brother, had already been betrothed to her. The wedding feast was rudely

interrupted when Agenor entered at the head of an armed party, claiming Andromeda for himself.

"Perseus must die!" Cassiopeia cried fiercely.

In the ensuing fight, Perseus struck down many of his opponents, but, being greatly outnumbered,

was forced to snatch the Gorgon's head from the coral and turned two hundred of them to stone.

Poseidon set the images of Cephus and Cassiopeia among the stars. The latter, as a punishment for

her treachery, is tied in a market basket which is sometimes turned upside-down. But Athena

afterwards honored Andromeda image in a more favorable place because she had insisted on

marrying Perseus.

A year later Perseus took Andromeda with him back to Seriphos. She had born Perseus a son, Perses,

who was left with Cepheus to be heir to the throne of Joppa. When they arrived, they found that the

wife of Dictys was long since dead, and the Dictys himself and his mother Danae had had to flee

from Polydectes, who was furious at Danae refusal to marry him. They had taken refuge in the

temple. Perseus learned that Polydectes was holding a banquet in the palace with all the men who

favored him. Perseus went straight to the hall, with the breastplate of Athena on his chest and the

silver pouch at his side. He announced to Polydectes that he had brought the promised love-gift. They

poured scorn on his claim to have brought back the head of the Medusa, whereupon Perseus showed

it to the king and everyone there and they all turned to stone. This circle of bolders is still shown at

Seriphos. He then gave the head to Athena who bore it always upon the aegis, Zeus's shield, which

she carried for him. Hermes returned the sandals, pouch, and helmet to the guardianship of the

Stygian nymphs.

When the islanders knew they were free from the tyrant, it was easy for him to find Danae and

Dictys. He made Dictys king of the island, but he and his mother decided to go back with Andromeda

to Argos to try to be reconciled with Acrisius after the many years since he had put him and Danae in

the wooden chest. They were accompanied by a party of cyclopses. When Acrisius heard Perseus was

coming, he fled to Larissa in Thessaly to avoid the fulfillment of the oracle. When they reached

Argos, Perseus found that Acrisius was gone, and where he was no one could say. Perseus had been

invited to the athletic funeral games that the King Teutamides of Larissa was holding to honor his

dead father. He went to participate, and when he threw the discus, it was carried out of its path by the

wind and fell among the spectators. It struck the foot of Acrisius and killed him, fulfilling the

prophecy. Greatly grieved, Perseus buried his grandfather in the temple of Athena, and ashamed to

reign in Argos, he went to Tiryns where Proteus had been succeeded by Megapenthes and arranged to

exchange kingdoms with him.

Perseus fortified Midea, founded Mycenae, so named because when he was thirsty a mushroom

(mycos) sprang up, giving him a stream of water. The cyclopses built walls around both cities.

Perseus and Andromeda lived happily ever after. They had five more sons: Alcaeus, Sthenelus,

Heleius, Mestor, and Electryon, and a daughter Gorgophone ("slaying of the Gorgon"). Their son

Electryon was the grandfather of Hercules.

Perseus’ worksheet

1. Who were Perseus' mother and father?

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2. What is a Gorgon?

3. What presents did Perseus receive?

4. Who was the evil king?

5. What happened if you looked into a Gorgon's eyes?

6. Who gave Perseus the presents and why?

7. Why was Andromeda crying?

8. How did Perseus kill the sea monster?

9. What was the name of the Gorgon that Perseus killed?

10. What happened to Polydectes in the end?

11. What happened to Andromeda at the end?

12. What present was the most useful and why?

13. What horrible news did King Acrisius receive from the oracle of Delphi?

14. How did Acrisius attempt to avoid the danger posed by the prophecy?

15. How was it that Danae still ended up having a son?

16. Why couldn’t Acrisius simply kill Perseus?

17. How does he try to get rid of her and Danae?

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18. Who finds Perseus and Danae when they wash up on the island’s shore?

19. How does he treat them?

20. Who was Polydectes? What was his attitude toward Danae? To Perseus?

21. Explain what “gift” Perseus offered to bring to Polydectes.

22. What danger did Perseus face in obtaining this “gift”?

23. To what place did the oracle of Delphi send Perseus? What did the people of this land tell him?

24. How did Hermes tell Perseus to convince the Grey Women to reveal the location of the nymphs

of the north?

25. Name the two gifts that were given by each deity to Perseus: - Hermes: - Athena:

26. How was Perseus able to approach Medusa? How was he able to escape?

27. How did Perseus exact his revenge on King Polydectes and his supporters?

28. How did the oracle about Perseus and his grandfather eventually become true?

Eris and the Apple of Discord

Eris is a Greek goddess, the Latin form of her name being Discordia. She is best known as a goddess

of chaos; she is mischievous and something of a trickster. She is sometimes described as the twin of

Ares, daughter of Zeus and Hera, or, alternately, as the daughter of Nyx.

The most well-known story of Eris recounts how she instigated the Trojan

War. Due to her reputation of spreading discord, she was not invited to the

wedding feast of Peleus and Thetis, the king of Aegina and a sea-nymph,

respectively. Bitter as a result of the snub, she tossed into the party a golden

apple inscribed with the word Kallisti, which translates “To the Fairest One,”

also known as the Apple of Discord.

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Naturally, all the goddesses fought for it, but in the end it came down to three, Hera, Athena, and

Aphrodite. They petitioned Zeus to make the final decision on who it was intended for, but he wisely

declined, and instead pointed to young Paris, son of Priam, the king of Troy’s estranged son. Due to

an unfortunate prophesy, Paris had been banished to Mount Ida and raised as a shepherd.

The three goddesses appeared before Paris with the golden apple, and demanded he make his choice.

In secret, each of the goddesses attempted to sway his opinion in their favor; Hera promised Paris

political power, Athena offered war victories, but clever Aphrodite pledged him the most beautiful

woman on Earth. Being the lusty young fellow that he was, Paris gave Aphrodite the golden apple

and expected to receive Aphrodite, herself. Aphrodite, surely amused, explained that she offered him

the most beautiful woman on Earth, and clearly, she was a goddess. But true to her word, she

maneuvered circumstances so Paris could claim his prize, the beautiful Helen of Sparta, wed to

Menelaus. Paris woos Helen, with the aid of Aphrodite, and they leave for Troy.

Of course, upon discovering the disappearance of Helen and her new whereabouts, Menelaus

demanded of Troy the return of his queen, and everyone knows what happened after that.

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The Iliad and The Odyssey

Context

Nearly three thousand years after they were composed, The Iliad and The Odyssey remain two of the

most celebrated and widely read stories ever told, yet next to nothing is known about their composer.

He was certainly an accomplished Greek bard, and he probably lived in the late eighth and early

seventh centuries B.C. Authorship is traditionally ascribed to a blind poet named Homer, and it is

under this name that the works are still published. Greeks of the third and second centuries B.C.,

however, already questioned whether Homer existed and whether the two epics were even written by

a single individual.

Most modern scholars believe that even if a single person wrote the epics, his work owed a

tremendous debt to a long tradition of unwritten, oral poetry. Stories of a glorious expedition to the

East and of its leaders’ fateful journeys home had been circulating in Greece for hundreds of years

before The Iliad and The Odyssey were composed. Casual storytellers and semiprofessional minstrels

passed these stories down through generations, with each artist developing and polishing the story as

he told it. According to this theory, one poet, multiple poets working in collaboration, or perhaps

even a series of poets handing down their work in succession finally turned these stories into written

works, again with each adding his own touch and expanding or contracting certain episodes in the

overall narrative to fit his taste.

Although historical, archaeological, and linguistic evidence suggests that the epics were composed

between 750 and 650 B.C. they are set in Mycenaean Greece in about the twelfth century B.C.,

during the Bronze Age. This earlier period, the Greeks believed, was a more glorious and sublime

age, when gods still frequented the earth and heroic, godlike mortals with superhuman attributes

populated Greece. Because the two epics strive to evoke this pristine age, they are written in a high

style and generally depict life as it was believed to have been led in the great kingdoms of the Bronze

Age. The Greeks are often referred to as “Achaeans,” the name of a large tribe occupying Greece

during the Bronze Age.

But Homer’s reconstruction often yields to the realities of eighth- and seventh-century B.C. Greece.

The feudal social structure apparent in the background of The Odyssey seems more akin to Homer’s

Greece than to Odysseus’s, and Homer substitutes the pantheon of deities of his own day for the

related but different gods whom Mycenaean Greeks worshipped. Many other minor but obvious

anachronisms—such as references to iron tools and to tribes that had not yet migrated to Greece by

the Bronze Age—betray the poem’s later, Iron Age origins.

For centuries, many scholars believed that the Trojan War and its participants were entirely the

creation of the Greek imagination. But in the late nineteenth century, an archaeologist named

Heinrich Schliemann declared that he had discovered the remnants of Troy. The ruins that he

uncovered sit a few dozen miles off of the Aegean coast in northwestern Turkey, a site that indeed fits

the geographical descriptions of Homer’s Troy. One layer of the site, roughly corresponding to the

point in history when the fall of Troy would have taken place, shows evidence of fire and destruction

consistent with a sack. Although most scholars accept Schliemann’s discovered city as the site of the

ancient city of Troy, many remain skeptical as to whether Homer’s Trojan War ever really took place.

Evidence from Near Eastern literature suggests that episodes similar to those described in The Iliad

may have circulated even before Schliemann’s Troy was destroyed. Nonetheless, many scholars now

admit the possibility that some truth may lie at the center of The Iliad, hidden beneath many layers of

poetic embellishment.

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Of the two epics, The Odyssey is the later both in setting and, probably, date of composition. The

Iliad tells the story of the Greek struggle to rescue Helen, a Greek queen, from her Trojan captors.

The Odyssey takes the fall of the city of Troy as its starting point and crafts a new epic around the

struggle of one of those Greek warriors, the hero Odysseus. It tells the story of his nostos, or journey

home, to northwest Greece during the ten-year period after the Greek victory over the Trojans. A tale

of wandering, it takes place not on a field of battle but on fantastic islands and foreign lands. After the

unrelenting tragedy and carnage of the Iliad, the Odyssey often strikes readers as comic or surreal at

times. This quality has led some scholars to conclude that Homer wrote the Odyssey at a later time of

his life, when he showed less interest in struggles at arms and was more receptive to a storyline that

focused on the fortunes and misadventures of a single man. Others argue that someone else must have

composed the Odyssey, one who wished to provide a companion work to the Iliad but had different

interests from those of the earlier epic’s author.

The Aftermath of The Iliad

The Trojan War has not yet ended at the close of The Iliad. Homer’s audience would have been

familiar with the struggle’s conclusion, and the potency of much of Homer’s irony and foreboding

depends on this familiarity. What follows is a synopsis of some of the most important events that

happen after The Iliad ends.

The Death of Achilles

In the final books of The Iliad, Achilles refers frequently to his imminent death, about which his

mother, Thetis, has warned him. After the end of the poem, at Hector’s funeral feast, Achilles sights

the beautiful Polyxena, the daughter of Priam and hence a princess of Troy. Taken with her beauty,

Achilles falls in love with her. Hoping to marry her, he agrees to use his influence with the Achaean

army to bring about an end to the war. But when he travels to the temple of Apollo to negotiate the

peace, Paris shoots him in the heel—the only vulnerable part of his body—with a poisoned arrow. In

other versions of the story, the wound occurs in the midst of battle.

Achilles’ Armor and the Death of Ajax

After Achilles’ death, Ajax and Odysseus go and recover his body. Thetis instructs the Achaeans to

bequeath Achilles’ magnificent armor, forged by the god Hephaestus, to the most worthy hero. Both

Ajax and Odysseus covet the armor; when it is awarded to Odysseus, Ajax commits suicide out of

humiliation.

The Fall of Troy

The Achaean commanders are nearly ready to give up; nothing can penetrate the massive walls of

Troy. But before they lose heart, Odysseus concocts a plan that will allow them to bypass the walls of

the city completely. The Achaeans build a massive, hollow, wooden horse, large enough to hold a

contingent of warriors inside. Odysseus and a group of soldiers hide in the horse, while the rest of the

Achaeans burn their camps and sail away from Troy, waiting in their ships behind a nearby island.

The next morning, the Trojans peer down from the ramparts of their wall and discover the gigantic,

mysterious horse. They also discover a lone Achaean soldier named Sinon, whom they take prisoner.

As instructed by Odysseus, Sinon tells the Trojans that the Achaeans have incurred the wrath of

Athena for the theft of the Palladium. They have left Sinon as a sacrifice to the goddess and

constructed the horse as a gift to soothe her temper. Sinon explains that the Achaeans left the horse

before the Trojan gates in the hopes that the Trojans would destroy it and thereby earn the wrath of

Athena.

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Believing Sinon’s story, the Trojans wheel the massive horse into the city as a tribute to Athena. That

night, Odysseus and his men slip out of the horse, kill the Trojan guards, and fling open the gates of

Troy to the Achaean army, which has meanwhile approached the city again. Having at last penetrated

the wall, the Achaeans massacre the citizens of Troy, plunder the city’s riches, and burn the buildings

to the ground. All of the Trojan men are killed except for a small group led by Aeneas, who escapes.

Helen, whose loyalties have shifted back to the Achaeans since Paris’s death, returns to Menelaus,

and the Achaeans at last set sail for home.

After the War

The fates of many of The Iliad’s heroes after the war occupy an important space in Greek mythology.

Odysseus, as foretold, spends ten years trying to return to Ithaca, and his adventures form the subject

of Homer’s other great epic, The Odyssey. Helen and Menelaus have a long and dangerous voyage

back to their home in Sparta, with a long stay in Egypt. In The Odyssey, Telemachus travels to Sparta

in search of his father, Odysseus, and finds Helen and Menelaus celebrating the marriage of their

daughter, Hermione. Agamemnon, who has taken Priam’s daughter Cassandra as a slave, returns

home to his wife, Clytemnestra, and his kingdom, Mycenae. Ever since Agamemnon’s sacrifice of

Iphigeneia at the altar of Athena, however, Clytemnestra has nurtured a vast resentment toward her

husband. She has taken a man named Aegisthus as her lover, and upon Agamemnon’s return, the

lovers murder Agamemnon in his bath and kill Cassandra as well. This story is the subject of

Aeschylus’s play Agamemnon. Meanwhile, Aeneas, the only great Trojan warrior to survive the fall

of Troy, wanders for many years, searching for a new home for his surviving fellow citizens. His

adventures are recounted in Virgil’s epic Aeneid.

List of Characters

The Achaeans (also called the “Argives” or “Danaans”)

Achilles - The son of the military man Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis. The most powerful warrior

in The Iliad, Achilles commands the Myrmidons, soldiers from his homeland of Phthia in Greece.

Proud and headstrong, he takes offense easily and reacts with blistering indignation when he

perceives that his honor has been slighted. Achilles’ wrath at Agamemnon for taking his war prize,

the maiden Briseis, forms the main subject of The Iliad.

Agamemnon (also called “Atrides”) - King of Mycenae and leader of the Achaean army; brother of

King Menelaus of Sparta. Arrogant and often selfish, Agamemnon provides the Achaeans with strong

but sometimes reckless and self-serving leadership. Like Achilles, he lacks consideration and

forethought. Most saliently, his tactless appropriation of Achilles’ war prize, the maiden Briseis,

creates a crisis for the Achaeans, when Achilles, insulted, withdraws from the war.

Patroclus - Achilles’ beloved friend, companion, and advisor, Patroclus grew up alongside the great

warrior in Phthia, under the guardianship of Peleus. Devoted to both Achilles and the Achaean cause,

Patroclus stands by the enraged Achilles but also dons Achilles’ terrifying armor in an attempt to hold

the Trojans back.

Odysseus - A fine warrior and the cleverest of the Achaean commanders. Along with Nestor,

Odysseus is one of the Achaeans’ two best public speakers. He helps mediate between Agamemnon

and Achilles during their quarrel and often prevents them from making rash decisions.

Diomedes (also called “Tydides”) - The youngest of the Achaean commanders, Diomedes is bold and

sometimes proves impetuous. After Achilles withdraws from combat, Athena inspires Diomedes with

such courage that he actually wounds two gods, Aphrodite and Ares.

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Great Ajax - An Achaean commander, Great Ajax (sometimes called “Telamonian Ajax” or simply

“Ajax”) is the second mightiest Achaean warrior after Achilles. His extraordinary size and strength

help him to wound Hector twice by hitting him with boulders. He often fights alongside Little Ajax,

and the pair is frequently referred to as the “Aeantes.”

Little Ajax - An Achaean commander, Little Ajax is the son of Oileus (to be distinguished from

Great Ajax, the son of Telamon). He often fights alongside Great Ajax, whose stature and strength

complement Little Ajax’s small size and swift speed. The two together are sometimes called the

“Aeantes.”

Nestor - King of Pylos and the oldest Achaean commander. Although age has taken much of

Nestor’s physical strength, it has left him with great wisdom. He often acts as an advisor to the

military commanders, especially Agamemnon. Nestor and Odysseus are the Achaeans’ most deft and

persuasive orators, although Nestor’s speeches are sometimes long-winded.

Menelaus - King of Sparta; the younger brother of Agamemnon. While it is the abduction of his

wife, Helen, by the Trojan prince Paris that sparks the Trojan War, Menelaus proves quieter, less

imposing, and less arrogant than Agamemnon. Though he has a stout heart, Menelaus is not among

the mightiest Achaean warriors.

Idomeneus - King of Crete and a respected commander. Idomeneus leads a charge against the

Trojans in Book 13.

Machaon - A healer. Machaon is wounded by Paris in Book 11.

Calchas - An important soothsayer. Calchas’s identification of the cause of the plague ravaging the

Achaean army in Book 1 leads inadvertently to the rift between Agamemnon and Achilles that

occupies the first nineteen books of The Iliad.

Peleus - Achilles’ father and the grandson of Zeus. Although his name often appears in the epic,

Peleus never appears in person. Priam powerfully invokes the memory of Peleus when he convinces

Achilles to return Hector’s corpse to the Trojans in Book 24.

Phoenix - A kindly old warrior, Phoenix helped raise Achilles while he himself was still a young

man. Achilles deeply loves and trusts Phoenix, and Phoenix mediates between him and Agamemnon

during their quarrel.

The Myrmidons - The soldiers under Achilles’ command, hailing from Achilles’ homeland, Phthia.

The Trojans

Hector - A son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba, Hector is the mightiest warrior in the Trojan army.

He mirrors Achilles in some of his flaws, but his bloodlust is not as great as that of Achilles. He is

devoted to his wife, Andromache, and son, Astyanax, but resents his brother Paris for bringing war

upon their family and city.

Priam - King of Troy and husband of Hecuba, Priam is the father of fifty Trojan warriors, including

Hector and Paris. Though too old to fight, he has earned the respect of both the Trojans and the

Achaeans by virtue of his level-headed, wise, and benevolent rule. He treats Helen kindly, though he

laments the war that her beauty has sparked.

Hecuba - Queen of Troy, wife of Priam, and mother of Hector and Paris.

Paris (also known as “Alexander”) - A son of Priam and Hecuba and brother of Hector. Paris’s

abduction of the beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus, sparked the Trojan War. Paris is self-centered

and often unmanly. He fights effectively with a bow and arrow (never with the more manly sword or

spear) but often lacks the spirit for battle and prefers to sit in his room making love to Helen while

others fight for him, thus earning both Hector’s and Helen’s scorn.

Helen - Reputed to be the most beautiful woman in the ancient world, Helen was stolen from her

husband, Menelaus, and taken to Troy by Paris. She loathes herself now for the misery that she has

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caused so many Trojan and Achaean men. Although her contempt extends to Paris as well, she

continues to stay with him.

Aeneas - A Trojan nobleman, the son of Aphrodite, and a mighty warrior. The Romans believed that

Aeneas later founded their city (he is the protagonist of Virgil’s masterpiece the Aeneid).

Andromache - Hector’s loving wife, Andromache begs Hector to withdraw from the war and save

himself before the Achaeans kill him.

Astyanax - Hector and Andromache’s infant son.

Polydamas - A young Trojan commander, Polydamas sometimes figures as a foil for Hector, proving

cool-headed and prudent when Hector charges ahead. Polydamas gives the Trojans sound advice, but

Hector seldom acts on it.

Glaucus - A powerful Trojan warrior, Glaucus nearly fights a duel with Diomedes. The men’s

exchange of armor after they realize that their families are friends illustrates the value that ancients

placed on kinship and camaraderie.

Agenor - A Trojan warrior who attempts to fight Achilles in Book 21. Agenor delays Achilles long

enough for the Trojan army to flee inside Troy’s walls.

Dolon - A Trojan sent to spy on the Achaean camp in Book 10.

Pandarus - A Trojan archer. Pandarus’s shot at Menelaus in Book 4 breaks the temporary truce

between the two sides.

Antenor - A Trojan nobleman, advisor to King Priam, and father of many Trojan warriors. Antenor

argues that Helen should be returned to Menelaus in order to end the war, but Paris refuses to give her

up.

Sarpedon - One of Zeus’s sons. Sarpedon’s fate seems intertwined with the gods’ quibbles, calling

attention to the unclear nature of the gods’ relationship to Fate.

Chryseis - Chryses’ daughter, a priest of Apollo in a Trojan-allied town.

Briseis - A war prize of Achilles. When Agamemnon is forced to return Chryseis to her father, he

appropriates Briseis as compensation, sparking Achilles’ great rage.

Chryses - A priest of Apollo in a Trojan-allied town; the father of Chryseis, whom Agamemnon

takes as a war prize.

The Gods and Immortals

Zeus - King of the gods and husband of Hera, Zeus claims neutrality in the mortals’ conflict and

often tries to keep the other gods from participating in it. However, he throws his weight behind the

Trojan side for much of the battle after the sulking Achilles has his mother, Thetis, ask the god to do

so.

Hera - Queen of the gods and Zeus’s wife, Hera is a conniving, headstrong woman. She often goes

behind Zeus’s back in matters on which they disagree, working with Athena to crush the Trojans,

whom she passionately hates.

Athena - The goddess of wisdom, purposeful battle, and the womanly arts; Zeus’s daughter. Like

Hera, Athena passionately hates the Trojans and often gives the Achaeans valuable aid.

Thetis - A sea-nymph and the devoted mother of Achilles, Thetis gets Zeus to help the Trojans and

punish the Achaeans at the request of her angry son. When Achilles finally rejoins the battle, she

commissions Hephaestus to design him a new suit of armor.

Apollo - A son of Zeus and twin brother of the goddess Artemis, Apollo is god of the sun and the

arts, particularly music. He supports the Trojans and often intervenes in the war on their behalf.

Aphrodite - Goddess of love and daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite is married to Hephaestus but maintains

a romantic relationship with Ares. She supports Paris and the Trojans throughout the war, though she

proves somewhat ineffectual in battle.

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Poseidon - The brother of Zeus and god of the sea. Poseidon holds a long-standing grudge against the

Trojans because they never paid him for helping them to build their city. He therefore supports the

Achaeans in the war.

Hephaestus - God of fire and husband of Aphrodite, Hephaestus is the gods’ metalsmith and is

known as the lame or crippled god. Although the text doesn’t make clear his sympathies in the

mortals’ struggle, he helps the Achaeans by forging a new set of armor for Achilles and by rescuing

Achilles during his fight with a river god.

Artemis - Goddess of the hunt, daughter of Zeus, and twin sister of Apollo. Artemis supports the

Trojans in the war.

Ares - God of war and lover of Aphrodite, Ares generally supports the Trojans in the war.

Hermes - The messenger of the gods. Hermes escorts Priam to Achilles’ tent in Book 24.

Iris - Zeus’s messenger.

The Iliad

Book 1

The poet invokes a muse to aid him in telling the story of the rage of Achilles, the greatest Greek hero

to fight in the Trojan War. The narrative begins nine years after the start of the war, as the Achaeans

sack a Trojan-allied town and capture two beautiful maidens, Chryseis and Briseis. Agamemnon,

commander-in-chief of the Achaean army, takes Chryseis as his prize. Achilles, one of the Achaeans’

most valuable warriors, claims Briseis. Chryseis’s father, a man named Chryses who serves as a

priest of the god Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return his daughter and offers to pay an enormous

ransom. When Agamemnon refuses, Chryses prays to Apollo for help.

Apollo sends a plague upon the Greek camp, causing the death of many soldiers. After ten days of

suffering, Achilles calls an assembly of the Achaean army and asks for a soothsayer to reveal the

cause of the plague. Calchas, a powerful seer, stands up and offers his services. Though he fears

retribution from Agamemnon, Calchas reveals the plague as a vengeful and strategic move by

Chryses and Apollo. Agamemnon flies into a rage and says that he will return Chryseis only if

Achilles gives him Briseis as compensation.

Agamemnon’s demand humiliates and infuriates the proud Achilles. The men argue, and Achilles

threatens to withdraw from battle and take his people, the Myrmidons, back home to Phthia.

Agamemnon threatens to go to Achilles’ tent in the army’s camp and take Briseis himself. Achilles

stands poised to draw his sword and kill the Achaean commander when the goddess Athena, sent by

Hera, the queen of the gods, appears to him and checks his anger. Athena’s guidance, along with a

speech by the wise advisor Nestor, finally succeeds in preventing the duel.

That night, Agamemnon puts Chryseis on a ship back to her father and sends heralds to have Briseis

escorted from Achilles’ tent. Achilles prays to his mother, the sea-nymph Thetis, to ask Zeus, king of

the gods, to punish the Achaeans. He relates to her the tale of his quarrel with Agamemnon, and she

promises to take the matter up with Zeus—who owes her a favor—as soon as he returns from a

thirteen-day period of feasting with the Aethiopians. Meanwhile, the Achaean commander Odysseus

is navigating the ship that Chryseis has boarded. When he lands, he returns the maiden and makes

sacrifices to Apollo. Chryses, overjoyed to see his daughter, prays to the god to lift the plague from

the Achaean camp. Apollo acknowledges his prayer, and Odysseus returns to his comrades.

But the end of the plague on the Achaeans only marks the beginning of worse suffering. Ever since

his quarrel with Agamemnon, Achilles has refused to participate in battle, and, after twelve days,

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Thetis makes her appeal to Zeus, as promised. Zeus is reluctant to help the Trojans, for his wife,

Hera, favors the Greeks, but he finally agrees. Hera becomes livid when she discovers that Zeus is

helping the Trojans, but her son Hephaestus persuades her not to plunge the gods into conflict over

the mortals.

Book 2

To help the Trojans, as promised, Zeus sends a false dream to Agamemnon in which a figure in the

form of Nestor persuades Agamemnon that he can take Troy if he launches a full-scale assault on the

city’s walls. The next day, Agamemnon gathers his troops for attack, but, to test their courage, he lies

and tells them that he has decided to give up the war and return to Greece. To his dismay, they

eagerly run to their ships.

When Hera sees the Achaeans fleeing, she alerts Athena, who inspires Odysseus, the most eloquent

of the Achaeans, to call the men back. He shouts words of encouragement and insult to goad their

pride and restore their confidence. He reminds them of the prophecy that the soothsayer Calchas gave

when the Achaeans were first mustering their soldiers back in Greece: a water snake had slithered to

shore and devoured a nest of nine sparrows, and Calchas interpreted the sign to mean that nine years

would pass before the Achaeans would finally take Troy. As Odysseus reminds them, they vowed at

that time that they would not abandon their struggle until the city fell.

Nestor now encourages Agamemnon to arrange his troops by city and clan so that they can fight side

by side with their friends and kin. The poet takes this opportunity to enter into a catalog of the army.

After invoking the muses to aid his memory, he details the cities that have contributed troops to the

Greek cause, the number of troops that each has contributed, and who leads each contingent. At the

end of the list, the poet singles out the bravest of the Achaeans, Achilles and Ajax among them.

When Zeus sends a messenger to the Trojan court, telling them of the Greeks’ awesome formation,

the Trojans muster their own troops under the command of Priam’s son Hector. The poet then

catalogs the Trojan forces.

Book 3

The Trojan army marches from the city gates and advances to meet the Achaeans. Paris, the Trojan

prince who precipitated the war by stealing the beautiful Helen from her husband, Menelaus,

challenges the Achaeans to single combat with any of their warriors. When Menelaus steps forward,

however, Paris loses heart and shrinks back into the Trojan ranks. Hector, Paris’s brother and the

leader of the Trojan forces, chastises Paris for his cowardice. Stung by Hector’s insult, Paris finally

agrees to a duel with Menelaus, declaring that the contest will establish peace between Trojans and

Achaeans by deciding once and for all which man shall have Helen as his wife. Hector presents the

terms to Menelaus, who accepts. Both armies look forward to ending the war at last.

As Paris and Menelaus prepare for combat, the goddess Iris, disguised as Hector’s sister Laodice,

visits Helen in Priam’s palace. Iris urges Helen to go to the city gates and witness the battle about to

be fought over her. Helen finds the city’s elders, including Priam, gathered there. Priam asks Helen

about the strapping young Achaeans he sees, and she identifies Agamemnon, Ajax, and Odysseus.

Priam marvels at their strength and splendor but eventually leaves the scene, unable to bear watching

Paris fight to the death.

Paris and Menelaus arm themselves and begin their duel. Neither is able to fell the other with his

spear. Menelaus breaks his sword over Paris’s helmet. He then grabs Paris by the helmet and begins

dragging him through the dirt, but Aphrodite, an ally of the Trojans, snaps the strap of the helmet so

that it breaks off in Menelaus’s hands. Frustrated, Menelaus retrieves his spear and is about to drive it

home into Paris when Aphrodite whisks Paris away to his room in Priam’s palace. She summons

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Helen there too. Helen, after upbraiding Paris for his cowardice, lies down in bed with him. Back on

the battlefield, both the Trojans and the Greeks search for Paris, who seems to have magically

disappeared. Agamemnon insists that Menelaus has won the duel, and he demands Helen back.

Book 4

Meanwhile, the gods engage in their own duels. Zeus argues that Menelaus has won the duel and that

the war should end as the mortals had agreed. But Hera, who has invested much in the Achaean

cause, wants nothing less than the complete destruction of Troy. In the end, Zeus gives way and sends

Athena to the battlefield to rekindle the fighting. Disguised as a Trojan soldier, Athena convinces the

archer Pandarus to take aim at Menelaus. Pandarus fires, but Athena, who wants merely to give the

Achaeans a pretext for fighting, deflects the arrow so that it only wounds Menelaus.

Agamemnon now rallies the Achaean ranks. He meets Nestor, Odysseus, and Diomedes, among

others, and spurs them on by challenging their pride or recounting the great deeds of their fathers.

Battle breaks out, and the blood flows freely. None of the major characters is killed or wounded, but

Odysseus and Great Ajax kill a number of minor Trojan figures. The gods also become involved,

with Athena helping the Achaeans and Apollo helping the Trojans. The efforts toward a truce have

failed utterly.

Book 5

As the battle rages, Pandarus wounds the Achaean hero Diomedes. Diomedes prays to Athena for

revenge, and the goddess endows him with superhuman strength and the extraordinary power to

discern gods on the field of battle. She warns him, however, not to challenge any of them except

Aphrodite. Diomedes fights like a man possessed, slaughtering all Trojans he meets. The

overconfident Pandarus meets a gruesome death at the end of Diomedes’ spear, and Aeneas, the noble

Trojan hero immortalized in Virgil’s Aeneid, likewise receives a wounding at the hands of the

divinely assisted Diomedes. When Aeneas’s mother, Aphrodite, comes to his aid, Diomedes wounds

her too, cutting her wrist and sending her back to Mount Olympus. Aphrodite’s mother, Dione, heals

her, and Zeus warns Aphrodite not to try her hand at warfare again. When Apollo goes to tend to

Aeneas in Aphrodite’s stead, Diomedes attacks him as well. This act of aggression breaches

Diomedes’ agreement with Athena, who had limited him to challenging Aphrodite alone among the

gods. Apollo, issuing a stern warning to Diomedes, effortlessly pushes him aside and whisks Aeneas

off of the field. Aiming to enflame the passions of Aeneas’s comrades, he leaves a replica of

Aeneas’s body on the ground. He also rouses Ares, god of war, to fight on the Trojan side.

With the help of the gods, the Trojans begin to take the upper hand in battle. Hector and Ares prove

too much for the Achaeans; the sight of a hero and god battling side by side frightens even Diomedes.

The Trojan Sarpedon kills the Achaean Tlepolemus. Odysseus responds by slaughtering entire lines

of Trojans, but Hector cuts down still more Greeks. Finally, Hera and Athena appeal to Zeus, who

gives them permission to intervene on the Achaeans’ behalf. Hera rallies the rest of the Achaean

troops, while Athena encourages Diomedes. She withdraws her earlier injunction not to attack any of

the gods except Aphrodite and even jumps in the chariot with him to challenge Ares. The divinely

driven chariot charges Ares, and, in the seismic collision that follows, Diomedes wounds Ares. Ares

immediately flies to Mount Olympus and complains to Zeus, but Zeus counters that Ares deserved his

injury. Athena and Hera also depart the scene of the battle.

Book 6

With the gods absent, the Achaean forces again overwhelm the Trojans, who draw back toward the

city. Menelaus considers accepting a ransom in return for the life of Adrestus, a Trojan he has

45

subdued, but Agamemnon persuades him to kill the man outright. Nestor senses the Trojans

weakening and urges the Achaeans not to bother stripping their fallen enemies of their weapons but to

focus instead on killing as many as possible while they still have the upper hand. The Trojans

anticipate downfall, and the soothsayer Helenus urges Hector to return to Troy to ask his mother,

Queen Hecuba, along with her noblewomen, to pray for mercy at the temple of Athena. Hector

follows Helenus’s advice and gives his mother and the other women their instructions. He then visits

his brother Paris, who has withdrawn from battle, claiming he is too grief-stricken to participate.

Hector and Helen heap scorn on him for not fighting, and at last he arms himself and returns to battle.

Hector also prepares to return but first visits his wife, Andromache, whom he finds nursing their son

Astyanax by the walls of the city. As she cradles the child, she anxiously watches the struggle in the

plain below. Andromache begs Hector not to go back, but he insists that he cannot escape his fate,

whatever it may be. He kisses Astyanax, who, although initially frightened by the crest on Hector’s

helmet, greets his father happily. Hector then departs. Andromache, convinced that he will soon die,

begins to mourn his death. Hector meets Paris on his way out of the city, and the brothers prepare to

rejoin the battle.

Book 7

With the return of Hector and Paris the battle escalates, but Apollo and Athena soon decide to end the

battle for the day. They plan a duel to stop the present bout of fighting: Hector approaches the

Achaean line and offers himself to anyone who will fight him. Only Menelaus has the courage to step

forward, but Agamemnon talks him out of it, knowing full well that Menelaus is no match for Hector.

Nestor, too old to fight Hector himself, passionately exhorts his comrades to respond to the challenge.

Nine Achaeans finally step forward. A lottery is held, and Great Ajax wins.

Hector and Ajax begin their duel by tossing spears, but neither proves successful. They then use their

lances, and Ajax draws Hector’s blood. The two are about to clash with swords when heralds, spurred

by Zeus, call off the fight on account of nightfall. The two heroes exchange gifts and end their duel

with a pact of friendship.

That night, Nestor gives a speech urging the Achaeans to ask for a day to bury their dead. He also

advises them to build fortifications around their camp. Meanwhile, in the Trojan camp, King Priam

makes a similar proposal regarding the Trojan dead. In addition, his advisor Antenor asks Paris to

give up Helen and thereby end the war. Paris refuses but offers to return all of the loot that he took

with her from Sparta. But when the Trojans present this offer to the Achaeans the next day, the

Achaeans sense the Trojans’ desperation and reject the compromise. Both sides agree, however, to

observe a day of respite to bury their respective dead. Zeus and Poseidon watch the Achaeans as they

build their fortifications, planning to tear them down as soon as the men leave.

Book 8

After prohibiting the other gods from interfering in the course of the war, Zeus travels to Mount Ida,

overlooking the Trojan plain. There he weighs the fates of Troy and Achaea in his scale, and the

Achaean side sinks down. With a shower of lightning upon the Achaean army, Zeus turns the tide of

battle in the Trojans’ favor, and the Greeks retreat in terror. Riding the Trojans’ surge in power,

Hector seeks out Nestor, who stands stranded in the middle of the battlefield. Diomedes scoops

Nestor into his chariot just in time, and Hector pursues the two of them, intent on driving them all the

way to the Greek fortifications, where he plans to set fire to their ships. Hera, seeing the Achaean

army collapsing, inspires Agamemnon to rouse his troops. He stirs up their pride, begs them to have

heart, and prays for relief from Zeus, who finally sends a sign—an eagle carrying a fawn in its talons.

The divine symbol inspires the Achaeans to fight back.

46

As the Achaeans struggle to regain their power, the archer Teucer fells many Trojans. But Hector

finally wounds him, reversing the tide of battle yet again. Hector drives the Greeks behind their

fortifications, all the way to their ships. Athena and Hera, unable to bear any further suffering on the

part of their favored Greeks, prepare to enter the fray, but Zeus sends the goddess Iris to warn them of

the consequences of interfering. Knowing that they cannot compete with Zeus, Athena and Hera

relent and return to Mount Olympus. When Zeus returns, he tells them that the next morning will

provide their last chance to save the Achaeans. He notes that only Achilles can prevent the Greeks’

destruction.

That night, the Trojans, confident in their dominance, camp outside their city’s walls, and Hector

orders his men to light hundreds of campfires so that the Greeks cannot escape unobserved. Nightfall

has saved the Greeks for now, but Hector plans to finish them off the next day.

Book 9

With the Trojans poised to drive the Achaeans back to their ships, the Achaean troops sit

brokenhearted in their camp. Standing before them, Agamemnon weeps and declares the war a

failure. He proposes returning to Greece in disgrace. Diomedes rises and insists that he will stay and

fight even if everyone else leaves. He buoys the soldiers by reminding them that Troy is fated to fall.

Nestor urges perseverance as well, and suggests reconciliation with Achilles. Seeing the wisdom of

this idea, Agamemnon decides to offer Achilles a great stockpile of gifts on the condition that he

return to the Achaean lines. The king selects some of the Achaeans’ best men, including Odysseus,

Great Ajax, and Phoenix, to communicate the proposal to Achilles.

The embassy finds Achilles playing the lyre in his tent with his dear friend Patroclus. Odysseus

presents Agamemnon’s offer, but Achilles rejects it directly. He announces that he intends to return to

his homeland of Phthia, where he can live a long, prosaic life instead of the short, glorious one that he

is fated to live if he stays. Achilles offers to take Phoenix, who helped rear him in Phthia, with him,

but Phoenix launches into his own lengthy, emotional plea for Achilles to stay. He uses the ancient

story of Meleager, another warrior who, in an episode of rage, refused to fight, to illustrate the

importance of responding to the pleas of helpless friends. But Achilles stands firm, still feeling the

sting of Agamemnon’s insult. The embassy returns unsuccessful, and the army again sinks into

despair.

Book 10

The Greek commanders sleep well that night, with the exception of Agamemnon and Menelaus.

Eventually, they rise and wake the others. They convene on open ground, on the Trojan side of their

fortifications, to plan their next move. Nestor suggests sending a spy to infiltrate the Trojan ranks,

and Diomedes quickly volunteers for the role. He asks for support, and Odysseus steps forward. The

two men arm themselves and set off for the Trojan camp. A heron sent by Athena calls out on their

right-hand side, and they pray to Athena for protection.

Meanwhile, the Trojans devise their own acts of reconnaissance. Hector wants to know if the

Achaeans plan an escape. He selects Dolon, an unattractive but lightning-quick man, to serve as his

scout, and promises to reward him with Achilles’ chariot and horses once the Achaeans fall. Dolon

sets out and soon encounters Diomedes and Odysseus. The two men interrogate Dolon, and he,

hoping to save his life, tells them the positions of the Trojans and all of their allies. He reveals to

them that the Thracians, newly arrived, are especially vulnerable to attack. Diomedes then kills Dolon

and strips him of his armor.

The two Achaean spies proceed to the Thracian camp, where they kill twelve soldiers and their king,

Rhesus. They also steal Rhesus’s chariot and horses. Athena warns them that some angry god may

47

wake the other soldiers; Diomedes and Odysseus thus ride Rhesus’s chariot back to the Achaean

camp. Nestor and the other Greeks, worried that their comrades had been killed, greet them warmly.

Book 11

The next morning, Zeus rains blood upon the Achaean lines, filling them with panic; they suffer a

massacre during the first part of the day. But, by afternoon, they have begun to make progress.

Agamemnon, splendidly armed, cuts down man after man and beats the Trojans back to the city’s

gates. Zeus sends Iris to tell Hector that he must wait until Agamemnon is wounded and then begin

his attack. Agamemnon soon receives his wound at the hands of Coon, Antenor’s son, just after

killing Coon’s brother. The injured Agamemnon continues fighting and kills Coon, but his pain

eventually forces him from the field.

Hector recognizes his cue and charges the Achaean line, driving it back. The Achaeans panic and

stand poised to retreat, but the words of Odysseus and Diomedes imbue them with fresh courage.

Diomedes then hurls a spear that hits Hector’s helmet. This brush with death stuns Hector and forces

him to retreat. Paris answers the Achaeans’ act by wounding Diomedes with an arrow, thus sidelining

the great warrior for the rest of the epic. Trojans now encircle Odysseus, left to fight alone. He beats

them all off, but not before a man named Socus gives him a wound through the ribs. Great Ajax

carries Odysseus back to camp before the Trojans can harm him further.

Hector resumes his assault on another part of the Achaean line. The Greeks initially hold him off, but

they panic when the healer Machaon receives wounds at Paris’s hands. Hector and his men force

Ajax to retreat as Nestor conveys Machaon back to his tent. Meanwhile, behind the lines, Achilles

sees the injured Machaon fly by in a chariot and sends his companion Patroclus to inquire into

Machaon’s status. Nestor tells Patroclus about all of the wounds that the Trojans have inflicted upon

the Achaean commanders. He begs Patroclus to persuade Achilles to rejoin the battle—or at least

enter the battle himself disguised in Achilles’ armor. This ruse would at least give the Achaeans the

benefit of Achilles’ terrifying aura. Patroclus agrees to appeal to Achilles and dresses the wound of a

man named Eurypylus, who has been injured fighting alongside Ajax.

Book 12

We learn that the Achaean fortifications are doomed to be destroyed by the gods when Troy falls.

They continue to hold for now, however, and the trench dug in front of them blocks the Trojan

chariots. Undaunted, Hector, acting on the advice of the young commander Polydamas, orders his

men to disembark from their chariots and storm the ramparts. Just as the Trojans prepare to cross the

trenches, an eagle flies to the left-hand side of the Trojan line and drops a serpent in the soldiers’

midst. Polydamas interprets this event as a sign that their charge will fail, but Hector refuses to

retreat.

The Trojans Glaucus and Sarpedon now charge the ramparts, and Menestheus, aided by Great Ajax

and Teucer, struggles to hold them back. Sarpedon makes the first breach, and Hector follows by

shattering one of the gates with a boulder. The Trojans pour through the fortifications as the

Achaeans, terrified, shrink back against the ships.

Book 13

Zeus, happy with the war’s progress, takes his leave of the battlefield. Poseidon, eager to help the

Achaeans and realizing that Zeus has gone, visits Little Ajax and Great Ajax in the form of Calchas

and gives them confidence to resist the Trojan assault. He also rouses the rest of the Achaeans, who

have withdrawn in tears to the sides of the ships. Their spirits restored, the Achaeans again stand up

to the Trojans, and the two Aeantes (the plural of Ajax) prove successful in driving Hector back.

48

When Hector throws his lance at Teucer, Teucer dodges out of the way, and the weapon pierces and

kills Poseidon’s grandson Amphimachus. As an act of vengeance, Poseidon imbues Idomeneus with a

raging power. Idomeneus then joins Meriones in leading a charge against the Trojans at the

Achaeans’ left wing. Idomeneus cuts down a number of Trojan soldiers but hopes most of all to kill

the warrior Deiphobus. Finding him on the battlefield, he taunts the Trojan, who summons Aeneas

and other comrades to his assistance. In the long skirmish that ensues, Deiphobus is wounded, and

Menelaus cuts down several Trojans.

Meanwhile, on the right, Hector continues his assault, but the Trojans who accompany him, having

been mercilessly battered by the two Aeantes, have lost their vigor. Some have returned to the Trojan

side of the fortifications, while those who remain fight from scattered positions. Polydamas persuades

Hector to regroup his forces. Hector fetches Paris and tries to gather his comrades from the left end of

the line—only to find them all wounded or dead. Great Ajax insults Hector, and an eagle appears on

Ajax’s right, a favorable omen for the Achaeans.

Book 14

Nestor leaves the wounded Machaon in his tent and goes to meet the other wounded Achaean

commanders out by the ships. The men scan the battlefield and realize the terrible extent of their

losses. Agamemnon proposes giving up and setting sail for home. Odysseus wheels on him and

declares this notion cowardly and disgraceful. Diomedes urges them all to the line to rally their

troops. As they set out, Poseidon encourages Agamemnon and gives added strength to the Achaean

army.

Hera spots Zeus on Mount Ida, overlooking Troy, and devises a plan to distract him so that she may

help the Achaeans behind his back. She visits Aphrodite and tricks her into giving her an enchanted

breastband into which the powers of Love and Longing are woven, forceful enough to make the

sanest man go mad. She then visits the embodiment of Sleep, and by promising him one of her

daughters in marriage, persuades him to lull Zeus to sleep. Sleep follows her to the peak of Mount

Ida; disguised as a bird, he hides in a tree. Zeus sees Hera, and the enchanted band seizes him with

passion. He makes love to Hera and, as planned, soon falls asleep. Hera then calls to Poseidon, telling

him that he now has free rein to steer the Achaeans to victory. Poseidon regroups them, and they

charge the Trojans. In the ensuing scuffle, Great Ajax knocks Hector to the ground with a boulder,

and the Trojans must carry the hero back to Troy. With Hector gone, the Achaeans soon trounce their

enemies, and Trojans die in great numbers as the army flees back to the city.

Book 15

Zeus wakes and sees the havoc that Hera and Poseidon have wreaked while he dozed in his enchanted

sleep. Hera tries to blame Poseidon, but Zeus comforts her by making clear that he has no personal

interest in a Trojan victory over the Achaeans. He tells her that he will again come to their aid, but

that Troy is still fated to fall and that Hector will die after he kills Patroclus. He then asks Hera to

summon Iris and Apollo. Iris goes to order Poseidon to leave the battlefield, which Poseidon

reluctantly agrees to do, while Apollo seeks out Hector and fills him and his comrades with fresh

strength. Hector leads a charge against the Achaeans, and while their leaders initially hold their

ground, they retreat in terror when Apollo himself enters the battle. Apollo covers over the trench in

front of the Greek fortifications, allowing the Trojans to beat down the ramparts once again.

The armies fight all the way to the ships and very nearly into the Greek camp. At the base of the

ships, furious hand-to-hand fighting breaks out. Great Ajax and Hector again tangle. The archer

Teucer fells several Trojans, but Zeus snaps his bowstring when he takes aim at Hector. Ajax

49

encourages his troops from the decks of the ships, but Hector rallies the Trojans, and inch by inch the

Trojans advance until Hector is close enough to touch a ship.

Book 16

Meanwhile, Patroclus goes to Achilles’ tent and begs to be allowed to wear Achilles’ armor if

Achilles still refuses to rejoin the battle himself. Achilles declines to fight but agrees to the exchange

of armor, with the understanding that Patroclus will fight only long enough to save the ships. As

Patroclus arms himself, the first ship goes up in flames. Achilles sends his Myrmidon soldiers, who

have not been fighting during their commander’s absence, out to accompany Patroclus. He then prays

to Zeus that Patroclus may return with both himself and the ships unharmed. The poet reveals,

however, that Zeus will grant only one of these prayers.

With the appearance of Patroclus in Achilles’ armor the battle quickly turns, and the Trojans retreat

from the Achaean ships. At first, the line holds together, but when Hector retreats, the rest of the

Trojans become trapped in the trenches. Patroclus now slaughters every Trojan he encounters. Zeus

considers saving his son Sarpedon, but Hera persuades him that the other gods would either look

down upon him for it or try to save their own mortal offspring in turn. Zeus resigns himself to

Sarpedon’s mortality. Patroclus soon spears Sarpedon, and both sides fight over his armor. Hector

returns briefly to the front in an attempt to retrieve the armor.

Zeus decides to kill Patroclus for slaying Sarpedon, but first he lets him rout the Trojans. Zeus then

imbues Hector with a temporary cowardice, and Hector leads the retreat. Patroclus, disobeying

Achilles, pursues the Trojans all the way to the gates of Troy. Homer explains that the city might

have fallen at this moment had Apollo not intervened and driven Patroclus back from the gates.

Apollo persuades Hector to charge Patroclus, but Patroclus kills Cebriones, the driver of Hector’s

chariot. Trojans and Achaeans fight for Cebriones’ armor. Amid the chaos, Apollo sneaks up behind

Patroclus and wounds him, and Hector easily finishes him off. Hector taunts the fallen man, but with

his dying words Patroclus foretells Hector’s own death.

Book 17

A fight breaks out over Patroclus’s body. Euphorbus, the Trojan who first speared him, tries to strip

him of Achilles’ armor but is killed by Menelaus. Hector, spurred on by Apollo, sees Euphorbus’s

fall and comes to help. Menelaus enlists the help of Great Ajax, who forces Hector to back down and

prevents the body from being removed or desecrated. He arrives too late to save the armor, however,

which Hector dons himself. Glaucus rebukes Hector for leaving Patroclus’s body behind and suggests

that they might have traded it for Sarpedon’s. Hector reenters the fray, promising to give half of the

war’s spoils to any Trojan who drags Patroclus’s corpse away.

Aware of Hector’s impending doom and perhaps pitying it, Zeus temporarily gives Hector great

power. Ajax and Menelaus summon more Achaeans to help them, and they soon force the Trojans,

including mighty Hector, to run for the city’s walls. Aeneas, invigorated by Apollo, rallies the fleeing

men to return to the fight, but after much effort they remain unable to take the corpse. Achilles’

charioteer, Automedon, becomes involved in the fighting as Zeus imbues his team with fresh

strength. Hector tries to kill Automedon so that he can steal the chariot, but Automedon dodges

Hector’s spear and brings a Trojan down in the process. He strips the Trojan of his armor, claiming

that in doing so he eases the grief of Patroclus’s spirit, though this present victim could hardly

compare to the great Patroclus.

Athena, disguised as Phoenix, gives fresh strength to Menelaus, while Apollo, himself disguised as a

Trojan, lends encouragement to Hector. Menelaus sends Antilochus for help from Achilles, who still

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doesn’t know of Patroclus’s death. Zeus begins moving the battle in the Trojans’ favor but relents

long enough for Menelaus and Meriones to carry away Patroclus’s body.

Book 18

When Antilochus brings word to Achilles of Patroclus’s death, Achilles loses control of himself. He

weeps and beats the ground with his fists and covers his face with dirt. He utters a “terrible,

wrenching cry” so profound that Thetis hears him and comes with her water-nymph sisters from the

ocean to learn what troubles her son (18.39). Achilles tells her of the tragedy and insists that he shall

avenge himself on Hector, despite his knowledge that, should he choose to live the life of a warrior,

he is fated to die young. Thetis responds that since Hector now wears Achilles’ armor, she will have

the divine metalsmith Hephaestus make him a new set, if Achilles will delay exacting his revenge for

one day.

Thetis departs, and Iris, sent by Hera, comes to tell Achilles that he must go outside and make an

appearance on the battlefield. This appearance alone will scare the Trojans into abandoning the fight

for Patroclus’s body. Achilles leaves his tent, accompanied by Athena, and lets loose an enormous

cry that does indeed send the Trojans fleeing.

That night, each army holds an assembly to plan its next move. In the Trojan camp, Polydamas urges

his comrades to retreat to the city now that Achilles has decided to return to battle. Hector dismisses

the idea as cowardly and insists on repeating the previous day’s assault. His foolhardy plan wins the

support of the Trojans, for Athena has robbed them of their wits. Meanwhile, in the Achaean camp,

the men begin their mourning for Patroclus. Achilles has men clean Patroclus’s wounds to prepare

him for burial, though he vows not to bury him until he has slain Hector. Thetis goes to Hephaestus’s

mansion and begs him to make Achilles a new set of armor. Hephaestus forges a breastplate, a

helmet, and an extraordinary shield embossed with the images of constellations, pastures, dancing

children, and cities of men.

Book 19

Thetis presents Achilles with the armor that Hephaestus has forged for him. She promises to look

after Patroclus’s body and keep it from rotting while Achilles goes to battle. Achilles walks along the

shore, calling his men to an assembly. At the meeting, Agamemnon and Achilles reconcile with each

other, and Agamemnon gives Achilles the gifts that he promised him should Achilles ever return to

battle. He also returns Briseis.

Achilles announces his intention to go to war at once. Odysseus persuades him to let the army eat

first, but Achilles himself refuses to eat until he has slain Hector. All through breakfast, he sits

mourning his dear friend Patroclus and reminiscing. Even Briseis mourns, for Patroclus had treated

her kindly when she was first led away from her homeland. Zeus finds the scene emotionally moving

and sends Athena down to fill Achilles’ stomach with nectar and ambrosia, keeping his hunger at bay.

Achilles then dons his armor and mounts his chariot. As he does so, he chastises his horses, Roan

Beauty and Charger, for leaving Patroclus on the battlefield to die. Roan Beauty replies that it was

not he but a god who let Patroclus die and that the same is fated for Achilles. But Achilles needs no

reminders of his fate; he knows his fate already, and knows that by entering battle for his friend he

seals his destiny.

Book 20

While the Achaeans and Trojans prepare for battle, Zeus summons the gods to Mount Olympus. He

knows that if Achilles enters the battlefield unchecked, he will decimate the Trojans and maybe even

bring the city down before its fated time. Accordingly, he thus removes his previous injunction

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against divine interference in the battle, and the gods stream down to earth. But the gods soon decide

to watch the fighting rather than involve themselves in it, and they take their seats on opposite hills

overlooking the battlefield, interested to see how their mortal teams will fare on their own.

Before he resigns himself to a passive role, however, Apollo encourages Aeneas to challenge

Achilles. The two heroes meet on the battlefield and exchange insults. Achilles is about to stab

Aeneas fatally when Poseidon, in a burst of sympathy for the Trojan—and much to the chagrin of the

other, pro-Greek gods—whisks Aeneas away. Hector then approaches, but Apollo persuades him not

to strike up a duel in front of the ranks but rather to wait with the other soldiers until Achilles comes

to him. Hector initially obeys, but when he sees Achilles so smoothly slaughtering the Trojans,

among them one of Hector’s brothers, he again challenges Achilles. The fight goes poorly for Hector,

and Apollo is forced to save him a second time.

Book 21

Achilles routs the Trojans and splits their ranks, pursuing half of them into the river known to the

gods as Xanthus and to the mortals as Scamander. On the riverbank, Achilles mercilessly slaughters

Lycaon, a son of Priam. The Trojan Asteropaeus, given fresh strength by the god of the river, makes a

valiant stand, but Achilles kills him as well. The vengeful Achilles has no intention of sparing any

Trojans now that they have killed Patroclus. He throws so many corpses into the river that its

channels become clogged. The river god rises up and protests, and Achilles agrees to stop throwing

people into the water but not to stop killing them. The river, sympathetic to the Trojans, calls for help

from Apollo, but when Achilles hears the river’s plea, he attacks the river. The river gets the upper

hand and drags Achilles all the way downstream to a floodplain. He very nearly kills Achilles, but the

gods intervene. Hephaestus, sent by Hera, sets the plain on fire and boils the river until he relents.

A great commotion now breaks out among the gods as they watch and argue over the human warfare.

Athena defeats Ares and Aphrodite. Poseidon challenges Apollo, but Apollo refuses to fight over

mere mortals. His sister Artemis taunts him and tries to encourage him to fight, but Hera overhears

her and pounces on her.

Meanwhile, Priam sees the human carnage on the battlefield and opens the gates of Troy to his

fleeing troops. Achilles pursues them and very nearly takes the city, but the Trojan prince Agenor

challenges him to single combat. Achilles’ fight with Agenor—and with Apollo disguised as Agenor

after Agenor himself has been whisked to safety—allows the Trojans enough time to scurry back to

Troy.

Book 22

Hector now stands as the only Trojan left outside Troy. Priam, overlooking the battlefield from the

Trojan ramparts, begs him to come inside, but Hector, having given the overconfident order for the

Trojans to camp outside their gates the night before, now feels too ashamed to join them in their

retreat. When Achilles finally returns from chasing Apollo (disguised as Agenor), Hector confronts

him. At first, the mighty Trojan considers trying to negotiate with Achilles, but he soon realizes the

hopelessness of his cause and flees. He runs around the city three times, with Achilles at his heels.

Zeus considers saving Hector, but Athena persuades him that the mortal’s time has come. Zeus places

Hector’s and Achilles’ respective fates on a golden scale, and, indeed, Hector’s sinks to the ground.

During Hector’s fourth circle around the city walls, Athena appears before him, disguised as his ally

Deiphobus, and convinces him that together they can take Achilles. Hector stops running and turns to

face his opponent. He and Achilles exchange spear throws, but neither scores a hit. Hector turns to

Deiphobus to ask him for a lance; when he finds his friend gone, he realizes that the gods have

betrayed him. In a desperate bid for glory, he charges Achilles. However, he still wears Achilles’ old

52

armor—stolen from Patroclus’s dead body—and Achilles knows the armor’s weak points intimately.

With a perfectly timed thrust he puts his spear through Hector’s throat. Near death, Hector pleads

with Achilles to return his body to the Trojans for burial, but Achilles resolves to let the dogs and

scavenger birds maul the Trojan hero.

The other Achaeans gather round and exultantly stab Hector’s corpse. Achilles ties Hector’s body to

the back of his chariot and drags it through the dirt. Meanwhile, up above on the city’s walls, King

Priam and Queen Hecuba witness the devastation of their son’s body and wail with grief.

Andromache hears them from her chamber and runs outside. When she sees her husband’s corpse

being dragged through the dirt, she too collapses and weeps.

Book 23

At the Achaean camp, Achilles and the Myrmidons continue their mourning for Patroclus. Achilles

finally begins to accept food, but he still refuses to wash until he has buried Patroclus. That night, his

dead companion appears to him in a dream, begging Achilles to hold his funeral soon so that his soul

can enter the land of the dead. The next day, after an elaborate ceremony in which he sacrifices the

Achaeans’ twelve Trojan captives, Achilles prays for assistance from the winds and lights Patroclus’s

funeral pyre.

The day after, following the burial of Patroclus’s bones, Achilles holds a series of competitions in

Patroclus’s honor. Marvelous prizes are offered, and both the commanders and the soldiers compete.

The events include boxing, wrestling, archery, and a chariot race, which Diomedes wins with some

help from Athena. Afterward, Achilles considers stripping the prize from the second-place finisher,

Antilochus, to give as consolation to the last-place finisher, whom Athena has robbed of victory so

that Diomedes would win. But Antilochus becomes furious at the idea of having his prize taken from

him. Menelaus then adds to the argument, declaring that Antilochus committed a foul during the race.

After some heated words, the men reconcile with one another.

Book 24

Achilles continues mourning Patroclus and abusing Hector’s body, dragging it around his dead

companion’s tomb. Apollo, meanwhile, protects Hector’s corpse from damage and rot and staves off

dogs and scavengers. Finally, on the twelfth day after Hector’s death, Apollo persuades Zeus that

Achilles must let Hector’s body be ransomed. Zeus sends Thetis to bring the news to Achilles, while

Iris goes to Priam to instruct him to initiate the ransom. Hecuba fears that Achilles will kill her

husband, but Zeus reassures her by sending an eagle as a good omen.

Priam sets out with his driver, Idaeus, and a chariot full of treasure. Zeus sends Hermes, disguised as

a benevolent Myrmidon soldier, to guide Priam through the Achaean camp. When the chariot arrives

at Achilles’ tent, Hermes reveals himself and then leaves Priam alone with Achilles. Priam tearfully

supplicates Achilles, begging for Hector’s body. He asks Achilles to think of his own father, Peleus,

and the love between them. Achilles weeps for his father and for Patroclus. He accepts the ransom

and agrees to give the corpse back.

That night, Priam sleeps in Achilles’ tent, but Hermes comes to him in the middle of the night and

rouses him, warning him that he must not sleep among the enemy. Priam and Idaeus wake, place

Hector in their chariot, and slip out of the camp unnoticed. All of the women in Troy, from

Andromache to Helen, cry out in grief when they first see Hector’s body. For nine days the Trojans

prepare Hector’s funeral pyre—Achilles has given them a reprieve from battle. The Trojans light

Hector’s pyre on the tenth day.

53

The Odyssey

List of characters

Alcinoos: King of the Phaiacians

Anticleia: Odysseus’s mother who died while he was away from Ithaca

Antinoos: “Ringleader” of Penelope’s suitors

Arete: King Alcinoos’ wife, known for her kindness and beauty

Argos: Odysseus’s old hunting dog

Athena: Goddess of wisdom; Odysseus’s helper

Calypso: Witch/nymph who wanted Odysseus as her husband

Circe: “Terrible goddess with lovely hair, who spoke in the language of men”; daughter of Helios

Demodocos: Blind minstrel

Eumaios: Swineherd; a faithful servant of Odysseus

Eupeithes: Father of Antinoos

Eurycleia: Faithful old servant of Odysseus and his family; “she loved him [Telemachus] more than

any other of the household, and she had been his nurse when he was a little tot.”

Eurymachos: One of Penelopeia’s cruelest suitors

Hyperion: Sun-god

Iros: Beggar at Odysseus’s home

Laertes: Odysseus’s father; lives in seclusion in the country

Odysseus: Protagonist unable to reach home after the Trojan War; “wise beyond all mortal men”

Melanthios: One of Penelopeia’s cruelest suitors; a goatherd

Nausicaa: Daughter of King Alcinovs; “tall and divinely beautiful”

Penelope: Odysseus’s faithful wife

Philoitios: Faithful cattle drover

Poseidon: God of the sea; bore a lasting grudge against Odysseus; often called “Earthshaker”

Polyphemos: “Most powerful of all the Cyclopians”; son of Poseidon

Telemachus: Odysseus’s son; “a fine-looking boy”; approximately twenty years old

Theoclymenos: Prophet who returns to Ithaca with Telemachus

Teiresias: Blind Theban prophet

Summary

Introduction

The Greek myths were first passed on by word of mouth, down through the violence of a dark age.

The two or three centuries beginning about 1125 B.C.E. were marked by strife and turmoil. The

course of civilization was set back by centuries. Later Greeks, looking back through the dim prism of

the centuries of violence, spoke of a time when heroes walked the earth. These exceptional men and

women fought monsters, performed superhuman feats and consorted with the gods themselves.

The Ancient Greeks were polytheists and believed in a multitude of immortal deities. The greatest of

these lived on the remote heights of Mount Olympus but were by no means aloof from the mortals

below. The Olympian gods communicated with their subjects by omens and oracles. Spokespersons

for the divine, oracles answered questions, often in riddles. The greatest was at Delphi. The gods

decided the outcome of athletic contests and battles. They even took up arms themselves. And they

aided or hindered the heroes in their quests.

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A hero’s lot was out of the ordinary from the very outset. He or she might be the offspring of an

immortal deity. Some heroes were abandoned in the wilderness as babies. Oedipus and the heroine

Atalanta were thrown to fate in this way. Oedipus was saved from certain death by the kindness of a

shepherd. Atalanta was nursed by a bear. When she grew up, she could outrun, outshoot and

outwrestle most men, fellow heroes included.

Heroes often received an unusual education. Some were tutored by Chiron, greatest of the centaurs.

The centaurs were half man, half horse. Notoriously uncivilized, they were prone to such behavior as

disrupting wedding feasts by trying to carry off the bride. Chiron was distinguished from the other

centaurs by his civility and cultivation of the healing arts. Among other skills, he taught young heroes

the medicinal value of herbs and plants.

Back before the Dark Age, kingdoms had produced glorious arts and crafts, typified by the golden

masks found on the site of ancient Mycenae. The myths go back at least as far as this era, known as

the Mycenaean. It is also known as the Heroic Age.

As the time of the heroes gave way to the dim centuries of violence, ruins and abandoned dwellings

lay scattered upon the land. The kingdoms that had seen the exploits sung about by bards like Homer

now lay in shambles. Some speculate that Dorian invaders from the north with iron weapons laid

waste the Bronze Age culture. Others look to internal dissent, uprising and rebellion. Or perhaps

some combination brought the era to an end.

One thing is certain, civilization had taken a giant backward step. Material culture and the life of the

mind were reduced to a lower common denominator. And when the flame of learning and the aspiring

spirit was kindled anew, people looked back across the time of darkness to what seemed a golden age.

Then it was, they thought, that a special breed of men and women had trod the earth, not quite gods

but not quite human either. They made up stories about them, some based perhaps on faint

recollections of real individuals.

These were the heroes of Greek mythology.

Background

The Trojan War was over. The clever Greek Odysseus had tricked the enemy into bringing a colossal

wooden horse within the walls of Troy. The Trojans had no idea that Greek soldiers were hidden

inside, under the command of Odysseus.

The Greeks had been laying siege to Troy for nine long years, but suddenly it looked like their whole

army had departed, leaving the horse behind.

That night, while the Trojans slept, Odysseus and his men emerged from the horse's belly. Opening

the city gates, they admitted their comrades, who had snuck back in the dark.

Troy was sacked and the Trojans utterly vanquished. Now it was time for Odysseus and his fellow

warriors to return to their kingdoms across the sea. Here begins the tale of the Odyssey, as sung by

the blind minstrel Homer.

Book 1

"Oh Goddess of Inspiration, help me sing of wily Odysseus, that master of schemes!" So Homer

begins his epic, though the hero himself is still offstage. We are treated to a glimpse of life among the

supreme gods on Mount Olympus.

Grey-eyed Athena, the goddess of war, is addressing an assembly headed by Zeus, the king of gods:

"Even though we all love Odysseus, he alone of the Greek heroes has been waylaid on his journey

home from Troy. When he put out the eye of the giant Cyclops, he provoked the wrath of the God of

Earthquakes."

55

The Olympians know she refers to Poseidon, the Ruler of the Sea, who is off enjoying a banquet

elsewhere.

"And now Odysseus languishes on the lonely island of the nymph Calypso, pining for home. Is that

your will, Zeus?"

"You know very well it isn't," replies the god of gods.

"Then send your herald, Hermes, flying to Calypso. Make her let Odysseus go. I myself will inspire

the hero's son." Athena departs to fulfill this vow.

Adopting a mortal guise, she appears at the gate of Odysseus' mansion on the island of Ithaca.

Odysseus' son, Telemachus, does not recognize the goddess in her human form but invites the

stranger in as a guest. Over food and wine they discuss the fact that Telemachus and his mother

Penelope are plagued by suitors for Penelope's hand in marriage.

All the eligible young nobles of Ithaca and the neighboring islands, assuming that Odysseus is dead,

are vying for Penelope. And while they wait to see which one of them she will choose, they help

themselves to her hospitality, feasting through her herds and guzzling her wine. Telemachus is

powerless to do anything about it.

"Warn them off," counsels Athena. "Then fit out a ship that will carry you to the mainland. There you

must seek tidings of your father."

Book 2

Inspired by Athena, Telemachus calls a council of all the men of Ithaca. He asks them how they can

stand idly by and allow his mother's hospitality to be abused. Antinous, one of the ringleaders of the

suitors, brazenly puts the blame on Penelope, for not choosing one of them as husband.

"She has even resorted to trickery," claims Antinous. "At first she said she'd choose among us just as

soon as she finished her weaving. But she secretly unraveled it every night."

Hot words are exchanged, and Zeus sends an omen. Two eagles swoop down on the congregation,

tearing cheeks and necks with their talons. A wise man interprets this as impending doom for the

suitors.

In closing, Telemachus asks his countrymen to fit him out with a ship so that he might seek news of

his father.

Back in his own hall, Telemachus is greeted by Antinous, who suggests that they share a feast

together just as they did when Telemachus was still a boy. Telemachus replies that he'll see him dead

first. The other suitors mock the young man for his fighting words.

Seeking out his aged nursemaid, Eurycleia, Telemachus instructs her to prepare barley meal and wine

for the crew of his ship. He makes her swear an oath that she will not tell his mother of his departure

until he is ten days gone.

That night a sleek black vessel crewed by twenty oarsmen puts out to sea, with Telemachus and

Athena, his godly patron in disguise, seated in the stern.

Book 3

Dawn finds the travelers at Pylos, in the kingdom of Nestor, who at the age of ninety led a contingent

in the Trojan War. Telemachus asks the wise old king to tell him how and where his father died, for

he cannot help but assume the worst. In reply, Nestor tells what he knows of the Greeks' return from

Troy.

"It started out badly because of Athena's anger. She caused dissension between our leader

Agamemnon and his brother Menelaus. Menelaus was for setting sail immediately, while

Agamemnon insisted that a sacrifice be held first to pacify the goddess. In the end, half the army left

while the others remained with Agamemnon.

56

"Those of us who sailed with Menelaus made good speed at first, but then we were at each other's

throats again. One group, under Odysseus, broke off and rejoined Agamemnon. I'm sure that even in

Ithaca you've heard what eventually happened to him."

"To Agamemnon? Yes," responds Telemachus. He knows that the great king's wife fell in love with

another. Together they murdered Agamemnon upon his homecoming. Then, seven years later, he was

avenged by his son, Orestes.

"But tell me, Nestor, if you will, why did Menelaus not slay his brother's killer with his own hand and

throw his body to the dogs?"

Nestor explains how the fair winds that brought that first party of Greeks safely home from Troy

failed Menelaus. A storm blew him all the way to Egypt. There he lingered, unable to return home

until it was too late.

"Journey to Sparta," suggests Nestor. "Seek further news from Menelaus. I will loan you a chariot

and one of my sons to accompany you."

And so in the morning, after participating in a sacrifice to Athena, Telemachus sets out for the

kingdom of Menelaus.

Book Four

Telemachus and Nestor's son are welcomed by King Menelaus with great hospitality. Queen Helen

immediately recognizes Telemachus as the spitting image of Odysseus.

"You must be the boy he left behind when he took ship for Troy -- all because of me and my mad

passion for Trojan Paris. Aphrodite's curse was already wearing off when last I saw your father. What

a man! I'll never forget his daring and his guile.

"He had beaten himself black and blue and dressed up in a beggar's rags to sneak into Troy. But I

recognized him when he spoke to me there in the house of Paris. I bathed him and gave him a fresh

robe, and he made his escape, killing many a Trojan on his way. I rejoiced, for I missed my home and

the blameless husband I had forsaken."

"And remember, my dear, how you suspected that we were hiding inside the wooden horse?" asks

Menelaus. "Odysseus was in command. It was everything he could do to keep us quiet when you

started calling out to us, imitating the voice of each man's wife."

These reminiscences are mixed with tears for fallen comrades, and at length Telemachus seeks respite

in sleep. In the morning, Menelaus relates what he can of Odysseus.

"As you know, I was held down for seven long years in Egypt. And when at last the gods relented and

sent a homeward breeze, I only made it as far as an island off the mouth of the Nile before I was

becalmed. A goddess took pity on me as I paced the beach in desperation.

"'My father is the Old Man of the Sea,' she said.' You and three picked men of your crew must catch

him and pin him down.' She helped us with disguises, the hides of seals which stank to high heaven.

She even rubbed ambrosia under our noses against the stench.

"And when the Ancient came for his midday nap amongst the seals, as was his custom, we jumped

him and held on for dear life. He had an awesome power, you see, to change his form -- to lion, to

snake, to boar, to gushing fountain and towering tree. But when he saw that we weren't about to let

go, he reverted to his original shape and began to speak.

"He said that Zeus himself was furious because we had failed to sacrifice before setting sail. We'd

have to slog back up the Nile and start all over. And as he was an all-knowing god, I asked which of

our comrades had perished on the journey home from Troy.

"'Only two high officers,' he replied.' And one of them might have lived but for his insolence. Even

though he had been the cause of Athena's wrath in the first place, Ajax made it safely ashore on a

promontory. At which point he had the audacity to brag that he had beaten the gods. His boast was

57

heard by Poseidon, and the Lord of Earthquakes swung his mighty trident and knocked the earth right

out from under Ajax, who fell into the sea and perished.'

"And the other?" we asked, for he had spoken of two high officers.

"'Odysseus lives still, though marooned, without a crew of oarsmen to stroke him home.'

And so Telemachus received the news that he had sought. But meanwhile his situation had become

still more perilous. For back at home on Ithaca, the suitors had gotten wind of his departure. Spurred

on by Antinous, they plotted to ambush him at sea upon his return.

Book Five

Soon after dawn breaks on Mount Olympus, Athena puts the case of Odysseus once more before the

gods. At her prompting, Zeus dispatches Hermes with a message for Calypso.

Binding on his magic sandals, Hermes skims over the waves to the island paradise where the nymph

has detained Odysseus. He finds her at her hearth in the midst of a forest redolent with cedar smoke

and thyme.

She's surprised by the visit but extends hospitality before asking its cause. Seating Hermes, she puts

before him nectar and ambrosia, the sustenance of the gods.

"I'm not here because I enjoy crossing the desolate sea," says Hermes. "I bring a message from Zeus:

Send Odysseus home."

"You jealous gods! Can't you bear to see one of us keep a mortal of her own?" cries Calypso. "Oh

very well, there's no arguing with Zeus."

Hermes rises to take his leave. "And next time, do God's bidding with a better grace."

Calypso knows where to find Odysseus. Every day for the last seven years he's sat on the same rock

gazing out to sea, weeping for home and Penelope.

"If I told you that there's heartbreak and shipwreck in store," asks the goddess, "would you trade

immortality and me for that mortal wench?"

"Yes, though she's nothing in comparison to your radiant self, I'd gladly endure what the sea deals

out."

"Very well then, you may go."

"What kind of trick is this?" asks Odysseus, who is famous for tricks himself. "You'll understand if

I'm suspicious."

"No trick. I swear by Styx."

And so the next morning she leads him to a pine wood and gives him tools to build a raft. Five days

later, provisioned with food and drink, he sets sail. Instructed by Calypso, he keeps Orion and its

companion constellations on his left and sails for seventeen days without sight of land. Then, just as

an island appears on the horizon, Poseidon notices what is afoot.

"So, my fellow gods have taken pity on Odysseus. If Zeus wills it, then he's headed home. But not

before I give him a voyage to remember."

Taking his trident in both hands, Poseidon stirs the sea into a fury and lashes up rain and squall. Mast

and sail are torn away, Odysseus is thrown overboard and buried under a wall of water. When he

emerges gasping and sputtering, he somehow manages to clamber back aboard.

A goddess, Leucothea, appears to him in the form of a bird. She counsels him to swim for it. "Take

my veil, tie it around your waist as a charm against drowning. When you reach shore, be sure to

throw it back into the sea."

Odysseus doubts. Surely it is safer to keep to the boat. But Poseidon soon solves his dilemma by

smashing it to bits. Satisfied, the Sea God drives off in his chariot. Odysseus swims and drifts for two

days, until he hears surf breaking on a rockbound coast.

58

A strong wave bears him in, straight onto the rocks. Desperately he clings to a ledge, until torn off by

the undertow. He has the presence of mind to swim back out to sea. It is then he sees a break in the

reefs, the mouth of a river just up the coast. He prays to the deity of this stream to take him in. And

the god has mercy on him.

Battered and half-drowned as he is, he remembers to throw the veil back to Leucothea. Then he

staggers to the bank and falls face down in the mud. Still he can't rest, for he knows that river air

grows deathly cold at night and anywhere he'll be easy prey to beasts.

Then he finds a clump of olive trees, so thickly tangled as to make a cage. And, drawing leaves up

over himself for a blanket, he sleeps the sleep of the dead.

Book 6

Odysseus had washed up in the land of the Phaeacians. Athena now intervened to make these people

foster his journey home. She went by night to the palace of their king and appeared in a dream to the

princess, Nausicaa.

The goddess prompted her to give thought to her wedding day. Shouldn't she journey to the pools

down by the river and wash her bridal gown?

In the morning Nausicaa awoke with this idea in mind. But being modest, she asked her father instead

if she might launder the family linen. Could she have the mule cart for the day? This was ordered and

Nausicaa departed with her serving maids.

At the river, they soaked and thrashed the linen and laid it out to dry. Then they bathed in the river

and anointed themselves with oil. After lunch they began to toss around a ball.

It was while they were playing that Odysseus woke to the sound of their laughter. Tearing off an

olive branch to cloak his nakedness, he approached the group.

The maids ran away at the sight of the brine-encrusted stranger, but Nausicaa stood her ground.

Odysseus had to choose between touching her knees in the gesture of a suppliant or staying back and

trusting to words. He decided that words were the safer course.

"Are you a goddess or a mortal?" he inquired. "If the latter, your parents must be proud. I've never

seen your like in beauty. I don't dare embrace your knees. Could you just tell me the way to town?"

In her candid way, Nausicaa sized him up and saw that he meant no harm. "As strangers and beg-

gars are in the hands of Zeus, I'll not refuse comfort to a castaway." She called back her maids and

told them to feed and clothe Odysseus. They gave him oil to rub on after he had bathed in the river.

And now Athena added further luster to the hero's freshly anointed skin and made him seem almost a

god. So the princess wished that her own husband might in some way resemble Odysseus.

"Now here is what you must do," she told him. "On the way to my father's palace we will pass

between the boatyards. The last thing I want is for some shipwright to see you following along behind

my cart and think that there is something going on between us.

"But just before town is a roadside grove, sacred to Athena. Wait there until you're sure I'm gone,

then enter the city gate. Ask directions to the palace, and when you've found it do not hesitate. Come

straight into the hall and seek out my mother.

"She'll be seated by the fire. Clasp her knees. If she accepts your supplication, you're as good as

home."

Book 7

Odysseus waited in the grove as instructed and then entered the city of the Phaeacians. When he

asked directions to the palace, it was Athena in the form of a little girl who showed him the way.

Odysseus stopped on the threshold, dazzled. The very walls of the interior were covered in shining

bronze and trimmed with lapis lazuli.

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The king and his courtiers were banqueting in this splendor, but Athena wrapped Odysseus in a mist

so that he passed by unseen. Straight up to the queen he went and wrapped his huge arms around her

knees.

"Blessings upon you and this company," he said, "if you but grant my plea -- safe passage to my

homeland." With this he rose and sat down again in the ashes of the fire.

"A supplicant with honorable intentions, humbled in the ashes!" exclaimed a wise counselor to the

king. "My lord, this will not do."

At which King Alcinous himself arose and took Odysseus by the hand, raising him to his feet. Next to

the king's throne sat his eldest son, who now moved aside. Odysseus was guided to this place of

honor.

"Tomorrow shall be a holiday," declared the king. "And when we have made sacrifice to the gods and

entertained our visitor, we will give thought to speeding his journey home.

"Who knows, he might even be a god, although in the past the gods haven't bothered with disguise in

visiting our realm. They've always appeared to us in all their glory, since we are their kin."

Odysseus assured him that he was no god, but a mortal man, and a hungry one at that. When the other

guests had left, the queen asked him how it came to be that he was wearing clothes that she herself

had trimmed.

Odysseus related the events since his departure from Calypso's island, sparing no detail but one. He

described how he had approached the princess and her maids by the river, and how Nausicaa had

kindly given him clothing. But he said that it had been his own idea to enter town separately.

That night he slept on a deep pile of rugs beneath clean sheets and fleeces.

Book 8

The next morning King Alcinous addressed an assembly of his people: "My guest's name is still

unknown to me, but I have promised him passage home. Therefore prepare our fastest ship. When all

is done, let the crew join me and my nobles for a banquet at the palace."

To entertain the banqueters, Alcinous summoned his minstrel, Demodocus. This bard could sing of

all life had to offer, having himself been favored with the gift of song but cursed with blindness. And

Demodocus' chosen theme that day was the Trojan War.

He began by singing of Achilles and Odysseus, and this brought tears to that hero's eyes. He managed

to hide them by burying his face in his cloak, though the king heard his sobs.

He spoke up at once: "Demodocus, put aside your harp for now. It is time for athletics."

And so the Phaeacians did their best to impress their guest with the discus, foot races and wrestling.

And indeed their feats were prodigious. At length they noticed that Odysseus himself was well-

muscled and fit. Perhaps he would care to join their contest?

Odysseus replied that he had other things than sport on his mind. But one of the competitors, a sailor

like all the Phaeacians, took this as an excuse. "No doubt he's been to sea," he sneered, "but only as a

purser."

The hero's eyes went cold. He picked up a discus and threw it with such a rush of wind that the

Phaeacians hit the deck. It landed far beyond their own best shots.

Alcinous acknowledged that the guest had proven his point. "Perhaps there's another way we can

impress him." He called for Demodocus to play a tune, and various dances were performed,

culminating in one featuring a carved wooden ball.

This was tossed high in the air, and a dancer leapt up and deflected it. Then two dancers passed it

back and forth, keeping it low to the ground. Odysseus was indeed impressed.

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Now the king proposed that each of his senior lords go home and bring back a bar of gold for the

still-nameless guest. The sailor who had taunted Odysseus earlier gave him his own sword in

apology. The gold was brought and the queen herself stored it in a chest for Odysseus.

That evening, on his way to the banquet hall, Odysseus passed Nausicaa in the corridor. "When you

are safely home," she said, "you might remember me."

"Princess," replied Odysseus, "I will give thanks to you, as to a goddess, each day until I die."

At table the minstrel was called upon once more, and this time it was Odysseus himself who

suggested the theme. Demodocus began to sing of the Trojan Horse, how the men of Troy had

brought it within their walls and then debated what to do. Should they smash it to pieces with axes, or

push it over a cliff? Or should they preserve it as an offering to the gods? Fate, of course, made them

choose the latter course.

Once more Odysseus cried into his mantle, and once more the king ordered a halt to the

entertainment.

"Enough! Our guest is weeping. He came to us as a suppliant, and his conduct was proper in all

respects. So we are doing as he asked. Now it is his turn. Tell us your name, stranger, and tell us your

home. After all, our ship will need to set a course."

Book 9

"I am Odysseus of Ithaca. And here is my tale since setting out from Troy:

Our first landfall was Ismarus, in the land of the Cicones. We sacked the town, killed the men and

took the women captive. I was for putting out right then, but my men would not hear of it.

Carousing on the beach, they feasted and dawdled while survivors of our plundering raised the

hinterlands. The main force of the Cicones swept down on us in a black tide. These were fighting

men, and it was all we could do to hold the ships until, outnumbered, we cut our losses and put back

out to sea.

And while we still grieved for our fallen comrades, Zeus sent a storm that knocked us to our knees.

We rode it out as best we could. I might even then have rounded the southern cape and made for

home had not a new gale driven us across seventeen days of open sea.

We found ourselves at last in the land of the Lotus-eaters. These folk are harmless enough, but the

plant on which they feast is insidious. Three of my men tasted it and all they wanted was more. They

lost all desire for home. I had to force them back to the ships and tie them down while we made our

getaway.

Next we beached in the land of the Cyclopes. We'd put in at a little island off their coast. And since

they don't know the first thing about sailing they'd left it uninhabited, though it teamed with wildlife.

We made a pleasant meal of wild goat, then next day I left everyone else behind and took my own

crew over to the mainland. The first thing we saw was a big cave overlooking the beach. Inside were

milking pens for goats and big cheeses aging on racks.

My men were for making off with the cheeses and the lambs that we found in the cave, but I wanted

to see what manner of being made this his lair.

When the Cyclops -- Polyphemus was his name -- came home that afternoon, he blotted out the light

in the doorway. He was as tall and rugged as an alp. One huge eye glared out of the center of his

forehead.

He didn't see us at first, but went about his business. The first thing he did was drag a huge boulder

into the mouth of the cave. Twenty teams of horses couldn't have budged it. Then he milked his ewes,

separating out the curds and setting the whey aside to drink with his dinner. It was when he stroked

his fire for the meal that he saw us.

'Who are you?' asked a voice like thunder.

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'We are Greeks, blown off course on our way home from Troy,' I explained. 'We assume you'll extend

hospitality or suffer the wrath of Zeus, protector of guests.'

'Zeus? We Cyclopes are stronger than Zeus. I'll show you hospitality.'

With that he snatched up two of my men and bashed their brains out on the floor. Then he ate them

raw, picking them apart and poking them in his mouth, bones and guts and all.

We cried aloud to Zeus, for all the good it did our comrades. The Cyclops washed them down with

great slurps of milk, smacked his lips in satisfaction and went to sleep. My hand was on my sword,

eager to stab some vital spot. But I realized that only he could unstopped the mouth of the cave.

We passed a miserable night and then watched the Cyclops make breakfast of two more of our

companions. When he went out to pasture his flock, he pulled the boulder closed behind him.

It was up to me to make a plan. I found a tree trunk that the Cyclops intended for a walking stick. We

cut off a six-foot section, skinned it, put a sharp point on one end and hardened it in the fire. Then we

hid it under a pile of manure.

When the Cyclops came home and made his usual meal, I spoke to him. 'Cyclops, you might as well

take some of our liquor to savor with your barbarous feast.'

I'd brought along a skin of wine that we'd been given as a gift. It was so strong that we usually diluted

it in water twenty to one. The Cyclops tossed it back and then demanded more.

'I like you, Greek,' he said. 'I'm going to do you a favor. What's your name?'

'My name is Nobody,' I told him.

It turned out that the favor he intended was to eat me last. But when the wine had knocked him out, I

put my plan into effect. Heating the end of the pole until it was glowing red, we ran it toward the

Cyclops like a battering ram, aiming it for his eye and driving it deep. The thing sizzled like hot metal

dropped in water while I twisted it like an auger.

Polyphemus came awake with a roar, tore the spike from his eye and began groping for us in his

blindness.

His screams of frustration and rage brought the neighboring Cyclopes to the mouth of the cave.

'What is it, brother?' they called inside. 'Is someone harming you?'

'It's Nobody!' bellowed Polyphemus.

'Then for the love of Poseidon pipe down in there!'

They went away, and Polyphemus heaved the boulder aside and spent the night by the open door,

hoping we'd be stupid enough to try to sneak past him. Getting past him was the problem alright, but

by morning I'd worked out a solution.

Tying goats together with ropes of willow, I hid a man under each group of three. When it was time

to let them out to pasture, the Cyclops ran his hands over their backs but did not notice the men

underneath. Myself, I clutched to the underbelly of the biggest ram.

'Why aren't you leading the flock as usual?' asked Polyphemus, detaining this beast at the door and

stroking its fleece. 'I wish you could talk, so you could point out those Greeks.'

He let the ram go, and we beat it down to the ship as fast as our legs would carry us. When we were a

good way out to sea, I could not resist a taunt. I called out, and Polyphemus came to the edge of the

seaside cliff. In his fury he tore up a huge boulder and flung it at us.

It landed in front of our bow, and the splash almost drove us back onto the beach. This time I waited

until my panicked men had rowed a good bit further before I put my hands to my mouth to call out

again. The men tried to hush me, but I was aquiver with triumph.

'If someone asks who did this, the name is Odysseus!'

That brought another boulder hurtling our way, but this one landed astern and only hastened our

departure. The Cyclops was left howling on the cliff, calling out to his father Poseidon for vengeance.

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Book 10

"We next put in at the island of Aeolus. Zeus had made him Keeper of the Winds. So when I'd

entertained Aeolus for a month with tales of Troy, he was kind enough to provide a steady breeze to

blow us home. He even gave me an assortment of storm winds to stow on board, tied up in a leather

bag.

Nine days later we were just off Ithaca, so close that people could be seen ashore going about their

work. I had dozed off, exhausted by manning the sail myself the whole way. Now my men noticed

the bag that Aeolus had given me.

'Why does the captain get all the booty?' they wanted to know. 'What have we got to show for our sea

roving?'

So they opened it and let loose a hurricane that blew us all the way back to Aeolus's island. Hangdog,

I appeared once more before him and asked if he would send us home again. He kicked me right out

of there.

Back at sea, six days and nights we were becalmed. Then we fetched up in the land of the

Laestrygonians. There it's daylight around the clock. A shore patrol was dispatched to scout the

countryside.

They came upon a husky young girl who directed them to her mother, the queen of those people. She

proved to be hideous and huge as a mountain, and her husband was hot for blood. He grabbed the

first man, tore him in half and chomped him down. The others made a break for it.

They came screaming back to the shore, followed by the entire clan of Laestrygonians. As the men

scrambled to cast off, they were bombarded by boulders pelted from the heights. It was like shooting

fish in a barrel. The Laestrygonians smashed ships and men and gorged on lumps of Greek.

I'd had the presence of mind to cut away the hawser with my sword, and I urged my men to row for

their lives. We made it, the only ship to escape. Our relief was overwhelmed in grief for the comrades

left behind.

When we came to Circe's island, no one was eager to go exploring, but I divided the company in two

and we drew lots.

My group stayed behind while the other set out under my kinsman Eurylochus to reconnoiter.

Before long they came to a stone house in the middle of a tangled wood. Strange to tell, it was

surrounded by lions and wolves of extraordinary meekness. Hearing singing from within, the men

saw no harm in making their presence known.

Circe came out and welcomed them inside. All but Eurylochus accepted the invitation. He had a

premonition. And sure enough, after she had given them food and honeyed wine mixed with a pinch

of something, she waved her wand and turned them into swine.

Eurylochus came running back to the ship and spread the alarm. I now shouldered the burden of

command and set out to investigate.

Fortunately I met Hermes along the way. Zeus's herald warned me that I too would be transformed by

Circe's witchery unless I followed his instructions. I was to accept the potion that she gave me,

knowing that I would be protected by a godly charm -- a sprig of herb called moly that mortals dare

not harvest. Then when she raised her wand I was to draw my sword.

Hermes gave me the moly, then departed. I made my way to the house in the clearing and Circe bade

me enter. I downed the potion. Then just as she showed her wand, I unsheathed my sword and held it

to her throat.

She fainted to the ground and clutched my knees. 'You can only be Odysseus. Hermes warned me

that this day would come. Let me be your friend and lover.'

First I made her swear an oath.

63

Later we feasted splendidly and her servants danced attendance. But she could see that I was in no

mood for levity. Divining the cause, she waved her wand once more and restored my shipmates to

human form. She even sent me to summon the men from the ship, who never thought they'd see me

again alive.

When many months had passed, the crew reminded me of home. Now it was my turn to take Circe's

knees in supplication. The goddess was willing to let me go, but it was not as simple as that.

'You will never see your home again,' she said, 'by sailing there directly. You must detour to the land

of Death, there to consult the blind prophet Tiresias. He alone can chart your course.'

Book 11

"At the furthest edge of Ocean's stream is the land to which all journey when they die. Here their

spirits endure a fleshless existence. They can't even talk unless reanimated with blood.

Accordingly, I did as Circe instructed, bleeding a sacrificed lamb into a pit. Tiresias, the blind

prophet who had accompanied us to Troy, was the soul I had to talk to. So I held all the other shades

at bay with my sword until he had drunk from the pit.

He gave me warnings about my journey home and told me what I must do to ensure a happy death

when my time came. I met the shades of many famous women and heroes, including Achilles, best

fighter of the Greeks at Troy.

Book 12

"At sea once more we had to pass the Sirens, whose sweet singing lures sailors to their doom. I had

stopped up the ears of my crew with wax, and I alone listened while lashed to the mast, powerless to

steer toward shipwreck.

Next came Charybdis, who swallows the sea in a whirlpool, then spits it up again. Avoiding this we

skirted the cliff where Scylla exacts her toll. Each of her six slavering maws grabbed a sailor and

wolfed him down.

Finally we were becalmed on the island of the Sun. My men disregarded all warnings and sacrificed

his cattle, so back at sea Zeus sent a thunderbolt that smashed the ship. I alone survived, washing up

on the island of Calypso."

Book 13

When Odysseus has finished his tale, the king orders him sped to Ithaca. A rug is spread on the deck

of the ship, and he sleeps the whole way.

The sailors put him down on the beach still sleeping, together with the magnificent gifts of the

Phaeacians. Upon awakening he spends a good deal of time wondering how he is going to protect this

treasure.

Athena casts a protective mist about him that keeps him from recognizing his homeland. Finally the

goddess reveals herself and dispels the mist. In joy Odysseus kisses the ground.

Athena transforms him into an old man as a disguise. Clad in a filthy tunic, he goes off to find his

faithful swineherd, as instructed by the goddess.

Book 14

Eumaeus the swineherd welcomes the bedraggled stranger. He throws his own bedcover over a pile

of boughs as a seat for Odysseus, who does not reveal his identity.

Observing Zeus's commandment to be kind to guests, Eumaeus slaughters a prime boar and serves it

with bread and wine. Odysseus, true to his fame as a smooth-talking schemer, makes up an elaborate

story of his origins.

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That night the hero sleeps by the fire under the swineherd's spare cloak, while Eumaeus himself

sleeps outside in the rain with his herd.

Book 15

Athena summons Telemachus home and tells him how to avoid an ambush by the suitors. Meanwhile

back on Ithaca, Odysseus listens while the swineherd Eumaeus recounts the story of his life.

Eumaeus was the child of a prosperous mainland king, whose realm was visited by Phoenician

traders. His nursemaid, a Phoenician herself, had been carried off by pirates as a girl and sold into

slavery. In return for homeward passage with her countrymen, she kidnapped Eumaeus. He was

bought by Odysseus' father, whose queen raised him as a member of the family.

Book 16

Telemachus evades the suitors' ambush and, following Athena's instructions, proceeds to the

farmstead of Eumaeus. There he makes the acquaintance of the tattered guest and sends Eumaeus to

his mother to announce his safe return.

Athena restores Odysseus' normal appearance, enhancing it so that Telemachus takes him for a god.

"No god am I," Odysseus assures him, "but your own father, returned after these twenty years." They

fall into each other's arms.

Later they plot the suitors' doom. Concerned that the odds are fifty-to-one, Telemachus suggests that

they might need reinforcements.

"Aren't Zeus and Athena reinforcement enough?" asks Odysseus.

Book 17

Disguised once more as an old beggar, Odysseus journeys to town. On the trail he encounters an

insolent goatherd named Melanthius, who curses and tries to kick him.

At his castle gate, the hero is recognized by Argos, a broken-down old dog that he had raised as a

pup. Having seen his master again, the faithful hound dies.

At Athena's urging Odysseus begs food from the suitors. One man, Antinous, berates him and refuses

so much as a crust. He hurls a footstool at Odysseus, hitting him in the back. This makes even the

other suitors nervous, for sometimes the gods masquerade as mortals to test their righteousness.

Book 18

Now a real beggar shows up at the palace and warns Odysseus off his turf. This man, Irus, is always

running errands for the suitors. Odysseus says that there are pickings enough for the two of them, but

Irus threatens fisticuffs and the suitors egg him on.

Odysseus rises to the challenge and rolls up his tunic into a boxer's belt. The suitors goggle at the

muscles revealed. Not wishing to kill Irus with a single blow, Odysseus breaks his jaw instead.

Another suitor, Eurymachus, marks himself for revenge by trying to hit Odysseus with a footstool as

Antinous had done.

Book 19

Odysseus has a long talk with his queen Penelope but does not reveal his identity. Penelope takes

kindly to the stranger and orders her maid Eurycleia to bathe his feet and anoint them with oil.

Eurycleia, who was Odysseus' nurse when he was a child, notices a scar above the hero's knee.

Odysseus had been gored by a wild boar while hunting on Mount Parnassus as a young man. The

maid recognizes her master at once, and her hand goes out to his chin. But Odysseus silences her lest

she give away his plot prematurely.

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Book 20

The next morning Odysseus asks for a sign, and Zeus sends a clap of thunder out of the clear blue

sky. A servant recognizes it as a portent and prays that this day be the last of the suitors' abuse.

Odysseus encounters another herdsman. Like the swineherd Eumaeus, this man, who tends the

realm's cattle, swears his loyalty to the absent king.

A prophet, an exiled murderer whom Telemachus has befriended, shares a vision with the suitors: "I

see the walls of this mansion dripping with your blood." The suitors respond with gales of laughter.

Book 21

Penelope now appears before the suitors in her glittering veil. In her hand is a stout bow left behind

by Odysseus when he sailed for Troy. "Whoever strings this bow," she says, "and sends an arrow

straight through the sockets of twelve ax heads lined in a row -- that man will I marry."

The suitors take turns trying to bend the bow to string it, but all of them lack the strength. Odysseus

asks if he might try. The suitors refuse, fearing that they'll be shamed if the beggar succeeds. But

Telemachus insists and his anger distracts them into laughter.

As easily as a bard fitting a new string to his lyre, Odysseus strings the bow and sends an arrow

through the ax heads. At a sign from his father, Telemachus arms himself and takes up a station by

his side.

Book 22

Antinous, ringleader of the suitors, is just lifting a drinking cup when Odysseus puts an arrow through

his throat.

The goatherd sneaks out and comes back with shields and spears for the suitors, but now Athena

appears. She sends the suitors' spear thrusts wide, as Odysseus, Telemachus and the two faithful

herdsmen strike with volley after volley of lances.

They finish off the work with swords. Those of the housemaids who had consorted with the suitors

are hung by the neck in the courtyard, while the treacherous goatherd is chopped to bits.

Book 23

The mansion is purged with fire and brimstone. Odysseus tells everyone to dress in their finest and

dance, so that passersby won't suspect what's happened. Even Odysseus could not hold vengeful

kinfolk at bay.

Penelope still won't accept that it's truly her husband returned unless he gives her some secret sign.

She tells a servant to make up his bed in the hall.

"In the hall!" storms Odysseus. "Who had the craft to move my bed? I carved the bedpost myself

from the living trunk of an olive tree and built the bedroom around it."

Penelope rushes into his arms. The joy they share is like that of a drowning man who feels solid

ground beneath his feet once more.

Book 24

The next morning Odysseus goes upcountry to the vineyard where his father, old King Laertes, labors

like a peasant. Ever since his wife died of heartbreak for Odysseus, the miserable man has lived with

his field hands. Odysseus cannot resist testing his father with a tall tale before their fond reunion.

Meanwhile, the kin of the suitors have borne off their dead and gathered at the assembly ground. The

father of the suitor Antinous fires them up for revenge. Odysseus, Telemachus, the loyal herdsmen,

Laertes and the field hands arm themselves to meet the challenge.

66

Inspired by Athena, Laertes casts a lance through the helmet of Antinous' father, who falls to the

ground in a clatter of armor.

But at the command of Zeus, the fighting stops right there. Athena, in the guise of an old family

friend, tells the contending parties to live together in peace down through the years to come.

Appendix

The Iliad character map

The Iliad Study Guide

How did Paris, Prince of Troy, start the Trojan War?

What did Agamemnon do that angered the god, Apollo?

How did Agamemnon anger Achilles and what did Achilles do in response?

67

What did Thetis ask Zeus to do?

What did Achilles do when the Greeks returned to the war?

Describe the action in the fight between Paris and Menelaus.

Pandarus saw one of King Priam’s sons who told him to shoot an arrow at Menelaus. Who

was it really?

Why did Agamemnon want to start the war again?

Which side did Hera and Athena want to help?

Why does Hector ask his mother to pray to Athena?

What reasons does Hector give to Paris for returning to the battle?

What does Hector do before returning to battle?

What do Apollo and Athena agree to do?

When no Greeks step up to Hector’s challenge, how is a warrior chosen?

What happens when Ajax and Hector fight?

What did Zeus command the gods and goddesses to do?

What does Diomed not want Hector to think of him?

Hera and Athena decide to help the Greeks but before they reach the battlefield, they change

their minds. Why?

What does Agamemnon realize?

What does Agamemnon decide to do?

What does Achilles answer?

Did hearing Phoenix’s story change Achilles’ mind?

When does Achilles say he will return to battle?

Why did Menelaus suggest sending a spy to the Trojans?

Why did Odysseus and Diomed have an advantage over Dolon?

Was the spying mission successful?

Why didn’t Hector stand up to Agamemnon?

After Agamemnon was hurt and then Diomed, why wouldn’t the other Greek chiefs fight

beside Odysseus?

Why did Achilles send Patroclus to see what was happening?

What was the “bird sign” that the Trojans found so frightening?

Discussion Point: Why does Achilles watch the battle so closely if he doesn’t want to fight

with his fellow Greeks? Why does he care about what’s happening?

Poseidon is Zeus’s brother and yet he disobeyed an order given by Zeus. What did he do?

Did Poseidon back down when Zeus sent the messenger Iris to him?

How did Hector recover from his wound?

Does Patroclus think that Achilles has made a good choice in staying away from the battle?

Achilles agrees to let Patroclus go to battle wearing Achilles’ armor but he gives him one

order. What is it?

Who killed Patroclus?

Why is Achilles so distraught?

Who does Thetis go to for new armor for Achilles?

What does Achilles say to make up with Agamemnon?

How does Agamemnon react?

Why did Athena disguise herself as Hector’s brother?

68

What was Hector’s dying request?

Why does Achilles agree to return Hector’s body to his family?

How does the reader know that Achilles is touched by King Priam?

How did the Greeks use deception to win the war?

Plot Summary

A young prince of Troy, Paris, has come to Greece and kidnapped Helen, beautiful wife of King

Menelaus of Greece. The Greeks go to Troy to win Helen back and to avenge this dishonorable act.

The war rages for nine years with neither side gaining the upper hand. In the tenth year, King

Agamemnon insults warrior Achilles by taking back a prize given to Achilles during an earlier

victory – the slave girl Briseis. Achilles refuses to go back into battle and Achilles’ mother, Thetis,

convinces the god Zeus to support Achilles in his plan by holding victory back from the Greeks. In

general, the gods are supposed to stay out of these mortal battles but they do have their favorites.

Among the deities favoring the Trojans are Ares, Aphrodite, and Apollo. On the side of the Greeks

are Athena and Hera—the wife of Zeus and there would be great trouble if Zeus were to take a side.

But Zeus is god of thunder and lightning and he knows he can do as he wants. Swayed by the pleas of

Thetis, he gives strength to the Trojans against the Greeks. The Greeks fight hard but with the

support of Zeus going to the Trojans, and in particular to the Trojan warrior, Hector, the Trojans hang

on. Many Greeks and Trojans are killed in battle while Achilles stays out of the fray. Agamemmon

tries to patch things up with Achilles but Achilles refuses to make peace and re-enter the war. That is

until Achilles’ friend Patroclus enters the battle wearing Achilles’ armor so that the Trojans will be

fooled into thinking he’s Achilles and they will flee. Patroclus is killed and Achilles is angry and out

for revenge against Hector, the Trojan who killed him. (with Apollo’s help) Hector suffers a

humiliating death at the hand of Achilles. However, King Priam of Troy risks life and limb and goes

to Achilles with “ransom” gifts to claim the body of his son, Hector. Humbly, Priam kisses Achilles’

hand. Deeply moved, Achilles welcomes Priam and orders an attendant to prepare Hector's body.

Troy mourns Hector for nine days, and then buries his remains. Ultimately, when the Greeks enter

Troy using the subterfuge of the Trojan Horse, Troy is destroyed.

Organization and structure of the Iliad

Iliad Book Time Event

Book One 1 + 9 + 1 days Supplication + Plague + Quarrel

12 days divine absence (inert time)

Books 2-7 Day 1 1st battle (7.475 night falls)

Book 8 Day 2 2nd battle; Greeks beaten back

Book 9 Night 2 Embassy, Doloneia (Hector warned)

Books 11-18 Day 3 3rd battle; the big one; mist changes tone at end

17 Death of Sarpedon

18 Death of Patroclus

Book 18 Night 3 Thetis and Achilles; shield

Books 19-22 Day 4 19: reconciliation with Agamemnon

20: Theomachia

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21: River

22: Death of Hector

Book 23 Night 4 psyche of Patroclus visits Achilles

Book 23 Day 5 Funeral Games

Book 24 Night 5 Achilles sleepless

12 days Hector exposed, Priam visits Achilles at night

9 days mourning for Hector (inert time)

Hector buried

The Odyssey character map

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Odyssey Chronology

Based on W.B. Stanford's commentary, pages x-xii (London 1959)

Day Event Odyssey Book

Day 1 Assembly of gods, Athena visits Telemachus Book 1

Day 2 Assembly on Ithaca, Telemachus sails Book 2

Day 3 He arrives in Pylos Book 3

Day 4 He leaves Pylos Book 3

Day 5 He goes to Sparta; Menelaus receives him Books 3-4

Day 6 He stays at Sparta; hears Menelaus' story,while in Ithaca suitors

learn he's left and plot his murder. Penelope dreams

Book 4

Day 7 2nd assembly of gods Book 5

Days 8-

11

Odysseus builds his boat Book 5

Days

12-28

Odysseus voyages safely Book 5

Day 29 Poseidon wrecks him Book 5

Days

30-31

Odysseus drift to Scheria Book 5

Day 32 Athena sends Nausicaa to shore; she meets Odysseus, who is

received hospitably at palace

Books 6-7

Day 33 Entertainment of Odysseus, who tells his adventures Books 8-13

Day 34

Odysseus voyages home to Ithaca Book 13

Day 35 Odysseus lands and stays with Eumaeus; Telemachus travels back

to Pherai

(O) Books 13-14;

(T) Book 15

Day 36 Telemachus reaches Pylos and sails home Book 15

Day 37 Telemachus lands on Ithaca and joins Odysseus and Eumaeus Books 15-16

Day 38 Odysseus, disguised as beggar, goes among suitors, fights a rival

beggar, talks with Penelope, is recognized by Nurse

Books 17-19

Day 39 The contest with the bow. Odysseus kills suitors. Penelope at last

accepts Odysseus

Books 20-23

Day 40 The suitors' souls go to Hades; Odysseus visits his father; Athena

makes peace between Odysseus and the suitors' kinsmen

Books 23-24

Odyssey Plot Summaries and Study Questions

BOOK I: WHAT WENT ON IN THE HOUSE OF ODYSSEUS

Athena appeals to Zeus for permission to help Odysseus reach home. Odysseus’s home in Ithaca is

overrun with suitors who are trying to win Penelopeia’s hand. With the help of Athena disguised as

Mentes, Telemachus finds the courage to confront the suitors.

1. Where is Odysseus?

2. What or whom is Athena disguised as?

3. Why do Telemachus and his mother need Odysseus?

4. Why does Odysseus’s wife have suitors?

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5. What does Athena advise Telemachus to do?

BOOK II: HOW THE COUNCIL MET IN THE MARKET-PLACE OF ITHACA; AND WHAT CAME

OF IT

In a town meeting, Telemachus announces his intentions to locate his father and rid his house of the

suitors. He is met with ridicule and doubt, especially from Antinoos who confronts Telemachus

twice. Athena helps Telemachus prepare for his journey, and he sets sail in secret that night.

1. Describe the trick that Penelope plays on her suitors.

2. What specifically does Athena do to help Telemachus in this book?

BOOK III: WHAT HAPPENED IN SANDY PYLOS

Following Athena’s advice, Telemachus visits King Nestor of Pylos to get information about his

father. Athena accompanies him disguised as an old family friend, Mentor. Nestor tells Telemachus

stories about Odysseus. Telemachus continues his search on horseback with Nestor’s son

Megapenthes.

1. What is Nestor’s opinion of Odysseus?

2. Describe Nestor’s reaction when he realizes that Telemachus’ companion is Athena.

BOOK IV: WHAT HAPPENED IN LACEDAIMON

Telemachus and Megapenthes arrive at and are welcomed into the home of Menelaus and Helen.

Menelaus tells Telemachus of his travels with Odysseus and that Odysseus is trapped on an island by

Calypso. Meanwhile, Antinoos has learned that Telemachus has embarked on his journey and plots

with the other suitors to kill him upon his return to Ithaca. Penelope learns of Telemachus’ leaving

and is upset.

1. What clues cue Menelaus and Helen that Telemachus is Odysseus’s son?

2. What is Menelaus’ opinion of Odysseus?

3. Describe Antinoos’ plan to destroy Telemachus.

BOOK V: HERMES IS SENT TO CALYPSO’S ISLAND; ODYSSEUS MAKES A RAFT AND IS

CARRIED TO THE COAST OF SCHERIA

Athena again pleads to Zeus for Odysseus’s release. Zeus sends Hermes to Calypso with orders that

she release Odysseus. Calypso grudgingly complies. Odysseus is given much trouble by Poseidon,

but with the help of Leucothea and Athena, he finally reaches the land of the Phaeacians, where he

collapses, exhausted.

1. Who is Hermes, and what is his mission?

2. What can Hermes do with his wand?

3. Who is holding Odysseus captive?

4. What is Calypso’s reaction to having to let Odysseus go?

5. What is the main problem Odysseus faces while traveling by sea?

6. What happens to Odysseus at the end of Book 5?

BOOK VI: HOW ODYSSEUS APPEALED TO NAUSICAA, AND SHE BROUGHT HIM TO HER

FATHER’S HOUSE

Athena appears in Nausicaa’s dream, telling her to go to the river and wash clothes. Nausicaa and her

maids meet Odysseus at the river, and all but Nausicaa are frightened of him because of his

appearance. He begs her to help him and she agrees. He bathes and follows Nausicaa’s instructions

for asking her parents for assistance.

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1. What “subliminal” message does Athena give to Nausicaa while she lies sleeping?

2. Who is the only person who doesn’t run away from the terrifying Odysseus? Why doesn’t she run

away?

3. Is it pure luck that Nausicaa helps Odysseus? Explain.

4. What does the fact that Odysseus won’t bathe in front of the girls tell us about the kind of person

he is?

5. Does Nausicaa believe her parents will help Odysseus?

6. Why won’t Nausicaa let Odysseus ride in her cart?

7. What instructions does she give Odysseus?

BOOK VII: WHAT HAPPENED TO ODYSSEUS IN THE PALACE OF ALCINOOS

Odysseus arrives at the palace of Alcinoos and Arete and begs for their help in getting him home.

They feed him, ask about his situation, and agree to give him the help he needs.

1. What craft are the Phaiacians best known for?

2. How is Odysseus treated as a guest?

BOOK VIII: HOW THEY HELD GAMES AND SPORTS IN PHAIACIA

The next day Alcinoos sends the boys of the town to construct a ship for Odysseus’s voyage and

gathers the men for a day of entertainment for Odysseus. Demodocos sings of famous men, including

Odysseus. When Alcinoos sees Odysseus crying during the minstrel’s story, he commences the

games and dancing to keep his guest happy. At dinner, Odysseus again weeps when Demodocos

sings about the Trojan War. At this point, Alcinoos finally demands to know who Odysseus is.

1. Describe the activities that King Alcinoos arranges to entertain Odysseus.

2. Who is Demodocos?

3. How is King Alcinoos helping Odysseus to get home?

4. What is Odysseus’s reaction whenever Demodocos sings about the Trojan War?

BOOK IX: HOW ODYSSEUS VISITED THE LOTUS-EATERS AND THE CYCLOPS

Odysseus tells Alcinoos who he is and what things have happened to him since he left Troy. He tells

of his adventures in Ismaros, in the land of the Lotus-Eaters, and in the land of the Cyclopians. He

describes the Cyclopians as “violent and lawless”, and he and his men run into trouble with one of the

Cyclopians. Men are killed and Poseidon’s vendetta against Odysseus begins.

1. What was the effect of the Lotus plant?

2. How heavy is the door of the Cyclops’ cave?

3. What is the first villainous thing the Cyclops does?

4. Why doesn’t Odysseus kill the Cyclops when he has the chance?

5. What does Odysseus give the Cyclops as a gift?

6. What gift does the Cyclops give in return?

7. What does Odysseus tell the Cyclops that his name is?

8. How do Odysseus and his men sneak out of the Cyclops’ cave?

9. What foolish thing does Odysseus do?

10. What did a soothsayer once predict would happen to the Cyclops?

11. What does the Cyclops ask his father Poseidon to do for him?

BOOK X: THE ISLAND OF THE WINDS; THE LAND OF THE MIDNIGHT SUN; CIRCE

Odysseus tells of his visit to Aiolia, where Aiolos Hippotades, manager of the winds, helps Odysseus

and his crew get home. He puts wind in a bag, which Odysseus carries on board the ship.

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Unfortunately, his curious crew decides to open the bag, and the released winds drive them away

from home. They arrive at the land of the Laestrygonians, who eat most of Odysseus’s crew before

his ship escapes. Then they land on the island of Aiaia, the home of Circe. She traps some of the men

and turns them into pigs. Odysseus, with the help of Hermes, gets her to release his men and help him

reach home. She instructs him to visit Hades, where he will meet Tieresias, who will tell him how to

get home.

1. Who is the god of wind?

2. What favor does he do for Odysseus and his men?

3. What stupid mistake do some of the men make on the ship?

4. How do even more men die after the bag accident?

5. What does Circe do to some of Odysseus’s men?

6. How does Odysseus get her to release his men?

7. What instructions does Circe give Odysseus?

BOOK XI: HOW ODYSSEUS VISITED THE KINGDOM OF THE DEAD

Odysseus follows Circe’s instructions. In Hades, he first sees a dead shipmate, Elpenor, then his

mother, Anticleia, then Tieresias. Tieresias tells him what will happen to him next, including a

warning about the cattle of Helios and how to reconcile with Poseidon. He then gets to talk with his

mother, and she answers many questions for him. At this point, Odysseus tries to conclude his

storytelling, but Alcinoos begs him to continue. Odysseus says only that he met the souls of many

who passed away, then he left Hades.

1. What does Odysseus do to call the souls of the dead to him?

2. Who is Teiresias and what does Odysseus want from him?

3. What does Teiresias predict for Odysseus?

4. What should Odysseus do to the suitors at his house?

5. What does Teiresias say Odysseus should do after dealing with the suitors?

6. What is the name of Odysseus’s mother and how did she die?

7. Why can’t Odysseus hug his dead mother?

BOOK XII: THE SINGING SIRENS, AND THE TERRORS OF SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS

Odysseus tells of their return to Aiaia to bury Elpenor and of Circe’s warning of the dangers to come:

the Sirens, Scylla, Charybdis, and Helios’s cattle. The men make it through the perils of the sea, as

predicted. On land, when they run out of provisions, they eat Helios’s cattle even though Odysseus

made them promise not to. At sea, all except Odysseus are killed as punishment. Odysseus is adrift

for nine days before landing on the island of Ogygia, Calypso’s home. Alcinoos and the other

listeners are now up-to-date on the travels of Odysseus.

1. Why should Odysseus be wary of the Sirens?

2. What should he and his men do to keep safe from the Sirens?

3. Describe Scylla.

4. What will Charybdis do if Odysseus’s ship gets too close?

5. What does Odysseus keep secret from his men?

6. Describe the circumstances of Odysseus’s shipmates’ deaths. Is it Odysseus’s fault?

BOOK XIII: HOW ODYSSEUS CAME TO ITHACA

Odysseus is done telling his story. King Alcinoos gives Odysseus a ship with a crew and supplies,

and the townspeople all give him gifts. The crew delivers Odysseus to Ithaca and returns home.

Poseidon, who is mad that anyone would make Odysseus’s travels by sea so easy, turns the ship and

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crew into stone as they return to their harbor. Odysseus does not believe he is home until Athena

convinces him. She disguises him as an old beggar and sends to him to his faithful pigkeeper.

1. Describe Odysseus’s journey home from Scheria.

2. What does Poseidon initially want to do to the Phaeacian ship?

3. What decision does Alcinovs make because of the wrath of Poseidon?

4. Why and for how long does Athena want Odysseus to be in disguise?

5. What does Athena instruct Odysseus to do now that he has returned to Ithaca?

6. Whom does Athena instruct Odysseus to visit first?

BOOK XIV: ODYSSEUS AND THE SWINEHERD

Athena goes to Lacedaimon to bring Telemachus home. Odysseus goes to the swineherd Eumaios’

house. Odysseus is made welcome and is pleased to see how faithful Eumaios has been during his

absence.

1. What is the name of the swineherd?

2. What does Odysseus tell the swineherd about himself?

3. Describe Odysseus’s disguise.

BOOK XV: HOW TELEMACHUS SAILED BACK TO ITHACA

Athena finds Telemachus at the mansion of Menelaus and instructs him to return home. Odysseus

learns from Eumaios about his (Odysseus’s) parents and how Eumaios was bought by Laertes when

he was a child. Telemachus lands safely back in Ithaca and, by Athena’s instructions, goes straight to

Eumaios.

1. How has Eumaios proven his faithfulness in this and previous books?

2. Who do you think will be the first person to know Odysseus for who he really is?

BOOK XVI: HOW TELEMACHUS MET HIS FATHER

Athena instructs Odysseus to reveal his identity to Telemachus and to plan their revenge on the

suitors. Eumaios tells Penelopeia that Telemachus has returned safely to Ithaca. When the suitors, led

by Antinoos, learn that their plan to kill Telemachus has failed, they plot to kill him another way.

1. What does Telemachus call Eumaios? Why?

2. Describe Athena’s changes to Odysseus’s appearance.

3. Who does Telemachus think Odysseus is when Athena removes his disguise?

4. What do Odysseus and Telemachus plan to do?

5. Describe Penelopeia’s confrontation with Antinoos.

BOOK XVII: HOW ODYSSEUS RETURNED TO HIS OWN HOME

Telemachus returns home, accompanied by Theoclymenos. Eumaios brings the disguised Odysseus

to his home where the suitors are entertaining themselves as usual. Odysseus is recognized only by

Argos, his old hunting dog, who dies after hearing his master’ s voice one last time. Odysseus tests

the suitors by begging for food from each one. Penelopeia tells Eumaios to bring the beggar to her;

she wants to know if he has any news about Odysseus.

1. What does Theoclymenos prophesy to Penelopeia?

2. How does Odysseus test the suitors?

3. Who recognizes Odysseus right away? How does he recognize him?

4. Describe Melanthios.

5. Who makes Odysseus extremely angry?

6. Why does Odysseus want to test his servants and his wife before revealing his identity?

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BOOK XVIII: HOW ODYSSEUS FOUGHT THE STURDY BEGGAR

Odysseus fights with another beggar, Iros, who is used to being the only beggar at the castle.

Penelopeia decides to address the suitors, saying she will choose a husband according to who brings

her the best gift. Odysseus recognizes this as a trick on the suitors. Odysseus is further antagonized

by Melantho, a maid, and Eurymachos.

1. Why does Odysseus get in a fight with Iros? Who wins?

2. What trick does Penelopeia play on the suitors in this book?

3. Which three characters anger Odysseus in this book?

BOOK XIX: HOW THE OLD NURSE KNEW HER MASTER

The women are shut up in their rooms, and Odysseus and Telemachus hide all the weapons in a

storeroom. Odysseus, still disguised as a beggar, goes to see Penelopeia. He convinces her that he did

meet Odysseus and that he has heard also that Odysseus is on his way home. Penelopeia is grateful

and orders Eurycleia to bathe and clothe the beggar. Eurycleia recognizes Odysseus by a scar on his

leg, but he swears her to secrecy. Penelopeia, discouraged, decides to go ahead and marry whomever

can meet the challenge that she will put forth to the suitors: to string Odysseus’s bow and shoot an

arrow through twelve axe-heads in a row.

1. What does Odysseus the beggar tell Penelopeia about Odysseus?

2. How does Eurycleia recognize Odysseus?

3. How did Odysseus get the scar on his leg?

4. Describe Penelopeia’s challenge for the suitors.

BOOK XX: HOW GOD SENT OMENS OF THE WRATH TO COME

It is a new day and Telemachus receives the beggar (Odysseus) into his house. The beggar is

ridiculed by many, but he remains calm. Philoitios proves himself a faithful and kind servant.

1. Name two people who are cruel to Odysseus the beggar.

2. Who proves himself to be a kind and faithful servant?

3. What do you think Odysseus is going to do to the suitors?

BOOK XXI: THE CONTEST WITH THE GREAT BOW

Penelopeia issues her challenge to the suitors, but none of the men can bend the bow to string it.

Odysseus finds a chance to confide in Philoitios and Eumaios and to include them in his plans for

revenge. Odysseus easily strings the bow and shoots an arrow through the twelve axe-heads. Eumaios

tells the women to lock themselves in the bedrooms, and Telemachus and Odysseus arm themselves

against the suitors.

1. Whom does Odysseus trust to help him defeat the suitors?

2. Why don’t the men want Odysseus to try to string the bow?

3. How does Odysseus prove his true identity?

BOOK XXII: THE BATTLE IN THE HALL

Immediately Odysseus reveals himself and kills Antinoos with an arrow. Eurymachos tries to

convince Odysseus that Antinoos is to blame for everything and that he shouldn’t kill the other

suitors. Odysseus gives them a chance to run away, but they choose to fight, led by Eurymachos.

Odysseus, Telemachus, and the two servants kill everyone except Phemios and Medon. Odysseus

asks Eurycleia to identify the maids who have been unfaithful and bring them to him. He makes them

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clean up the blood and dead bodies in the hall and then Telemachus hangs them. Melanthios is cut up

and fed to the dogs. The maids and servants come and celebrate the return of Odysseus.

1. What did Odysseus prove about his abilities when he shot the arrow through the twelve axes? Why

is that important now?

2. Whom does Odysseus kill first and why?

3. How does Eurymachos plead his case with Odysseus?

4. Whom does Telemachus catch raiding the storeroom of weapons and what do they do with him?

6. Which two servants who spared?

7. How does Odysseus identify the unfaithful maids?

8. What does Odysseus do to the unfaithful maids?

9. What is done to Melanthios?

BOOK XXIII: HOW ODYSSEUS FOUND HIS WIFE AGAIN

Odysseus reveals his identity to Penelope, but she is skeptical. She tests Odysseus by having

Eurycleia provide Odysseus a place to sleep by moving a bed into the hallway. Odysseus becomes

angry because he built this bed out of a tree trunk so that it could not be moved. Penelope then knows

that he is truly her husband. He tells her that, according to Tiresias, he must carry an oar inland and

make sacrifices to Poseidon. He also feels he must regain all the livestock and goods that he lost

because of the suitors. He sets out to see his father and tells Penelope to stay locked in her room with

her maids until he returns.

1. How does Penelope test Odysseus?

2. Why does she test him?

3. Describe the one last task that Tiresias told Odysseus to complete. What will be his reward for this

task?

4. After Odysseus tells Penelope about all his adventures, he sets off again. What does he go to do?

What does he tell Penelope to do?

BOOK XXIV: HOW ODYSSEUS FOUND HIS OLD FATHER AND HOW THE STORY ENDED

The souls of the dead men pass to Hades, led by Hermes. Odysseus goes to see Laertes, pretending to

be someone else at first, but then he reveals his identity. Laertes asks for proof that he is Odysseus.

He tells about the scar on his leg and spending time in his father’s orchard. Relatives of the suitors,

led by Eupeithes, Antinoos’ father, come to battle Odysseus. Odysseus kills Eupeithes, then Athena

stops the battle and makes peace between the two sides.

1. How does Odysseus prove that he is really Laertes’ son?

2. What is Laertes afraid of?

3. Who comes to battle Odysseus? Whom are they led by?

4. Whom does Odysseus kill?

5. Who stops the battle?