FELLOWS COLUMN

Cognitive dissonance in faculty roles: Lots of questions,few answersJoellen W. Hawkins, RNC, WHNP-BC, PhD, FAAN, FAANP (Professor) & Holly B. Fontenot, RN, WHNP-BC

(Clinical Assistant Professor)

William F. Connell School of Nursing, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts

Column Editor: Sue Leight, EdD, CNCS, C-ANP

Correspondence: Joellen W. Hawkins, RNC, WHNP-BC, PhD, FAAN, FAANP, William F. Connell School of Nursing, Boston College, 140 Commonwealth

Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. Tel: 617-552-4252; Fax: 617-552-0745; E-mail: hawkinsj@bc.edu

doi:10.1111/j.1745-7599.2008.00322.x

During the past three decades, the roles of nursing faculty

members have evolved and expanded. In a typical college

or university that operates on the tenure model, faculty

members are expected to be excellent teachers; produce

scholarly work in the form of research, publications, and

presentations; and perform community service both

within and outside the institution in the professional as

well as in the larger community. In addition, accrediting

and certifying bodies expect that faculty members who

teach clinical courses maintain clinical competence

(National Task Force on Quality Nurse Practitioner Edu-

cation, 2002). For nurse practitioner (NP) faculty, this

means engaging in direct clinical practice. Adding ‘‘walk

on water’’ to the list would be redundant because juggling

all these roles is probably the equivalent.

To be sure, there are colleges and universities with dual

tenure tracks: clinical and research. Where these exist,

faculty can choose to emphasize one or more roles, with

lesser or different emphasis on the others, depending upon

the criteria for each track. The dilemma becomes more

acute when the criteria for promotion and tenure do not

include clinical practice, but the professional criteria for

educational programs do.

Given the shrinking pool of faculty and the growth of

graduate nursing programs in response to shortages

(American Association of Colleges of Nursing [AACN],

2007), administrators have begun to examine new models

for hiring and retaining faculty members. One of the

dilemmas for faculty is the demand on their time for

activities they are rewarded for and those they are paid

to engage in. For example, class preparations, arranging

clinical placements, and making clinical site visits consume

significant amounts of time for faculty, especially given the

constantly changing body of knowledge and evidence for

practice. These are typical expectations of NP faculty but

are not necessarily the activities for which most faculty

members are rewarded. This dichotomy can create cogni-

tive dissonance.

To paraphrase the Wikipedia definition, cognitive disso-

nance is a term used to describe the uncomfortable tension

that may arise from having two conflicting demands at the

same time or from demands to engage in activities that

conflict with one’s beliefs, creating a ‘‘perception of incom-

patibility between two cognitions’’ (Wikipedia, 2007).

Festinger (1957) first proposed the theory of cognitive

dissonance based on research studies involving individu-

als’ reported perceptions of dissonance (Festinger &

Carlsmith, 1959). Aaronson (1969) linked cognitive dis-

sonance theory to self-concept. Tedeschi, Schlenker, and

Bonoma (1971) argued that people attempt to maintain

cognitive consistency to protect their public self-image.

This linkage is particularly relevant to NP faculty who

might identify themselves primarily as clinicians, mentors,

and teachers rather than as researchers and scholars. This

private self-image of NP faculty members might then be

in conflict with their public self-image of scholar and

researcher.

To add to the dissonance is the disparity between the

salaries of NPs practicing full time and prepared at the

master’s or doctoral level and NP faculty members. Accord-

ing to recent salary data, the median full-time faculty

salary at the assistant professor rank with a doctorate

was $68,444 and with a master’s degree $58,567 (based

on a calendar year for comparison with clinical positions).

The 75th percentile for each of these categories was

$73,333 and $64,590, respectively (AACN, 2005; Ameri-

can Association of University Professors, 2007). The

median salary for full-time NPs was $74,015. Because

most faculty members are on a 9- or 10-month contract,

faculty salaries are considerably lower than those of clini-

cians. The mean NP salary in 2007 was $74,015, with

a range well over $100,000 (Nurse practitioner salary data,

2007). Data from the American Academy of Nurse Practi-

tioners Compensation Survey (2007) reported a mean

annual base salary of $86,486 among a total of 7832

practicing NPs.

Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners 20 (2008) 289–290 ª 2008 The Author(s)Journal compilation ª 2008 American Academy of Nurse Practitioners

289

Self-worth in part is measured by compensation and

rewards, tangible and intangible. It is difficult for young

faculty beginning the journey on the tenure track in

academia to rationalize the salary differential between

clinical practice and instructor or assistant professor ranks.

The cost of doctoral education adds to the compensation

discrepancy. Salary and benefits are strong motivators

when young professionals seek positions and weigh the

pros and cons of academic versus clinical positions. In the

Boston area, the average starting salary for a doctorally

prepared faculty member is about 60% of that of a clinical

researcher in a major teaching hospital. Of course, one also

has to take into account the benefits packages as well as

quality-of-life issues. Faculty members work up to 50–60 h

a week to accomplish all that is required of them—teaching,

advising students, class preparation, clinical supervision,

clinical practice, grading student assignments, committee

work, research and writing, mentoring of students at one or

more levels, and professional and community service. But

manyof theseactivities canbeperformedat thediscretionof

the faculty member. Typically, full-time clinicians are

required to be at their place of employment 40 or more

hours a week and sometimes many more if that is what the

position demands.

Benefits for faculty members might include salary, full

or partial health insurance coverage, a retirement plan,

and tuition remission for the employee and family mem-

bers. Clinical positions typically offer salary, shift differ-

ential, health insurance coverage, a retirement plan,

coverage for continuing education requirements, malprac-

tice insurance, and sometimes costs of licensure and cer-

tification. Faculty members more typically pay out of

pocket for the cost of continuing education, licensure,

malpractice insurance, and maintenance of certification.

In addition, formal mentoring programs for advanced

practice nurses are available in clinical agencies (Freeman,

2004) but less so in education institutions. Authors of the

AACN (2005) document to address faculty shortages

emphasized the need for preparation for the faculty role,

including mentoring programs for all aspects of the role.

Tedeschi et al. (1971) characterized cognitive disso-

nance theory as ‘‘ . . . a theory of human motivation’’

(p. 689). What then, we might ask, motivates NP faculty

members experiencing a disconnect between the expect-

ations of deans and promotion committees and those of

their students and immediate supervisors, as well as pro-

fessional organizations setting criteria for NP programs and

their faculty? Do we try to do it all and conform to all our

public and private images? Do these factors contribute to

the severe faculty shortages? Does cognitive dissonance

exist for NP faculty members, and if so, how can we address

faculty concerns so that we do not continue to experience

a substantial attrition rate among young faculty members

(AACN, 2004)? These questions deserve thoughtful

consideration at all levels of academia and the nursing

profession.

References

Aaronson, E. (1969). The theory of cognitive dissonance: A current perspective. In L.

Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1–34). New

York: Academic Press.

American Academy of Nurse Practitioners Compensation Survey. (2007). Retrieved

March 23, 2008, from http://www.aanp.org/NR/rdonlyres/etr36llmnvdysma64d

vuyxw326apa7s3rraswf4vnq7uirmlapyj5gl6g6wzqdo3rqpeaqy2ljh75mum7e2

rgcuq6yf/NPCompensation2007.pdf

American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2004). Faculty resignations and

retirements. Unpublished data. Washington, DC: Author.

American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2005). Faculty shortages in baccalaureate

and graduate nursing programs: Scope of the problem and strategies for expanding the

supply. Retrieved July 31, 2007, from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/Publications/

WhitePapers/FacultyShortages.htm

American Association of Colleges of Nursing. (2007). Special survey of AACN

membership on vacant faculty positions for academic year 2007-2008. Retrieved July 31,

2007, from http://www.aacn.nche.edu/Publications

American Association of University Professors. (2007). Financial inequity in higher

education: The annual report economic status of on the profession, 2006-2007. Retrieved

July 31, 2007, from www.aaup.org

Festinger, L. (1957).A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University

Press.

Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced

compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–211.

Freeman, S. (2004, June12).Effectivementoring skills for nurse practitioners. Lecturegiven

at the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners Symposium, New Orleans, LA.

National Task Force on Quality Nurse Practitioner Education. (2002). Criteria for

evaluation of nurse practitioner programs (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Nurse practitioner salary data. (2007). Retrieved July 31, 2007, from swz.salary.com/

salarywizard/layouthtmls/swzl_compresult_national_HC07000008.html

Tedeschi, J. T., Schlenker, B. R., & Bonoma, T. V. (1971). Cognitive dissonance:

Private ratiocination or public spectacle? American Psychologist, 26, 685–695.

Wikipedia. (2007). Cognitive dissonance. Retrieved June 19, 2007, from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance

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