Cognitive and Motor Development

8/10/2019 Cognitive and Motor Development

1/54

Cognitive

and Motor

Development

Chapter 2


2/54

2007 McGraw-Hill Hi her Education. All ri hts reserved.

Domains of Human Development


3/54


CognitiveDevelopment

MotorDevelopment


4/54

There is a strong relationshipbetween human intellectual

function and movement:

Any intellectual change isalso accompanied by a

changein motor function.


5/54


Objectives Describe Piagets Theory of Cognitive

Development. Sensorimotor

Preoperations

Concrete Operations

Formal Operations

Postformal Operations

Explain two general theories of intellectual

development in adulthood. Discuss intellectual decline in older adulthood.

Describe the link between knowledge

development and sport performance.


6/54

Jean Piaget (18961980)

Swiss psychologist,developmental theorist,

and philosopher

Interested in the processof thinking

Established the clinical

methodof research Collected data during

question-and-answersessions

1896-1980


7/54

Four Stages of Piagets Theory

Stage Age/Period ofOccurrence

Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years

Preoperational 2 to 7 years

Concrete operational 7 to 11 years

Formal operational Early to mid-adolescence

11 to 12 years


8/54

Piagets Theory

Adaptation

Cognitive development occurs thorugh

this process

Adjusting to the demands of theenvironment and intellectualizing those

adjustments

Two facets of adaptation

Assimilation

Accommodation


9/54

Piagets Theory

Assimilation

Children interpret new experiencesbased upon their present interpretation

of the world.

Child assimilates past experience

Past experience tells child to use one

hand to grab large ball because itworked with rattles and smallerobjects.


10/54

Piagets Theory

Accommodation

Adjustments or modifications in the thinking

processthat will become a part of a childsnew cognitive repetoire.

Child accommodates new information

Child is unable to grasp the ball with onehand.

He accommodates by using two hands or

adapting the one-handed grasp.


11/54

Adaption = Assimilation + Accommodation


12/54

Criticisms of Piagets Theory

Theory lacks scientific control.

Piaget used his own childrento study.

Subjects were not studied across the lifespan.

Piaget may have underestimated a childs

capabilities. Theory does not discern between

competency and performance.

Theory does not account for the influence of

motivation and emotion. Stages of developoment were too broad.

Developoment is described, but neverexplained.


13/54

Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage

Substage Age of Occurrence

1. Exercise of reflexes Birth to 1 month

2. Primary circular reactions 1 to 4 months

3. Secondary circular reactions 4 to 8 months

4. Secondary schemata 8 to 12 months

5. Tertiary circular reactions 12 to 18 months

6. Invention of new means

through mental combinations

18 to 24 months


14/54


EXERCISE OF REFLEXES

Birth through 1 month

Repetition of reflexeshelps child to formthe foundation for cognitiveunderstanding

Reflexive movements are innateReflexive movements lead to new behaviors


15/54


PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

End of month 1- month 4

Increased voluntary movement

Primary reactions because alwaysoccur in close proximityto the infant

Circular reactions because consciouseffort to repeat movements


16/54


SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

4 months - 8 months

Continuation of primary circular reactions butincorporation of more enduring behaviors

Example: Banging pots and pans

Integration of vision, hearing, graspingandmovement behaviors

Example: See rattle. Reach rattle. Shake rattle. Imitationbehaviors

No permanence

Example: Remove object. Object is gone.


17/54 2007 McGraw-Hill Hi her Education. All ri hts reserved.

Object Permanence

http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUInSY2CeY&feature=related
http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUInSY2CeY&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUInSY2CeY&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUInSY2CeY&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUInSY2CeY&feature=related


18/54


19/54

Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageTERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

1 year -11/2years

Active experimentationto acheive results / learn

First level of visualizingan object beyond itsimmediate use Example: Child sees the ball and knows she can have

fun, but also realizes she does not have to play with itright nowit will be there later.

Can distinguish self from others Example: Child seeks help from immediate family

members.


20/54


INVENTION OF NEW MEANS THROUGH MENTALCOMBINATIONS

11/2years - 2 years

Recognition of objects and others asindependent from self

Understanding of properties of an object

Examples: Size, shape, color, texture, weight, use Semimental functioning: Thinking with the body

is replaced with thinking with the mind Example: Child can recall an event without a physical

reanctment of what happened.


21/54

Summary: Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage

Increasing awareness of the differencebetween the self and others.

Recognition that objects continue toexisteven though they are no longer inview.

Production of the mental imagesthatallow the contemplation of the past,present, and future.


22/54

dynamicgraphics/Jupiterimages

What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?


23/54



24/54

(c) Brand X Pictures/PunchStock



25/54

(c) Photodisc



26/54

Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage

2-7 years

Most significant development:

Verbal communication and languagedevelopment linked to improved motorabilities

Most significant limitation:Children are unable to think logically


27/54 2007 McGraw-Hill Hi her Education. All ri hts reserved.

Early Childhood ~

Preoperational Stage

Substage Age of Occurrence

1. Preconceptual 2 to 4 years

2. Intuitive 4 to 7 years


28/54


PRECONCEPTUAL

2-4 years Use of symbolsto represent someone/thing

Example: A rock represents a turtle

Pretend playcommon Example: Reading to Baby. Putting Baby to sleep.

Egocentrisma serious deficiency of this stage Socializing somewhat reducing egocentrism.

Flawed thinking Example: Drooping flower is sad unrealistic.

Transductive reasoning

Example: Missed breakfast, so it cant be morning.


29/54


INTUITIVE

4-7 years

Reduced egocentrism Example: Better at sharing

Improvement in the use of symbols Example: Use of symbols in mathematics

Incapable of conservation

Example: When ball of clay transformed intoelongated sausagechild believes its bigger

Cannot consider multiple aspectsof aproblem at one time Example: Bumblebee phenomenon in soccer


30/54

(c) Royalty Free/CORBIS

Why is the activity pictured here anexample of Preconceptual Substage?


31/54


Conservation

http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=related

Later Childhood ~
http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=related


32/54

Later Childhood ~

Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 years Begins when child gains ability to conserve

Improved ability to focus on more than one

variable in problemsolving situations Example: Develop strategies in game situations

Can only focus on objects, events or situations

that are real or based on experience Example: Unable to examine hypothetical or

abstract situations mentally


33/54

Later Childhood ~


Reversibility

Ability to mentally modify, organize, or evenreverse thought processes

Example: Can reverse the order of the ball asthey go through the tube

Reversibil

ity

i


34/54

Later Childhood ~


SeriationAbility to arrange a set of variables by a

certain characteristic

Example: Recognize height can determineposition in a game of basketball

Learning is enhanced through

movementExample: Piaget suggests teaching space

or distance by having child move throughspace or distance

Childh d


35/54

Later Childhood ~

Formal Operational Stage

Begins at 11-12 years

Able to consider ideas that are not basedon observableobjects or experiences

Abstractideas are possible

Never achievedby many individuals


36/54


Formal Operations

http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM&feature=related

L t Childh d
http://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM&feature=relatedhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM&feature=related


37/54

Later Childhood ~


Interpropositional thought

Allows child to relate one or more parts of a

proposition or situation to another partto

arrive at asolutionto a problem.Applicable to complex movement

Example: Position of two players represents

onset of a particular play. Ability to readinterrelationship (i.e., possible movement

pattern) facilitates better counter play.

L t Childh d


38/54

Later Childhood ~


Hypothetical-deductive reasoningA problem-solving style that allows child to

choose between possible solutions and

then pick the best oneAids in emotional development and

emerging values

Example: Child ponders, Do I follow the

crowd or do I want to fit in?


39/54

Adulthood ~ Postformal Operations

Adulthood not considered by Piaget

Others(Arlin,1975; Rybash et al., 1986)

proposed a 5thstage to Piagets Theory

Discovery of new questions

Logical thinking about abstract ideas

Detect inconsistencies in ideas and attempt

to reconcile them

Exists in a minority of peopleHighly educated

Culture that encourages new ideas and

freethinking


40/54


Adulthood ~ Theories of

Intellectual Development

Intellectual decline occur with age.

When, how much, why, what???

Growing field of studyas babyboomers become seniors.

Currently, two main theories

Total Intellectual Decline

Partial Intellectual Decline

Ad lth d Th i f


41/54

Adulthood ~ Theories of


TOTAL INTELLECTUAL DECLINE Traditional view of aging

Gradual, consistent, pervasive decline in

overall intellectualability throughoutadult years

Lacks strong scientific supporttoday

Studies partially backing this theoryStudies using Welchsler Adult IntelligenceScale (WAIS)

Seattle Longitudinal Study


42/54

Ad lth d Th i


43/54

Adulthood ~ Theories ~Intellectual Development

Seattle Longitudinal Study (1956-) Participants: 5000+ participants aged 25 to 88

Measurement: 6 primary mental abilitiesmeaningful in daily work and life

Results:

Performance increased until late 30s or early 40s

Performance plateaued by mid 50s to early 60s

Declines began in late 60s

More decline when process was less central part of life By age 88, all participants showed decline in at least one

intelligence ability, but none showed in all abilities

Conclusion: Few subjects showed global decline in

intelligence.


44/54

Adulthood ~ Theories ~


PARTIAL INTELLECTUAL DECLINE

Widely accepted theory

Intellectual decline occurs in someareas and not others

Much research support



45/54

Adulthood Theories

Intellectual Development Contextual perspective

Learning and memory depend on a large numberof non-cognitive and situational factors

Culture Seniors in China are highly respected. Intellectual

decline in China is substantially less than in NA. Self-fulfilling prophesy

Individuals who think negatively decline morequickly.

Knowledge base Greater base of information may helps offset lossesin processing efficiency.

Other factors Ones goals, motivation, social activities, daily

routines, changes in emotion

Ad lth d Th i


46/54



Biological changes influence decline

Neural activation slows

Less efficient circulatory system

Brain decreases in size (variable)

Neuronal losses are very gradual

Adulthood Theories


47/54



Type of memoryinfluences decline

Implicit memory Unintentional, automatic, without awareness

Tested without adult being aware of being tested

Develops until adulthood and shows no decline

Explicit memory Deliberate and effortful

Tested by traditional tests of recall or recognition

Develops until adulthood but then shows decline


48/54


49/54

Ad lth d Th i


50/54




there are no simple rules about

when age differences in

memory will and will not occur,and if they do, whether

differences will be small,

modest, or large(Zacks et al., 2000)


51/54

Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Development

RECOMMENDATIONS

Practicing cognitive abilitieswill delayor avoid decline.

A lifestyle that involves movementcanlimit the decline of intellect.


52/54

K l d D l t


53/54


Knowledge Development

and Sport Performance

Two types of knowledge

Declarativeknowledge

Factual information What to do

Found in a novice performer

Proceduralknowledge

Production system

How to do something

Found in an expert performer


54/54

Documents

Cognitive and Motor Development