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政経研究
第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
一三四
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿
─第 2 章と第 3 章(翻刻)─
川 又 祐吉 野 篤荒 井 祐 介
トーマス・ロックリー
日本大学図書館法学部分館(法学部図書館)は、ジョン・ステュアー
ト・ミル(JohnStuartMill.1806-1873)の『代議制統治論*』自筆草稿を
所蔵している。私たち著者は、前稿に引き続き、本草稿の翻刻に取り
組んでいる。本稿で翻刻されるのは、『代議制統治論』第 2 章と第 3 章
である。
前稿(序言と第 1 章)は、『法学紀要』60 巻に掲載された。翻刻は、
政経研究所における共同研究の成果である。本来であれば、その成果
は『法学紀要』に掲載すべきである。しかしながら、『法学紀要』の刊
行は年 1 回である。私たちは、翻刻作業を迅速かつ着実に進めるため、
掲載誌が複数になっても、『法学紀要』と『政経研究』において翻刻を
掲載することとした。
翻刻に際して、翻刻文に下線が引かれているものは、ミル本人よっ
て下線が引かれていることを表している。翻刻文に二重の下線が引か
れているものは、私たちが翻刻できなかったものを、灰色に着色され
ているものは、いまだその翻刻に確信が持てないものを表している。
( )で示された部分はミルによるもの、[ ]で示された部分は、筆者
資 料
(一四〇四)
137
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一三三
たちが補ったものである。
*前稿においてミルの表題を『代議政治論』と表記してきた。この度、関口正司訳『代議制統治論』岩波書店、2019 年が公刊された。従って、今後は『代議制統治論』と表記する。
凡例下 線:ミル本人によって引かれた線二重下線:筆者たちが翻刻できなかった単語灰色部分:翻刻に確信が持てない単語( ):ミル本人が記したもの[ ]:筆者たちが補ったもの
Bibliography:[ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment].[s.l.]:[s.n.].[1860].Untitledautographmanuscript.228leavesin11[AtoK]quires.Aquire:24leaves,Bquire:24leaves,CtoJquire:each20leaves,Kquire:20leaves(7leavesblank).
掲載誌/ Jounals
Preface 「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議政治論』自筆草稿─序言と第 1 章(翻刻)─」『法学紀要』60 巻、2019 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofPrefaceandChapter1.HOGAKU KIYO.Vol.60.2019.https://www.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/publication/doc/bulletin60.pdf
[Ch.1] Towhat extent formsofgovernmentareamatterofchoice
[Ch.2] The Criterion of agoodFormofGovernment
「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿─第 2 章と第 3 章(翻刻)─」『政経研究』56 巻 4 号、2020 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofChapter2and3.SEIKEI KENKYU.Vol.56(4).2020.
[Ch.3] That the ideally bestf o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t i srepresentativegovernment
[Ch.16] Of Nationality, asconnectedwithRepresentativeGovernment
「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿─第 16、17、18 章(翻刻)─」『法学紀要』61 巻、2020 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofChapter16,17and18.HOGAKU KIYO.Vol.61.2020.
[Ch.17] Ofthegovernmentofdependenciesbyafreestate
[Ch.18] O f F e d e r a lRepresentativeGovernments
川又祐「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議政治論』自筆草稿(日本大学法学部図書館所蔵)について」『政経研究』52 巻 2 号、2015 年
Kawamata, H. “John StuartMill’s AutographedDraftManuscript Considerations onRepresentativeGovernment in theNihonUniversityCollegeofLawLibrary.”SEIKEI KENKYU.Vol.52(2).2015.
https://www.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/publication/doc/political52_2.pdf
(一四〇三)
138
政経研究
第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
一三二
John Stuart Mill’s Autographed Draft Manuscript “Considerations on Representative Government.”
Transcription of Chapter 2 and 3.
Hiroshi KawamataAtsushi Yoshino
Yusuke AraiThomas Lockley
NihonUniversityCollegeofLaw (NUCL)LibraryhousesaJohn
StuartMill’s autographed draftmanuscript of “Considerations on
RepresentativeGovernment” ca. 1860.This time,we transcribe the
chapter2and3fromit.Inordertotranscribethemrapidlyandsurely,
wewill issue the transcriptionofConsiderations to theJournalsof
NUCL,HOGAKU KIYOandSEIKEI KENKYU.
Theunderline iswrittenbyMillhimself.Regrettably, thedouble
underlinedpartsare thewordswhichwecouldn’t transcribe.Word
aboutwhichwe areunsure are gray colored.Parentheses ( ) are
complementedbyMill.Brackets[]arebyus.(一四〇二)
139
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一三三
たちが補ったものである。
*前稿においてミルの表題を『代議政治論』と表記してきた。この度、関口正司訳『代議制統治論』岩波書店、2019 年が公刊された。従って、今後は『代議制統治論』と表記する。
凡例下 線:ミル本人によって引かれた線二重下線:筆者たちが翻刻できなかった単語灰色部分:翻刻に確信が持てない単語( ):ミル本人が記したもの[ ]:筆者たちが補ったもの
Bibliography:[ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment].[s.l.]:[s.n.].[1860].Untitledautographmanuscript.228leavesin11[AtoK]quires.Aquire:24leaves,Bquire:24leaves,CtoJquire:each20leaves,Kquire:20leaves(7leavesblank).
掲載誌/ Jounals
Preface 「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議政治論』自筆草稿─序言と第 1 章(翻刻)─」『法学紀要』60 巻、2019 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofPrefaceandChapter1.HOGAKU KIYO.Vol.60.2019.https://www.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/publication/doc/bulletin60.pdf
[Ch.1] Towhat extent formsofgovernmentareamatterofchoice
[Ch.2] The Criterion of agoodFormofGovernment
「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿─第 2 章と第 3 章(翻刻)─」『政経研究』56 巻 4 号、2020 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofChapter2and3.SEIKEI KENKYU.Vol.56(4).2020.
[Ch.3] That the ideally bestf o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t i srepresentativegovernment
[Ch.16] Of Nationality, asconnectedwithRepresentativeGovernment
「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿─第 16、17、18 章(翻刻)─」『法学紀要』61 巻、2020 年John Stuart Mi l l ’s Autographed Draft Manuscr ipt“ConsiderationsonRepresentativeGovernment.”TranscriptionofChapter16,17and18.HOGAKU KIYO.Vol.61.2020.
[Ch.17] Ofthegovernmentofdependenciesbyafreestate
[Ch.18] O f F e d e r a lRepresentativeGovernments
川又祐「ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議政治論』自筆草稿(日本大学法学部図書館所蔵)について」『政経研究』52 巻 2 号、2015 年
Kawamata, H. “John StuartMill’s AutographedDraftManuscript Considerations onRepresentativeGovernment in theNihonUniversityCollegeofLawLibrary.”SEIKEI KENKYU.Vol.52(2).2015.
https://www.law.nihon-u.ac.jp/publication/doc/political52_2.pdf
(一四〇三)
138
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一三一
Image A_020Lef
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(一四〇一)
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政経研究
第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
一三〇
A_014toB_008.[Chapter2]
A_014
TheCriterionofagoodFormofGovernment.
Theformofgovernmentforanygivencountrybeing
then,subjecttocertaindefiniteconditions,amatterofchoice,itisnow
tobeconsideredbywhattestthechoiceshouldbedirected;inother
words,what
arethedistinguishingcharacteristicsoftheformofgovernmentbest
fittedtopromotetheinterestsofanygivensociety.
Itmayseemthatweoughttobeginbyansweringthepreliminary
question,whataretheproperfunctionsofagovernment?for[sic]since
governmentaltogetherisameanstoanend,theeligibilityofthe
meansmustnecessarilydependonthedegreeoftheiradaptation
totheend.Butthismodeofstatingthequestionisnot,inthepresent
stageatleast
soappropriateasitmight,atfirstsight,appear.Forinthefirstplace
theproperfunctionsofgovernmentaredifferentindifferentstates
ofsociety ;muchmore intensive inabackward, than inanadvanced
state.
Andsecondly,thecharacterofagovernmentorsetofpolitical
institutionscannotbyanymeansbe judgedofwhileweconfine the
discussion
tothelegitimatefunctionsofgovernment;forthoughthegoodnessof
agovernmentisnecessarilycircumscribedwithinlimitsoffunctions
itsbadnessunhappilyisnot.Theinfluenceofthegovernmentonthe
wellbeingofsocietyhasnoboundsexceptthoseofhumanlifeitself.It
can
(一四〇〇)
141
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一三一
Image A_020
Lef
t side
of pa
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qui
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9 ve
rso
Rig
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pag
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qui
re 2
0 re
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(一四〇一)
140
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一二九
beconsideredorestimatedinreferencetonothinglessthanthe
wholeof the interests ofhumanity.Theutmost evil that society is
susceptible
of,maybeinflictedbyagovernment,&thewholeofthegoodwhich
itiscapableof,canonlyberealizedinsofarastheconstitutionofthe
governmentisconsistentwithitspursuit.
Beingthusobligedtoplacebeforeus,intheoutsetofone
enquiry,asthetestofgoodorbadgovernment,solarge&complexan
objectastheaggregateinterestsofsociety,itisanobvious
ideatobeginbysomekindofclassificationoftheseinterests,whichby
bringingthembeforethemindinlarge&definitegroups,maysuggest
what
A_015
qualitiesintheformofgovernmentarefittedtopromotethose
variousinterestsrespectively.
Unfortunately,asweshallsee,aclassificationoftheinterests
ofsocietyismucheasiertoconceive,thantoexecute.Nearlyallwho
in the lastorpresentgenerationhaveappliedthemselvestopolitical
philosophy
with any largeness of view, have felt the necessity of such a
classification;
butIamnotawarethatanyofthemhasmademorethanone
steptowardstherealizationofthedesiredobject.Theirclassification
beginsandendswith thepartitionof theexigenciesofsocietyunder
the
two heads ofOrder andProgress, as it is expressed byFrench
thinkers:
PermanenceandProgression,inthewordsofColeridge.Thisdivision
(一三九九)
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政経研究
第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
一二八
isrendered
very plausible& seductive by the apparently clean-cut opposition
betweenitstwomembers,
&theremarkabledifferencebetweensentimentstowhichthey
severallyappeal;butI
apprehend,thathoweveradmissibleinpopulardiscourse,
thedistinctionbetweenOrder,orPermanence,&Progress,
ifusedtodefinethequalities
necessaryinagovernment,isaltogetherunscientific&unphilosophical.
For, first,what areOrder&Progress ?ConcerningProgress
thereisatleastnoapparent
difficulty.WhenProgressisspokenofasoneofthetruegreatwantsof
humansociety, itmaybe supposed tomean Improvement.That is a
tolerablydistinct
idea.ButwhatisOrder?Sometimesitmeansmore,&sometimesless;
butitnever,orhardlyevermeansthewholeofwhathumansociety
needsexceptimprovement.
Initsnarrowestsense,OrdermeansObedience.Agovernment
issaidtopreserveorderifitmakesitselfobeyed.Inthissense
Orderexpresses,doubtless,anindispensableattributeofgovernment:
that
whichdoesnotmakeitselfobeyed,isnotagovernment.But
thoughanecessarycondition, this certainly isnot thepurposeofa
government.
Thatitshouldmakeitselfobeyedisrequisiteinorderthatitmay
accomplishsomeotherpurpose.Wearestillthereforeto
A_016
findwhatisthepurpose,commontoallsociety,whichgovernmentought
(一三九八)
143
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一二九
beconsideredorestimatedinreferencetonothinglessthanthe
wholeof the interests ofhumanity.Theutmost evil that society is
susceptible
of,maybeinflictedbyagovernment,&thewholeofthegoodwhich
itiscapableof,canonlyberealizedinsofarastheconstitutionofthe
governmentisconsistentwithitspursuit.
Beingthusobligedtoplacebeforeus,intheoutsetofone
enquiry,asthetestofgoodorbadgovernment,solarge&complexan
objectastheaggregateinterestsofsociety,itisanobvious
ideatobeginbysomekindofclassificationoftheseinterests,whichby
bringingthembeforethemindinlarge&definitegroups,maysuggest
what
A_015
qualitiesintheformofgovernmentarefittedtopromotethose
variousinterestsrespectively.
Unfortunately,asweshallsee,aclassificationoftheinterests
ofsocietyismucheasiertoconceive,thantoexecute.Nearlyallwho
in the lastorpresentgenerationhaveappliedthemselvestopolitical
philosophy
with any largeness of view, have felt the necessity of such a
classification;
butIamnotawarethatanyofthemhasmademorethanone
steptowardstherealizationofthedesiredobject.Theirclassification
beginsandendswith thepartitionof theexigenciesofsocietyunder
the
two heads ofOrder andProgress, as it is expressed byFrench
thinkers:
PermanenceandProgression,inthewordsofColeridge.Thisdivision
(一三九九)
142
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一二七
to fulfil, abstractedly from the ideaof improvement, in any society
whatever
stationary,aswellasprogressive.
Inasensesomewhatmoreenlarged,Ordermeansthepreservation
ofpeacesbythecessation
ofprivateviolence.Orderissaidtoexist,where
thepeopleofacountryhave,generallyspeaking
relinquishedthepracticeofprosecutingtheirquarrelsby
privateforce,&acquiredthehabitofreferringthedecisionof
theirdisputes,&the
punishmentoftheirinjuriestothepublic
authorities.This isa largeruseofthetermthantheforegoing :but,
even
inthissense,Orderstillexpressesratheroneoftheconditionsof
government,thaneitheritspurposeoritstest.For
thehabitmaybecompletelyestablishedofsubmittingtogovernment
&referringalldisputedmatterstoitsauthority,&yetthemannerin
which
thegovernmentdealswith thosedisputedmatters,&withall other
matters
withwhichitmeddles,maydifferbyallthedistancewhichexists
betweenthebest&theworstpossible.
TomaketheideaofOrderincludealltheserequirements
ofsocietyfromitsgovernmentwhicharenotcomprehendedintheidea
of
Progress, it is necessary to considerOrder as equivalent to the
preservationof
everykind&amountofgoodwhichalreadyexists,
andProgressasconsistingintheincreaseofit.
(一三九七)
144
政経研究
第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
一二六
Thedistinction,thusunderstood,doesincludeinonesectionorthe
other,everythingwhichagovernmentcanberequired
topromote.Butthusunderstood,itaffordsnobasisfora
philosophyofgovernment.Itcannotbesaidthat
inconstitutingagovernment,certainprovisionsmustbemadefor
Order,&certainothersforProgress;SincetheconditionsofOrder,
asthus
interpreted,&thoseofProgress,arenotopposites,butpreciselythe
same.
A_017
Theagencieswhichtendtopreservethesocialgood
whichalreadyexists,arethesameagencieswhichtendtoincreaseit
&viceversa;thesoledifferencesbeing,thatagreaterdegreeofthose
agencies
isrequiredforthelatterpurposethanfortheformer.
Forexample,whatarethequalitiesintheindividualcitizen
whichmostconducetomaintainingtheamountofgoodconduct,of
goodmanagement, of success&prosperity,which already exist in
society?
Everybodywillagreethatthosequalitiesare,industry,integrity,
justice,&prudence.Butarenotthese,ofallqualities
themostconducivetoImprovement?&[sic]isnotanyincreaseofthese
virtues
animprovementinitselfgreater,thanalmostany
other?Therefore,whateverqualitiesinthe
governmentarepromotiveofindustry,integrity,justice,&
prudence,areconducivebothtoPermanence&toProgression;
onlythereisneededrathermoreofthosequalitiestomakethesociety
(一三九六)
145
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一二七
to fulfil, abstractedly from the ideaof improvement, in any society
whatever
stationary,aswellasprogressive.
Inasensesomewhatmoreenlarged,Ordermeansthepreservation
ofpeacesbythecessation
ofprivateviolence.Orderissaidtoexist,where
thepeopleofacountryhave,generallyspeaking
relinquishedthepracticeofprosecutingtheirquarrelsby
privateforce,&acquiredthehabitofreferringthedecisionof
theirdisputes,&the
punishmentoftheirinjuriestothepublic
authorities.This isa largeruseofthetermthantheforegoing :but,
even
inthissense,Orderstillexpressesratheroneoftheconditionsof
government,thaneitheritspurposeoritstest.For
thehabitmaybecompletelyestablishedofsubmittingtogovernment
&referringalldisputedmatterstoitsauthority,&yetthemannerin
which
thegovernmentdealswith thosedisputedmatters,&withall other
matters
withwhichitmeddles,maydifferbyallthedistancewhichexists
betweenthebest&theworstpossible.
TomaketheideaofOrderincludealltheserequirements
ofsocietyfromitsgovernmentwhicharenotcomprehendedintheidea
of
Progress, it is necessary to considerOrder as equivalent to the
preservationof
everykind&amountofgoodwhichalreadyexists,
andProgressasconsistingintheincreaseofit.
(一三九七)
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ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一二五
decidedlyprogressive,thanmerelytokeepitpermanent.
Again,whataretheparticularqualitiesinhumanbeingswhich
seemtohaveamoreespecialreferencetoProgress,&donotso
directlysuggesttheideasofOrder&Preservation?Theyare,chiefly,
thequalitiesofmentalactivity,enterprise,&courage.But
arenotallthesequalitiesfullyasnecessaryforpreservingthegood
wehave, as foraddingothergood to it ? If there is anyone thing
certain
in human affairs, it is, that valuable acquisitions are only to be
preservedbythe
continuationofthesameenergieswhichgainedthem;thatthingsleft
totakecareofthemselvesinevitablydecay;thatthosewhomsuccess
inducestorelaxtheirhabitsofcarefulness&thoughtfulness&their
willingness
toencounterdisagreeables,seldomlongretaintheirgoodfortuneatits
height.
EventheculminationofthequalitieswhichtendtoProgress,namely,
originalityorinvention,isnolessnecessaryforPermanence;sincein
the inevitable changesofhumanaffairs, new inconveniences&new
dangers
A_018
continuallyopeningup,whichmustbeencounteredbynewresources
and
contrivancesinordertokeepthingsgoingevenonlyaswellastheydid
before.
Whatever qualities therefore in a government tend to encourage
activity,
energy,courage,originality,arerequisite forPermanenceaswellas
(一三九五)
146
政経研究
第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
一二四
for
Progression;onlyasomewhatlessdegreeofthemwillonthe
averagesufficefortheformerpurpose,thanforthelatter.
Topassfromthementaltotheoutward&objectiverequisites
ofsociety,itisimpossibletopointoutanyarrangementofsocialaffairs
which
conducestoOrderonlyorProgressonly ;whateverpromoteseither
promotes
both.Thustakethecaseofapolice.Orderisthe
objectwhichmost obviously presents itself as interested in the
efficiency
ofthispartofthesocialorganization.Yetifitiseffectualto
promoteorder,thatis,ifitrepressescrime,&enableseveryoneoneto
feel
hislife&propertysecure,cananystateofthingsbemore
conducivetoprogress?does[sic]notthebetterrepressionofcrime
repressalsothedispositionwhichtendtocrime,&soimprovethe
generalmorality?Isnotthegreatersecurityofpropertyoneof
themainconditionsandcausesofgreaterproduction,thatis
ofProgressinthemostfamiliarform?Doesnotthereleaseofthe
individualfromthecares&anxietiesincidentto
astateofimperfectprotection,sethisfacultiesatlibertytobe
employedineverykindofeffortforimprovinghisownstate&that
ofothers?Anddoesnotthesamecause,byattachinghimto
society,&makinghimnolongerseeinhisfellowcreaturesenemies
againstwhomhemustbeeveronhisguard,tendtopromoteallthese
feelingsofkindness&fellowshiptowardsothers,&ofinterestin
thegeneralwell beingof the community,whichare such important
partsofsocial
(一三九四)
147
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一二五
decidedlyprogressive,thanmerelytokeepitpermanent.
Again,whataretheparticularqualitiesinhumanbeingswhich
seemtohaveamoreespecialreferencetoProgress,&donotso
directlysuggesttheideasofOrder&Preservation?Theyare,chiefly,
thequalitiesofmentalactivity,enterprise,&courage.But
arenotallthesequalitiesfullyasnecessaryforpreservingthegood
wehave, as foraddingothergood to it ? If there is anyone thing
certain
in human affairs, it is, that valuable acquisitions are only to be
preservedbythe
continuationofthesameenergieswhichgainedthem;thatthingsleft
totakecareofthemselvesinevitablydecay;thatthosewhomsuccess
inducestorelaxtheirhabitsofcarefulness&thoughtfulness&their
willingness
toencounterdisagreeables,seldomlongretaintheirgoodfortuneatits
height.
EventheculminationofthequalitieswhichtendtoProgress,namely,
originalityorinvention,isnolessnecessaryforPermanence;sincein
the inevitable changesofhumanaffairs, new inconveniences&new
dangers
A_018
continuallyopeningup,whichmustbeencounteredbynewresources
and
contrivancesinordertokeepthingsgoingevenonlyaswellastheydid
before.
Whatever qualities therefore in a government tend to encourage
activity,
energy,courage,originality,arerequisite forPermanenceaswellas
(一三九五)
146
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一二三
improvement?
Takeagainsofamiliaracaseasthatofagoodsystemoftaxation
A_019
&finance.ThisisusuallysufferedtobeintheprovinceofOrder.Yet
cananythingbemoreconducivetoProgress?Afinancial
systemwhichtendstotheoneconducesbytheverysamequalities
totheother.Economy,forexample:doesnotthatequally
preserve the existing stock ofwealth,& favour the acquisition of
more?
Ajustdistributionofburthens;doesnotthisstrengthenthesentiment
ofjusticeinapeopleaswellassatisfythatsentiment?Sucha
mode of levying the taxes as does not impede the industry, or
unnecessarily
interferewiththelibertyofthecitizen;thispromotes
notthepreservationonlybuttheincreaseofthenationalwealth&the
moreactiveuseofthe
individualfaculties.Andviceversa,allthose
errorsintaxationwhichobstructtheimprovementofapeople
inwealth&morals,tendalsotoimpoverish&demoralizethemwith
further.Itholds,inshort,universally,that
whenOrder&Permanenceunderstood in theirwidest sense,as the
permanenceof
existingadvantages,
therequisitesofProgressarebuttherequisitesofOrder
inagreaterdegree;thoseofPermanence,merelythoseofProgress
inasomewhatsmallermeasure.
OrifweprefertodescribeOrderasthegoodmanagementof
public affairs in the existing state of society, apart from any
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一二二
improvement
in the state of society itself ;& to say, that it is thebusiness of
government
ontheonehandtoimprovesociety,&ontheothertocarryonits
presentaffairsaswellasisconsistentwithitspresentstate:Thisis
only
statingoveragainthesamequestioninadifferentformofwords.
Managingtheaffairsofsocietyaswellasitsexistingconditionadmits
of,means
what ( 1 )as first laws,asgoodarrangements foradministrating
justice,
asperfectsecurity,asmuchfreedombothof
thought&ofaction,asamplereward&encouragementtoeveryuseful
A_020
[Leftsideofpage.Aquire019verso.]
(a)IfitbesaidthatPreservationofexisting&Acquisition
ofadditionalgoodacquiretobedistinguishedbecausewhilewe
areacquiring,orstrivingtoacquire,goodofonekindwemay
belosinggroundinrespecttoanother;Ishallthenobserve,that
thereconciliationofOrder&Progresspresentsonly
thesameproblemasthereconciliationofonekindofProgress
withanother.ThequestionofProgressthusembracestheentire
questionofgovernment;forifoneknowshowtocombineimprovement
inonething
withimprovementineveryother,bythesamemeans
itwillàfortioribecombinedwiththepreservationofallourexisting
acquisitions.
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improvement?
Takeagainsofamiliaracaseasthatofagoodsystemoftaxation
A_019
&finance.ThisisusuallysufferedtobeintheprovinceofOrder.Yet
cananythingbemoreconducivetoProgress?Afinancial
systemwhichtendstotheoneconducesbytheverysamequalities
totheother.Economy,forexample:doesnotthatequally
preserve the existing stock ofwealth,& favour the acquisition of
more?
Ajustdistributionofburthens;doesnotthisstrengthenthesentiment
ofjusticeinapeopleaswellassatisfythatsentiment?Sucha
mode of levying the taxes as does not impede the industry, or
unnecessarily
interferewiththelibertyofthecitizen;thispromotes
notthepreservationonlybuttheincreaseofthenationalwealth&the
moreactiveuseofthe
individualfaculties.Andviceversa,allthose
errorsintaxationwhichobstructtheimprovementofapeople
inwealth&morals,tendalsotoimpoverish&demoralizethemwith
further.Itholds,inshort,universally,that
whenOrder&Permanenceunderstood in theirwidest sense,as the
permanenceof
existingadvantages,
therequisitesofProgressarebuttherequisitesofOrder
inagreaterdegree;thoseofPermanence,merelythoseofProgress
inasomewhatsmallermeasure.
OrifweprefertodescribeOrderasthegoodmanagementof
public affairs in the existing state of society, apart from any
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[Rightsideofpage.Aquire020recto.]
actionordisposition,ascanbegivenintheexistingstateofhuman
improvement.Andcantherebeconceivedamorecompleteexpression
ofthemostperfectpossiblearrangementforprecisely
furtherprogress?Agovernmentwhichifitdidnothingelsedoesthis
forthefurtherance
ofProgression,wouldyetbeagovernmentofProgress.
IfthetermsOrder&Progressaretobeusedatallintheattempt
togiveafirst
commencementofscientificprecisiontotheideaofgoodgovernment,it
wouldseempropertoleaveoutofthedefinitionthewordOrder,&to
say, that the best government is thatwhich ismost conducive to
Progress.
ForProgressincludesOrder,butOrderdoesnotincludeProgress.
ProgressisagreaterdegreeofthatofwhichOrderisaless.Atleast
ifOrderisunderstoodinanyothersense,itstandsonly
foraportionoftheprerequisitesofgoodgovernment,notforits
idea&essence.The idea ofOrderwouldbemoreproperly taught
under
noticeasoneoftheconditionsofProgress;totheintentthat
inendeavouringaftermoregood,weshouldtakeduecarenot
tosacrificethatwhichwealreadyhave.Ifwemakethissacrificeunless
necessarily
&asthepriceofagoodmorethanequivalent,thereisnot
Progress.Conduciveness toprogress, therefore,properlyunderstood,
contains
thewholeexcellenceofagovernment.(a)
But,thoughperhapsmetaphysicallydefensible,thisdefinitionof
thecriterionofgoodgovernmentisnotappropriate,because
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一二〇
though itcomprehendsthewholeof thetruth itsuggestsonlyapart.
Whatis
suggestedbythetermProgressistheideaofmovingonward,whereas
themeaningofithereisquiteasmuchthepreventionoffallingback.
The
verysamesocialcauses,thesamehabits&institutionsare
asmuchrequiredtopreventsocietyfromdeterioratingastoimpelitto
an
advance.Weretherenoimprovementtobehopedfor,
humanlifeinallits( 2 )wouldbenolessaperennial
A_021
struggleagainstdeterioration:asitisevennowis.
Inthe
ideasof theancients,politics consistedwholly in this.Thenatural
tendency
ofmen&theirworkswastodegenerate,whichtendency,by
goodinstitutionsvirtuouslyadministered,it
mightbepossibleforanindefinitelengthoftimetocounteract.Though
wenolongerholdthisopinion;though,mostmeninthe
presentagebelievethatthenaturaltendencyofthingsonthewhole
istowardsimprovement,itisatruthwhichshouldneverbe
unheeded that there isan incessant&everflowingcurrentofhuman
affairs
towardstheworse,consistingofallthefollies,allthevices,allthe
negligences,indolences&supinenessesofmankind;whichisonly
controlled&kept fromsweepingallbefore itbytheexertionswhich
some
constantly&othersbyfitsputforthinthedirectionof
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[Rightsideofpage.Aquire020recto.]
actionordisposition,ascanbegivenintheexistingstateofhuman
improvement.Andcantherebeconceivedamorecompleteexpression
ofthemostperfectpossiblearrangementforprecisely
furtherprogress?Agovernmentwhichifitdidnothingelsedoesthis
forthefurtherance
ofProgression,wouldyetbeagovernmentofProgress.
IfthetermsOrder&Progressaretobeusedatallintheattempt
togiveafirst
commencementofscientificprecisiontotheideaofgoodgovernment,it
wouldseempropertoleaveoutofthedefinitionthewordOrder,&to
say, that the best government is thatwhich ismost conducive to
Progress.
ForProgressincludesOrder,butOrderdoesnotincludeProgress.
ProgressisagreaterdegreeofthatofwhichOrderisaless.Atleast
ifOrderisunderstoodinanyothersense,itstandsonly
foraportionoftheprerequisitesofgoodgovernment,notforits
idea&essence.The idea ofOrderwouldbemoreproperly taught
under
noticeasoneoftheconditionsofProgress;totheintentthat
inendeavouringaftermoregood,weshouldtakeduecarenot
tosacrificethatwhichwealreadyhave.Ifwemakethissacrificeunless
necessarily
&asthepriceofagoodmorethanequivalent,thereisnot
Progress.Conduciveness toprogress, therefore,properlyunderstood,
contains
thewholeexcellenceofagovernment.(a)
But,thoughperhapsmetaphysicallydefensible,thisdefinitionof
thecriterionofgoodgovernmentisnotappropriate,because
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good&worthyobjects.Itgivesaveryinsufficientideaofthe
importanceofthestrivingswhichtakeplaceto
improve&elevatehumannature&humanlife,to
supposethattheirchiefvalueconsistsintheamountof
actualimprovementrealizedbytheirmeans,&thattheconsequence
oftheircessationwouldmerelybethatweshouldremainasweare.
Thecessationofevenasmallpartof thoseexertionswouldnotonly
puta
stoptoimprovementbutwouldturnthe
generaltendencyofthingstowardsdeterioration;which,oncebegun
wouldproceedwithincreasingrapidity,andbecomemore
&moredifficulttocheck,untilitreachedapoint,whichsomeages
have&somecommunitiesareevennowlarge( 3 )
onwhichsomethingapproachingtosuperhumanpowerseemsnecessary
toturnthetide,&giveanewcommencementtothe
upwardmovement.
ThesereasonsrenderthewordProgress,asunfitas
A_022
thetermsOrder&Permanence,toformthebasisofanyclassification
oftherequisitesofaformofgovernment.Thefundamental
antithesiswhichthesewordsdenote,doesnotlieinthe
things themselves somuch as in the twodifferent types of human
characterwhich
answertothem.Thereare,aseveryoneknows,somemindsin
whichcaution,&thedesiretoavoidimperillingwhatisalready
possessed,isastrongersentimentthanthatwhichprompts
toimprovetheold&acquirenewadvantages;whilethereareother’s
minds in which the preponderance is the contrary way. This
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一一八
considerationisof
importanceincomposingthepersonnelofanypoliticalbody;itis
desirable that persons of both types should be included in its
composition
inorderthatthequalitiesofeachmaybetemperedwiththoseofthe
other,&itisrightthatinthe
constitutionofsuchbodies,attentionpaidtothisobject,
thoughthenatural&spontaneousadmixtureoftheoldandtheyoung,
ofthosewhosepositionandreputationaremade&those
whohavethemstilltomake,willingeneralsufficiently
answerthepurposeswithoutanyexpressprovision.
Sincewehavenotfoundthepropertiesnecessaryfor
thegroundworkofourclassification,inthedistinctionmostusually
adoptedforthatpurpose,wehavetoseekfor
someotherleadingdistinction,betteradaptedtothatuse.Such
adistinctionmayperhapsbeindicatedbythefollowingconsiderations.
Whenweconsiderwhatarethecausesof&conditions
onwhichgoodgovernment,inanyofitssenses,fromthehumblest
tothemostexalted,depends,wefindtheprincipalofthemtobe,the
qualitiesofthehumanbeingscomposingthesociety
overwhichthegovernmentisexercised.
Forexample, taketheadministrationof justice.Thecharacterof
themachineryused
A_023
forthatpurposeisfarfrombeingunimportant;indeeditisinsome
respectsimportantinevenahighersensethaniscommonlysupported.
Butityieldsinimportancetothequalitiesofthehumanagents.How
forexamplecantherebeagoodadministrationofjusticeifthemoral
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good&worthyobjects.Itgivesaveryinsufficientideaofthe
importanceofthestrivingswhichtakeplaceto
improve&elevatehumannature&humanlife,to
supposethattheirchiefvalueconsistsintheamountof
actualimprovementrealizedbytheirmeans,&thattheconsequence
oftheircessationwouldmerelybethatweshouldremainasweare.
Thecessationofevenasmallpartof thoseexertionswouldnotonly
puta
stoptoimprovementbutwouldturnthe
generaltendencyofthingstowardsdeterioration;which,oncebegun
wouldproceedwithincreasingrapidity,andbecomemore
&moredifficulttocheck,untilitreachedapoint,whichsomeages
have&somecommunitiesareevennowlarge( 3 )
onwhichsomethingapproachingtosuperhumanpowerseemsnecessary
toturnthetide,&giveanewcommencementtothe
upwardmovement.
ThesereasonsrenderthewordProgress,asunfitas
A_022
thetermsOrder&Permanence,toformthebasisofanyclassification
oftherequisitesofaformofgovernment.Thefundamental
antithesiswhichthesewordsdenote,doesnotlieinthe
things themselves somuch as in the twodifferent types of human
characterwhich
answertothem.Thereare,aseveryoneknows,somemindsin
whichcaution,&thedesiretoavoidimperillingwhatisalready
possessed,isastrongersentimentthanthatwhichprompts
toimprovetheold&acquirenewadvantages;whilethereareother’s
minds in which the preponderance is the contrary way. This
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conditionofthepeopleissuchthatthewitnessesgenerallylie,&
thejudges&theirsubordinatestakebribes?Again,howisitpossible
to
haveagoodmunicipaladministration, if there issuch indifference to
the
subjectthatthepersonswhowouldadministerhonestly&competently
areunwillingtoserve,&thedutiesarelefttothosewhoundertake
themfrommotivesofprivateinterest?Ofwhatavailisthemost
extensivelypopularrepresentativesystem,ifthosewhohavearight
tovotedonot care tochoose the fittestmemberofparliament, but
choose
him who will spend most money to be elected ? How can a
representative
assemblyworkforgoodifitsmembersarebought&sold,oriftheir
excitabilityoftemperamentmakesthemincapableofcalmdeliberation
&theycometoblowsonthefloorofthe
house,orshootatoneanotherwithrifles?How,again,isit
possiblethatgovernmentoranyotherjointconcerncanbewell
carriedon,amongapeoplesoenviousthatifanyoneamongthem
seemslikelytosucceedinanything,thereisimmediatelyaconfederacy
amongthose
whooughttocooperatewithhim,tomakehimfail?When
thegeneraldispositionofthepeopleissuchasleads
eachtoregardonlythoseofhisinterestswhichareselfish¬
todwelluponorconcernhimselfforhisshareofthegeneral
interest,nogoodgovernmentispossible.Ihavespokenonlyofmoral
defects.Defectsofintelligence,&theirinfluencein
obstructingalltheelementsofgoodgovernmentrequirenoillustration.
Allgovernmentconsistsofactsdonebymen;&ifthemenwho
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一一六
dotheacts,orthemenwhochoosethosewhodotheacts,orthemen
towhomthosewhodotheactsareresponsible,orthelookers-onwhose
opinionoughttoinfluence&checkthosewhodotheacts,ifallor
any of these aremeremasses of ignorance, stupidity,& baleful
prejudice
A_024
alltheoperationsofgovernmentwillgowrong;&inproportionasthe
men
riseabovethisstandard,sowillthegovernmentimproveinquality;
uptothehighestpointofexcellenceattainable,namely
whentheagentsofgovernment,themselvespersonsofsuperiorvirtue
&intellect,aresurroundedbythehealthyatmosphereofavirtuous
&enlightenedpublicopinion.
Thefirstelementofgoodgovernment,thereforebeingthevirtue&
intelligenceofthepeople,itfollowsasadirectcorollarythatthemost
importantpointofexcellencewhichanyformofgovernmentcan
have, is a tendency to promote virtue& intelligence in the people
themselves.
Thefirstquestiontobeaskedinrespecttopoliticalinstitutionsin
ordertodecideontheirrelativeeligibility,is,howfardotheytendto
cultivatedesirablequalities,moral&intellectual.Letus
say,moral,intellectual,&active,inthepeople.Thegovernment
whichdoesthisbest,haseverychanceofbeingthebestinallother
respectsbecauseitisfromthosequalities,insofarastheyexistin
the people, that all possibility of any goodness in the practical
operations
ofthegovernmentmustcome.
But though themost importantrequisiteofpolitical institutions
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conditionofthepeopleissuchthatthewitnessesgenerallylie,&
thejudges&theirsubordinatestakebribes?Again,howisitpossible
to
haveagoodmunicipaladministration, if there issuch indifference to
the
subjectthatthepersonswhowouldadministerhonestly&competently
areunwillingtoserve,&thedutiesarelefttothosewhoundertake
themfrommotivesofprivateinterest?Ofwhatavailisthemost
extensivelypopularrepresentativesystem,ifthosewhohavearight
tovotedonot care tochoose the fittestmemberofparliament, but
choose
him who will spend most money to be elected ? How can a
representative
assemblyworkforgoodifitsmembersarebought&sold,oriftheir
excitabilityoftemperamentmakesthemincapableofcalmdeliberation
&theycometoblowsonthefloorofthe
house,orshootatoneanotherwithrifles?How,again,isit
possiblethatgovernmentoranyotherjointconcerncanbewell
carriedon,amongapeoplesoenviousthatifanyoneamongthem
seemslikelytosucceedinanything,thereisimmediatelyaconfederacy
amongthose
whooughttocooperatewithhim,tomakehimfail?When
thegeneraldispositionofthepeopleissuchasleads
eachtoregardonlythoseofhisinterestswhichareselfish¬
todwelluponorconcernhimselfforhisshareofthegeneral
interest,nogoodgovernmentispossible.Ihavespokenonlyofmoral
defects.Defectsofintelligence,&theirinfluencein
obstructingalltheelementsofgoodgovernmentrequirenoillustration.
Allgovernmentconsistsofactsdonebymen;&ifthemenwho
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this
doesnotexhaustalltheirexcellence
forgoodgovernmentdepends,notsolelyontheamountofgoodqualities
inthepeople,butinaconsiderabledegreealsoonthequalityofthe
arrangementsforbringingthosequalitiesinthepeople
tobearontheactsofgovernment,&making
themdulyoperativeontheresult.Itisthisthatconstitutesthe
chiefimportanceofwhatmaybecalledthemachineryofgovernment.
Takeagainforillustrationtheadministrationofjustice.Thegoodness
of
this is in thecompoundratioof theworthof themencomposing the
tribunals&theworth&
thepublicopinionwhichcontrolsthem.Butallthe
differencebetweenagood&abadsystemofjudicatureliesinthe
contrivances adopted for making whatever worth exists in the
community
[A_024verso.blank]
B_001
B
operativeontheadministrationofjustice.Thearrangements,whatever
theymay
be,formakingthechoiceofthejudgessuchastoobtainthehighest
averageofvirtue&intelligence;thesalutaryforms
ofprocedure:thepublicitywhichensuresobservation&criticismof
whatever isamiss : the libertyofdiscussion&censure through the
press,
themodeoftakingevidence,accordingasitiswellorilladaptedtothe
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一一四
elicityof truth ; the facilities,whatever theymaybe, forobtaining
access
tothetribunals:thearrangementsforapprehendingoffenders;
all,inshort,whichmaybecalledthemachineryofjudicature,
aidsimplythemeanstakenforobtainingasgood
anadministrationofjusticeasisconsistentwiththedegreeofvirtue&
intelligenceexistinginthecommunity.Again,agoodsystemof
finance& taxation is themeans taken for rendering thenecessary
expenses
ofgovernmentaslittlemeanstothecommunityasisconsistentwith
thedegreeofintelligence&politywhichitispossibletosecurein
theadministratorofthesystem.Arepresentativeconstitutionisa
meansbywhichitisendeavouredtobringthegeneralpublic
opinionofthecommunity,&theindividualintelligence&virtue
ofitswisestmembers,moredirectlytobearuponthegovernment
&investthemwithgreaterinfluenceinit,thantheywould
haveunderanyothermodeoforganization
allgovernmentwhichaimsatbeinggood,isan
organizationofsomepartofthegoodqualitiesexistinginthe
membersofthecommunity,fortheconductofitscollectiveaffairs;
Thegreatertheamountofthosegoodqualitieswhichitsucceeds
inorganizing,&thebetterthemodeoforganization,thebetterwill
bethegovernment.
Wehavenow,therefore,obtainedtwoheadsbetweenwhich
arationaldecisionmaybemadeofwhattheexcellenceof
B_002
asetofpoliticalinstitutionsconsistsin.Itconsists,first,ofthe
degreeinwhichitpromotesthemoral&intellectualadvancement
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this
doesnotexhaustalltheirexcellence
forgoodgovernmentdepends,notsolelyontheamountofgoodqualities
inthepeople,butinaconsiderabledegreealsoonthequalityofthe
arrangementsforbringingthosequalitiesinthepeople
tobearontheactsofgovernment,&making
themdulyoperativeontheresult.Itisthisthatconstitutesthe
chiefimportanceofwhatmaybecalledthemachineryofgovernment.
Takeagainforillustrationtheadministrationofjustice.Thegoodness
of
this is in thecompoundratioof theworthof themencomposing the
tribunals&theworth&
thepublicopinionwhichcontrolsthem.Butallthe
differencebetweenagood&abadsystemofjudicatureliesinthe
contrivances adopted for making whatever worth exists in the
community
[A_024verso.blank]
B_001
B
operativeontheadministrationofjustice.Thearrangements,whatever
theymay
be,formakingthechoiceofthejudgessuchastoobtainthehighest
averageofvirtue&intelligence;thesalutaryforms
ofprocedure:thepublicitywhichensuresobservation&criticismof
whatever isamiss : the libertyofdiscussion&censure through the
press,
themodeoftakingevidence,accordingasitiswellorilladaptedtothe
(一三八五)
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一一三
ofthecommunity,&secondly,ofthedegree
inwhichitsucceedsinorganizingthemoral
&intellectualworthatpresentexistingsoastoexercisethemost
beneficialinfluenceinthemanagementofpublic
affairs.Wemustnotatthesametimesupposethatthesetwokinds
ofefforthavenointimateconnexionwithoneanother.
Theyhave,onthecontrary,theclosest.Theinstitutionswhichsecure
the
bestpracticablemanagementofpublicaffairs in theexistingstateof
moral&intellectual
culture,tendbythatalonetothefurtherimprovement
ofthatstate.Apeoplewhohadthe
mostjustlaws,thepurest&mostefficientadministration
ofjustice,themostenlightenedadministration,thefairest
&leastoneroussystemoffinance,whicharecompatiblewith
itsexistingstateofmoral& intellectualadvancement,couldscarcely
fail
toadvancerapidlyintoahigherstage:
noristhereanymodeinwhichpolitical
institutionscanmorecontributetotheimprovementofthepeople
thanbydoingtheirownmoredirectworkwell;thoughthisis
nottheonlymodeinwhichtheymaycontributetoit.Andonthe
otherhandiftheirmachineryissobadlyconstructedthat
theydotheirownparticularworkill,theeffectisfeltinathousand
waysindeterioratingthemorality&deadeningtheintelligence
&mentalactivityofthepeople.
Aformofgovernment,orsetofpoliticalinstitutions,istobe
considered,then,intwodifferentaspects;ofwhichthefirst&greatest
isthatofitsoperationasanagencyofnationaleducation;theother
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一一二
(which isalsooneof themodesof the first) is theefficiencyof its
arrangements
forconductingthecollectiveaffairsofthecommunityin
B_003
thestateofeducationinwhichtheyalreadyare,ofthese
twopartsofitsoperation,the
lastevidentlyvariesmuchless,fromdifferenceofcountry
&ofstateofcivilization,thanthefirst.Ithasevenmuchlesstodo
withthefundamentalconstitutionofthegovernment.Thesamemode
ofconductingthedetailedbusinessofgovernment,whichisgoodin
anabsolutemonarchy,willbegoodinaconstitutionalgovernment,ora
democraticrepublic.
The lawsofproperty, forexample ; theprinciplesofevidences&of
judicial
procedure;themodeoftaxation,&offinancial
administration,neednotnecessarilybedifferentindifferent
formsofgovernment.Eachofthesesubjects
hasprinciples&rulesofitsown,whichareasubjectofseparate
study.Generaljurisprudence,civil&
penallegislation,politicaleconomy,arespecial
sciences,orrather,separatebranchesofthecomprehensivescience
orartofgovernment;&themostenlighteneddoctrinesonallthese
subjectsmightbeunderstood&actedonunderanyformwhatever
ofgovernment;(thoughofcourse,notequallylikelytobeso)
&ifunderstood&actedon,wouldbeequallybeneficialunderall
forms of government. It is true that these doctrines could not be
applied
withoutsomemodificationstoallstatesofsociety&ofthehuman
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ofthecommunity,&secondly,ofthedegree
inwhichitsucceedsinorganizingthemoral
&intellectualworthatpresentexistingsoastoexercisethemost
beneficialinfluenceinthemanagementofpublic
affairs.Wemustnotatthesametimesupposethatthesetwokinds
ofefforthavenointimateconnexionwithoneanother.
Theyhave,onthecontrary,theclosest.Theinstitutionswhichsecure
the
bestpracticablemanagementofpublicaffairs in theexistingstateof
moral&intellectual
culture,tendbythatalonetothefurtherimprovement
ofthatstate.Apeoplewhohadthe
mostjustlaws,thepurest&mostefficientadministration
ofjustice,themostenlightenedadministration,thefairest
&leastoneroussystemoffinance,whicharecompatiblewith
itsexistingstateofmoral& intellectualadvancement,couldscarcely
fail
toadvancerapidlyintoahigherstage:
noristhereanymodeinwhichpolitical
institutionscanmorecontributetotheimprovementofthepeople
thanbydoingtheirownmoredirectworkwell;thoughthisis
nottheonlymodeinwhichtheymaycontributetoit.Andonthe
otherhandiftheirmachineryissobadlyconstructedthat
theydotheirownparticularworkill,theeffectisfeltinathousand
waysindeterioratingthemorality&deadeningtheintelligence
&mentalactivityofthepeople.
Aformofgovernment,orsetofpoliticalinstitutions,istobe
considered,then,intwodifferentaspects;ofwhichthefirst&greatest
isthatofitsoperationasanagencyofnationaleducation;theother
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一一一
mind;nevertheless,byfarthegreaterpartofthemwouldrequire
modificationsofdetailonly,toadaptthemtoanystateofsociety
sufficientlyadvancedtopossessrulerscapableofunderstandingthem.
B_004
Itisotherwisewiththatportionoftheinterestsofthecommunity
whichhavereferencetothebetterorworsetraining
ofthepeoplethemselves.Consideredasinstrumentaltothis,
institutionsrequiretoberadically
different, in different states of society, according to the state of
advancement
whichhasalreadybeenreached.Inall
statesofhumanimprovementexcepttheveryhighest,thenature&
degreeoftheauthoritywhichisexercisedoverhumanbeingsisthe
mostpowerfulofallinfluences,excepttheirreligious
belief,whichunitetomakethemwhattheyare.
Thestateofdifferent
communities,inpointofculture&development,rangesdownwardstoa
condition littleabove thehighestof thebeasts ;which itsupwards
finishes
undoubtedlyshortof themostelevatedwhich isconsistentwith the
natureofman
&thegeneralconditionsofhumanexistence.Acommunitycan
onlybedevelopedoutofoneofthesestatesintoabetter&
higher,byaconcourseofinfluences,oneoftheprincipal
ofwhichisthegovernmenttowhichitissubject;&thegreatest
meritwhichagovernmentcanpossess,ameritinfavourof
whichitoughttobeforgivenforanyamountofother
demerits,isthatitsoperationonthepeopleisfavourable,ornot
(一三八一)
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一一〇
unfavourable,tothenextstepwhichitisnecessaryforthemtotake
inordertoraisethemselvestoahigherlevel.
Forexample,apeopleinastateofsavageindependence
inwhicheveryonelivesforhimself,
exempt,unlessbyfits,fromanyexternal
control-suchapeopleispracticallyincapableofmakingany
progressincivilizationuntilithasfirstlearnttoobey.
Theoneindispensablevirtue,therefore,inagovernment,
whichestablishesitselfoverapeopleofthissort,isthatitmakes
itselfbeobeyed.Forthispurposeitisnecessarythattheformof
B_005
governmentbenearly,orquite,despotic.Aconstitutioninanydegree
popular,onewhichdependsonvoluntaryobedience,onthesurrenderby
thedifferentmembersofthecommunity,oftheir
individualfreedomofaction,wouldfailto
enforcetheonelessonwhichthepupils,inthis
stateof theirprogress,require.Accordingly thecivilizationofsuch
tribes
isalwaystheworkofanabsoluteruler,derivinghispowereither
fromreligion,fromapersonalsuperiorityfeltasequivalentto
superhuman,orfromforeignarms.
Again,apeopleofslavesareinapositiononedegreeinadvance
of this.Theyhavenot this first lessonof political society still to
acquire.
Theyhavelearnttoobey.Butwhattheyobeyisonly
adirectcommand.Theycannotconfirmtheirconducttoarule
orlaw.Theycanonlydowhat,&when,theyareordered
todo.Ifamanwhomtheyfearisstandingoverthem&threatening
(一三八〇)
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一一一
mind;nevertheless,byfarthegreaterpartofthemwouldrequire
modificationsofdetailonly,toadaptthemtoanystateofsociety
sufficientlyadvancedtopossessrulerscapableofunderstandingthem.
B_004
Itisotherwisewiththatportionoftheinterestsofthecommunity
whichhavereferencetothebetterorworsetraining
ofthepeoplethemselves.Consideredasinstrumentaltothis,
institutionsrequiretoberadically
different, in different states of society, according to the state of
advancement
whichhasalreadybeenreached.Inall
statesofhumanimprovementexcepttheveryhighest,thenature&
degreeoftheauthoritywhichisexercisedoverhumanbeingsisthe
mostpowerfulofallinfluences,excepttheirreligious
belief,whichunitetomakethemwhattheyare.
Thestateofdifferent
communities,inpointofculture&development,rangesdownwardstoa
condition littleabove thehighestof thebeasts ;which itsupwards
finishes
undoubtedlyshortof themostelevatedwhich isconsistentwith the
natureofman
&thegeneralconditionsofhumanexistence.Acommunitycan
onlybedevelopedoutofoneofthesestatesintoabetter&
higher,byaconcourseofinfluences,oneoftheprincipal
ofwhichisthegovernmenttowhichitissubject;&thegreatest
meritwhichagovernmentcanpossess,ameritinfavourof
whichitoughttobeforgivenforanyamountofother
demerits,isthatitsoperationonthepeopleisfavourable,ornot
(一三八一)
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一〇九
themwithpunishment,theyobey.Butifhisbackisturned
theworkremainsundone.Themotivedeterminingthemmust
beadirectappealtotheirinstincts:immediatehopesor
immediateterror.Itisnotadespotismwhichthesepeoplewant.
Theironlyroadtoimprovement,isbybeingraisedfromagovernment
ofwilltooneoflaw:self-governmentiswhattheyhavetolearn;
itmustnotbeagovernmentofforce,butoneofpersuasion.
Butastheyareintoolowastatetoyieldtothepersuasionofany
butthosetowhomtheylookupasthepossessorsofforce,thesortof
governmentforthemisonewhichhasforcebutseldomusesit,asort
of
paternaldespotismoraristocracy,
somethingliketheSt.Simonianformofsocialism
maintainingageneralsuperintendance[sic]overalltheoperationsof
society, soas tokeepbeforeeach theknowledgeofapresent force
sufficient
tocompelhisobediencetotherulelaiddownforhim,but
owingtotheimpossibilityofdescendingtoregulatealloftheminutiae
of
B_006
industry&life,necessarilyleaving&inducingindividualsto
domuchfor&bythemselves,&
sincetheyareincapableofdoinganythingbutobeycommands
tolearnatleasttoobeygeneralcommandsinsteadofrequiring
particularones.
Thisseemsthegovernmentbestcalculatedtocarry
suchapeoplethroughthenextnecessarystepinhuman
progress.Suchappearstohavebeenthegeneralideaofthe
(一三七九)
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一〇八
governmentoftheIncasofPeru;&suchwasthatoftheJesuits
inParaguay.
Ishallnotcarrytheillustrationfurther.Toattempt
topointoutwhatgovernmentissuitedtoeveryknown
stateofsociety,wouldbetowriteatreatisenotonrepresentative
government,butonpoliticalscienceatlarge.Forourmore
limitedpurposeweborrowfrompoliticalphilosophyonlyitsgeneral
principles.Thegeneralprinciplewhichdetermines
theformofgovernmentsuitedtoanyparticularpeople,istolerably
obvious.Itisnecessarytounderstand,amongallthedefectsand
shortcomingswhichbelongtothatpeople,whatarethosethat
aretheimmediatebarriertoprogress;what,inshort,itiswhich
stopstheway.Whenweknowthis,then,theformof
governmentwhichwillmostcertainlygivethemthat,forwantofwhich
they
cannotmoveforward,isthebestgovernmentforthem:with
thereservationnecessaryinallthingswhicharedoneforthe
sakeofimprovement,orProgress;viz.thatingivingthemthegood
whichtheyneed,nodamage,oraslittleaspossible,bedoneto
thatwhichtheyalreadypossess.Apeopleofsavagesmustbetaught
toobey,buttheyshouldnotbetaughtthatlessoninsuchamanner
as to convert them into a people of slaves.And (to give to this
observation
B_007
astillhigherdegreeofgenerality) the formofgovernmentwhich is
most
effectualforcarryingapeoplethroughthenextstageintheroadof
improvement,willstillbeveryunfitforthemifitdoesthisin
(一三七八)
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一〇九
themwithpunishment,theyobey.Butifhisbackisturned
theworkremainsundone.Themotivedeterminingthemmust
beadirectappealtotheirinstincts:immediatehopesor
immediateterror.Itisnotadespotismwhichthesepeoplewant.
Theironlyroadtoimprovement,isbybeingraisedfromagovernment
ofwilltooneoflaw:self-governmentiswhattheyhavetolearn;
itmustnotbeagovernmentofforce,butoneofpersuasion.
Butastheyareintoolowastatetoyieldtothepersuasionofany
butthosetowhomtheylookupasthepossessorsofforce,thesortof
governmentforthemisonewhichhasforcebutseldomusesit,asort
of
paternaldespotismoraristocracy,
somethingliketheSt.Simonianformofsocialism
maintainingageneralsuperintendance[sic]overalltheoperationsof
society, soas tokeepbeforeeach theknowledgeofapresent force
sufficient
tocompelhisobediencetotherulelaiddownforhim,but
owingtotheimpossibilityofdescendingtoregulatealloftheminutiae
of
B_006
industry&life,necessarilyleaving&inducingindividualsto
domuchfor&bythemselves,&
sincetheyareincapableofdoinganythingbutobeycommands
tolearnatleasttoobeygeneralcommandsinsteadofrequiring
particularones.
Thisseemsthegovernmentbestcalculatedtocarry
suchapeoplethroughthenextnecessarystepinhuman
progress.Suchappearstohavebeenthegeneralideaofthe
(一三七九)
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一〇七
suchamannerastoobstruct,orpositivelyunfitthemfor,the
stepnextinorder.Thisevilhasoftenbeenfeltinhistory.The
Egyptianhierarchy,theChinesedespotism,wereveryfitinstruments
forcarryingthosenationsuptothepointofcivilizationwhichthey
attained.Theywerestoppedat
thatpointforwantofmentalliberty,&individuality;which
requisitesofimprovementtheinstitutionswhichhadcarried
themthusfar,entirelyincapacitatedthemforacquiring:
&astheinstitutionsdidnotbreakdown&giveplaceto
others,improvementnecessarilystopped[Inpencil]Jewsdifferent
Sincethenitisimpossibletodecideonthe
adaptationofformsofgovernmenttostatesofsocietywithout
takingintoaccountnotonlythenextstepbutallthestepswhich
societyhasyettomake,sofarasthesearecapableofbeing
atpresentknown;theprocessbecomesevidentlywhich
mighttogovernallattemptstojudgeofthemeritsofforms
ofgovernment.Itisnecessarytoconstructanidealoftheform
ofgovernmentwhichisbestinitself,thatis,which
ifthenecessaryconditionsexistedforcarrying
outitsbeneficialtendencies,wouldfavour&promoteallforms
°reesofprogress.Havingdeterminedthis,wehavenextto
considerwhatarethemental&moralconditionsnecessaryto
enablethisgovernmenttorealizeitstendencies,&whatconsequently
areallthevariousdefectswhichareliabletorenderany
peopleincapableofreapingitsbenefits.Weshallthenbeable
toconstructatheoremofthecasesinwhich
B_008
thatgovernmentmaywiselybeintroduced,&
(一三七七)
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第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
一〇六
alsotojudge,incaseswhereithadbetternotbeintroduced,
whatinferiorformsofpolityarebestadaptedtocarry
thosecommunitiesthroughtheintermediatestageswhichtheymust
traverseinordertobecomefitforthatformofgovernment.
Oftheseinquiriesthelastdoesnotconcernushere;but
thefirstformsanessentialpartofoursubject:forwemay,
withoutrashness,enunciateaboveaproposition
theproofs&illustrationsofwhichwillpresent
themselvesabundantlyintheensuingpages,viz.thatthisideally
bestformofgovernmentwillcertainlybefoundin
someoneorothervarietyoftheRepresentative
System.
B_009toB_022.[Chapter3]
B_009
Thattheideallybestformofgovernmentisrepresentativegovernment
Ithasbeenlong,perhapsthroughouttheentiredurationof
Britishfreedom,acommonformofspeech,thatif itwerepossibleto
ensurea
gooddespot,despoticmonarchywouldbethebestformofgovernment.
Ilook
uponthisdoctrineasimplyingaradicalmisconceptionofwhatgood
governmentis,whichcannotbetoostrenuouslycontendedagainst.
Theideaasthebottomofthisnotion,mustbethat
absolutepower,inthehandsofaneminentindividual,wouldensure
avirtuous&intelligentperformanceofeveryoneofthedutieswhich
(一三七六)
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ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
一〇七
suchamannerastoobstruct,orpositivelyunfitthemfor,the
stepnextinorder.Thisevilhasoftenbeenfeltinhistory.The
Egyptianhierarchy,theChinesedespotism,wereveryfitinstruments
forcarryingthosenationsuptothepointofcivilizationwhichthey
attained.Theywerestoppedat
thatpointforwantofmentalliberty,&individuality;which
requisitesofimprovementtheinstitutionswhichhadcarried
themthusfar,entirelyincapacitatedthemforacquiring:
&astheinstitutionsdidnotbreakdown&giveplaceto
others,improvementnecessarilystopped[Inpencil]Jewsdifferent
Sincethenitisimpossibletodecideonthe
adaptationofformsofgovernmenttostatesofsocietywithout
takingintoaccountnotonlythenextstepbutallthestepswhich
societyhasyettomake,sofarasthesearecapableofbeing
atpresentknown;theprocessbecomesevidentlywhich
mighttogovernallattemptstojudgeofthemeritsofforms
ofgovernment.Itisnecessarytoconstructanidealoftheform
ofgovernmentwhichisbestinitself,thatis,which
ifthenecessaryconditionsexistedforcarrying
outitsbeneficialtendencies,wouldfavour&promoteallforms
°reesofprogress.Havingdeterminedthis,wehavenextto
considerwhatarethemental&moralconditionsnecessaryto
enablethisgovernmenttorealizeitstendencies,&whatconsequently
areallthevariousdefectswhichareliabletorenderany
peopleincapableofreapingitsbenefits.Weshallthenbeable
toconstructatheoremofthecasesinwhich
B_008
thatgovernmentmaywiselybeintroduced,&
(一三七七)
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一〇五
devolveonagovernment.Goodlawswouldberespected&obeyed,bad
laws
wouldbereformed;thebestmenwouldbeplacedinallsituationsof
trust;justice,therefore,wouldbeaswelladministered,thepublic
burthenswouldbeaslight,&asjudiciouslyimposed,everybranch
ofadministrationwouldbeaspurely,&intelligentlyconducted,as
thecircumstancesofthecountry,&thepointwhichithadreached
inintellectual&moraladvancement,wouldadmit.
Iamwilling for thesakeof theargument toconcedeall this ;but I
must
at the same time call attention to the vast amount ofwhat I am
conceding;
howmuchmore isneeded toproduceevenanapproximation to this
result,
thanisconveyedinthesimpleexpression,agooddespot.Infact,what
wouldbeneededtorealizesuchapictureisnotsimplyagoodmonarch,
butanallseeingone.Hemustbeabletobecorrectlyinformedofthe
conduct&workingofeverybranchofadministration,ineverypartof
country( 4 )toitsminutedetails;
hemustbecapable,inthe24hoursperdaywhichareallthatis( 5 )
toaKingastothehumblestlabourer,ofgivingashareofattention&
superintendance[sic]toeverypartof thisvast field ;orhemustbe
capableat
hiselevation,ofdiscerning&selecting,amongthemassofhissubjects,
notonly
alargeabundanceofhonest&capablemen,fittomanage
everybranchofthepublicserviceofanationunder
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一〇四
B_010
supervision&control,butthesmallnumberofmenofeminent
virtues& talentswho can be trusted not only to dowithout that
supervision
but to exercise it themselves over others.So superhumanare the
faculties&
energies required for this task that the gooddespotwhomweare
supposingcan
hardlybeimaginedasconsentingtoundertakeit,unlessasarefuge
from intolerable evils,& a transitional preparation for something
better.But
myargumentcanaffordtowaveeventhisvastitemintheaccount,&to
suppressthedifficultyvanquished.Whatshouldwethenhave?
Onemanofsuperhumanmentalactivitymanagingtheentireaffairs
ofamentallypassivepeople.Thisisimpliedintheveryidea&absolute
power.Thepeoplecollectively,&everysuchindividual
composingit,arewithoutanypotentialvoiceintheirowndestiny.They
exercisenowill in respect to thecollectivebusinessof life.All is
decided
forthembyawillnottheirown,&whichitislegallyacrimeforthem
to
resistordisobey.Whatsortofhumanbeingscanpossiblybeformed
undersuch
aregimen ?Whatdevelopmentcaneither the thinkingor theactive
faculties
attain?Onmattersofpuretheorytheymightpossiblybeallowedto
speculate.
Onpracticalaffairstheycouldatmostonlybesufferedtosuggest;&
none
(一三七四)
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一〇五
devolveonagovernment.Goodlawswouldberespected&obeyed,bad
laws
wouldbereformed;thebestmenwouldbeplacedinallsituationsof
trust;justice,therefore,wouldbeaswelladministered,thepublic
burthenswouldbeaslight,&asjudiciouslyimposed,everybranch
ofadministrationwouldbeaspurely,&intelligentlyconducted,as
thecircumstancesofthecountry,&thepointwhichithadreached
inintellectual&moraladvancement,wouldadmit.
Iamwilling for thesakeof theargument toconcedeall this ;but I
must
at the same time call attention to the vast amount ofwhat I am
conceding;
howmuchmore isneeded toproduceevenanapproximation to this
result,
thanisconveyedinthesimpleexpression,agooddespot.Infact,what
wouldbeneededtorealizesuchapictureisnotsimplyagoodmonarch,
butanallseeingone.Hemustbeabletobecorrectlyinformedofthe
conduct&workingofeverybranchofadministration,ineverypartof
country( 4 )toitsminutedetails;
hemustbecapable,inthe24hoursperdaywhichareallthatis( 5 )
toaKingastothehumblestlabourer,ofgivingashareofattention&
superintendance[sic]toeverypartof thisvast field ;orhemustbe
capableat
hiselevation,ofdiscerning&selecting,amongthemassofhissubjects,
notonly
alargeabundanceofhonest&capablemen,fittomanage
everybranchofthepublicserviceofanationunder
(一三七五)
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一〇三
butpersonsofrealorreputedsuperiorityofinstitution&( 6 )ever
couldflatterthemselvesthattheirsuggestionswouldbeevenknownto
muchlessattendedtoby,thosewhohadthemanagementofaffairs.
Apersonmusthaveaveryunusualtasteforintellectualexercisein&
for itself,whowillputhimself to the troubleof thoughtwhich is to
haveno
effectonpractice,orqualifyhimself for functionswhichhehasno
chance
ofevenbeingallowed toexercise.Theonlysufficient incitement to
mental
exertion, inanybutafewpersons inageneration, is theprospectof
some
practicaluse tobemadeof its results. It doesnot follow that the
nation
mustbedevisedof intellectualpower.Theordinarybusinessof life,
that
whichmustbeperformedbyeachindividualorfamilyforitself,is
sufficient to call fortha certainamountof intelligence&practical
talent.
B_011
[Leftsideofpage.Bquire010verso.Inpencil]
Thenhowallthementalpowerinthecountrymaybeorganized
insomespecialdirection(asthatofconquest)byadespot.
[Rightsideofpage.Bquire011recto.]
Butsuchapeoplewillbeentirelydevoidofanywiderangeof ideas.
There
maybeaselectclassofsavantswhocultivatescienceforitsownsake.
(一三七三)
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一〇二
There
willbeabureaucracy,&aclassbroughtupforthebureaucracy,who
willbetaughtatleastsomeempiricalmaximsofgovernment
&political administration.Theremainderof thepublicwill remain
without
information&withoutinterestinallthelargeraffairsofhumanity:or
if
theyhaveanyknowledgeofthematall,itwillbeamerely
dilettanteknowledge,likethatwhichpeoplehaveofthemechanicalarts
whohaveneverhandledatool.Fromthisinherentnecessityofdespotic
governmentthereisnooutletunlessinsofarasthedespotismconsents
not tobeadespotism ; inso faras thesupposedgood&willdespot
repairs
fortheexerciseofhispower,&thoughholdingit
inreserve,allowsthegeneralbusinessofgovernmenttogoonasifthe
people
reallygovernedthemselves.Wemay imaginehimallowingfreedomof
the
press&ofthepublicdiscussion,thatapublicopinionmightformitself
freelyonnationalaffairs.Hemightallowlocalintereststobemanaged
withoutthecontrolofgovernment,bythepeoplethemselves.Hemight
evensurroundhimselfbyacouncilorcouncilsofgovernmentof
thenatureofarepresentativeassembly,freelychosenbythewholeor
someportionofthepeople;stillholdinginhisownhandsthe
poweroftaxation,&thesupremelegislative
aswell as executive power.Were he to do all this& thus far to
obedient
asadespot,hewoulddoaway,inequaldegree,withthecharacteristic
evilsofadespotism.Politicalactivity,&capacityforpublic
(一三七二)
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一〇三
butpersonsofrealorreputedsuperiorityofinstitution&( 6 )ever
couldflatterthemselvesthattheirsuggestionswouldbeevenknownto
muchlessattendedtoby,thosewhohadthemanagementofaffairs.
Apersonmusthaveaveryunusualtasteforintellectualexercisein&
for itself,whowillputhimself to the troubleof thoughtwhich is to
haveno
effectonpractice,orqualifyhimself for functionswhichhehasno
chance
ofevenbeingallowed toexercise.Theonlysufficient incitement to
mental
exertion, inanybutafewpersons inageneration, is theprospectof
some
practicaluse tobemadeof its results. It doesnot follow that the
nation
mustbedevisedof intellectualpower.Theordinarybusinessof life,
that
whichmustbeperformedbyeachindividualorfamilyforitself,is
sufficient to call fortha certainamountof intelligence&practical
talent.
B_011
[Leftsideofpage.Bquire010verso.Inpencil]
Thenhowallthementalpowerinthecountrymaybeorganized
insomespecialdirection(asthatofconquest)byadespot.
[Rightsideofpage.Bquire011recto.]
Butsuchapeoplewillbeentirelydevoidofanywiderangeof ideas.
There
maybeaselectclassofsavantswhocultivatescienceforitsownsake.
(一三七三)
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一〇一
affairs,wouldbenolongerpreventedfromgrowingupinthebodyof
thepeople;&apublicopinionwouldformitself,notthe
mereechoofthegovernment.Butwiththisbeginnewdifficulties.
Thispublicopinion,independentofthemonarch,dictationmustbe
eitherwithhimoragainsthim:ifitisnottheone,itwillbetheother.
B_012
[Leftsideofpage.Bquire011verso.]
’λThedespotismbeingthenchieflynominal,wouldpossessveryfewof
theadvantagessupposedtobelongtoabsolutemonarchy;whichitcould
only
realizeinanimperfectdegreethebenefitsofafreegovernment,since
howevergreatanamountoflibertythecitizensmightpracticallyenjoy
theywouldneverforgetthattheyhelditonsufferance&bya
concessionwhich,iftheconstitutionofthestateremained
inviolate,mightanydayberesumed.
[Rightsideofpage.Bquire012recto.]
Allgovernmentsmustdispleasemanypersons,&thosepersonshaving
now
regularorgans&permissiontoexpresstheirsentiments
opinions adverse to the measures of government will often be
expressed.
Whatisthemonarchtodoiftheseunfavourableopinionsarein
themajority?Ishetoalterhiscourse?Ishetodefertothemajority?
Ifso
heisnolongeradespot,butaconstitutionalking;
apermanent&immovableorganorprimeministerofthepeople.Ifnot
hemusteitherputdowntheoppositionbythearmofpower,orthere
(一三七一)
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第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
一〇〇
willariseapermanentantagonismbetweenapeople&oneman
which can have but one possible ending. It is doubtful if even a
religious
principleofpassiveobedience“rightdivine”would( 7 )againstsuch
aposition.Themonarchwouldhavetosuccumb,&conformtothe
conditions of constitutional royalty, orgiveplace to someonewho
would.’λ
I am far from condemning, in cases of great exigency, the
assumptions
ofdespoticpowerintheformofatemporarydictatorship.Freenations
haveoften,intimesofold,conferredsuchpowerbytheirownchoice,
( 8 )it.Theonlyeffectualmedicinefor
diseasesofthebodypoliticwhichcouldnotbegotridofby
lessviolentmeans.Butitsacceptance,evenforatimestrictlylimited
muchmoreforanindefiniteduration,canonlybejustified,orever
excused,if,likeSolonorPittacus,thedespotemploysthewholeofthe
powerheassumesinremovingtheobstacleswhichexcludethecountry
fromtheenjoymentoffreedom.Agooddespotismisanaltogetherfalse
ideal,whichpracticallybecomesthemostsenseless&dangerousof
Chimeras.Evilforevil,agooddespotisminacountryatalladvanced
incivilizationismoremischievousthanabadone,foritisfarmore
relaxing&enervating to the thoughts, feelings,& energies of the
people.
ItwasthedespotismofAugustuswhichpreparedtheRomans
forTiberius.Ifthewholetoneoftheirmind&characterhadnot
B_013
beenprostratedby
thatmildslavery,theywouldhavehadspiritenoughleft
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一〇一
affairs,wouldbenolongerpreventedfromgrowingupinthebodyof
thepeople;&apublicopinionwouldformitself,notthe
mereechoofthegovernment.Butwiththisbeginnewdifficulties.
Thispublicopinion,independentofthemonarch,dictationmustbe
eitherwithhimoragainsthim:ifitisnottheone,itwillbetheother.
B_012
[Leftsideofpage.Bquire011verso.]
’λThedespotismbeingthenchieflynominal,wouldpossessveryfewof
theadvantagessupposedtobelongtoabsolutemonarchy;whichitcould
only
realizeinanimperfectdegreethebenefitsofafreegovernment,since
howevergreatanamountoflibertythecitizensmightpracticallyenjoy
theywouldneverforgetthattheyhelditonsufferance&bya
concessionwhich,iftheconstitutionofthestateremained
inviolate,mightanydayberesumed.
[Rightsideofpage.Bquire012recto.]
Allgovernmentsmustdispleasemanypersons,&thosepersonshaving
now
regularorgans&permissiontoexpresstheirsentiments
opinions adverse to the measures of government will often be
expressed.
Whatisthemonarchtodoiftheseunfavourableopinionsarein
themajority?Ishetoalterhiscourse?Ishetodefertothemajority?
Ifso
heisnolongeradespot,butaconstitutionalking;
apermanent&immovableorganorprimeministerofthepeople.Ifnot
hemusteitherputdowntheoppositionbythearmofpower,orthere
(一三七一)
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nottoendurethemoreodiousone.
Weshallfindthattheideallybestformofgovernmentisthatin
whichthesovereignty,orsupremecontrollingpowerinthelastresort,
resides
intheentireaggregateofthecommunity,&inwhicheveryindividualin
ithasnotonlyavoiceintheexerciseofthatultimatesovereignty,but
is,atleastoccasionally,calledontotakeanactualpartinthe
government, by the personal discharge of somepublic function or
functions.
Totestthispropositionitmustbeexaminedinreferencetothe
twobranchesintowhich,aswasshowninthelastchapter,theinquiring
intothegoodnessofagovernmentconvenientlydividesitself,viz.how
far
it promotes the goodmanagement of the affairs of society in the
existing
states of the faculties,moral, intellectual& active of its various
members
&whatisitseffectinimprovingordeterioratingthatstate.
Itwillberemembered,thatIamnothereconcernedinshowing
thatacompletelypopulargovernmentisalwayspracticablethat
whichwilleithersecurethegreatestamountofbenefitconsistent
withtheexistingstateofthegeneralmind,orwilltendmostto
theimprovementofthatstate.Neitherofthesepropositionswouldbe
universallytrue.WhatImaintainis,thatitisideallythebest
that is to say, that in thecircumstancessuitable to it, (or inother
words
whenitfulfilsthethreefundamentalconditions)itisattendedwith
greateramountofbeneficialconsequencesofbothkinds,it
ismorefavourabletopresentgoodgovernment
(一三六九)
172
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第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
九八
&promotesabetter&higherformofcharacterinthe
communitywhichpartakesofit,thananyotherformofgovernment
whatever.
Itssuperiorityinregardtotheattainment
of the greatest amount of presentwellbeing compatiblewith the
existing
B_014
[Leftsideofpage.Bquire013verso.Inpencil]
ExaminetheBenthamdoctrine?
[Rightsideofpage.Bquire014recto.]
mental conditionof thecommunity, restsupon twoprinciples, of as
universal
truth& applicability as any propositionswhich can be laid down
respecting
humanaffairs.Thefirstis,thattherights&interestsofeveryorany
person
areonlysecurefrombeingoverlooked,whenthepersoninterested
ishimselfable,&habituallydisposed,tostandupforthem.Thesecond
is
thatthegeneralprosperityattainsthegreatestheight,&is themost
widely
diffused,inproportiontotheamount&varietyofthepersonalenergies
which
areenlistedinthepromotionofit.B
Putting these two propositions into a shapemore peculiarly
appropriate
toourpresentsubject;humanbeingsareonlysecure
(一三六八)
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九九
nottoendurethemoreodiousone.
Weshallfindthattheideallybestformofgovernmentisthatin
whichthesovereignty,orsupremecontrollingpowerinthelastresort,
resides
intheentireaggregateofthecommunity,&inwhicheveryindividualin
ithasnotonlyavoiceintheexerciseofthatultimatesovereignty,but
is,atleastoccasionally,calledontotakeanactualpartinthe
government, by the personal discharge of somepublic function or
functions.
Totestthispropositionitmustbeexaminedinreferencetothe
twobranchesintowhich,aswasshowninthelastchapter,theinquiring
intothegoodnessofagovernmentconvenientlydividesitself,viz.how
far
it promotes the goodmanagement of the affairs of society in the
existing
states of the faculties,moral, intellectual& active of its various
members
&whatisitseffectinimprovingordeterioratingthatstate.
Itwillberemembered,thatIamnothereconcernedinshowing
thatacompletelypopulargovernmentisalwayspracticablethat
whichwilleithersecurethegreatestamountofbenefitconsistent
withtheexistingstateofthegeneralmind,orwilltendmostto
theimprovementofthatstate.Neitherofthesepropositionswouldbe
universallytrue.WhatImaintainis,thatitisideallythebest
that is to say, that in thecircumstancessuitable to it, (or inother
words
whenitfulfilsthethreefundamentalconditions)itisattendedwith
greateramountofbeneficialconsequencesofbothkinds,it
ismorefavourabletopresentgoodgovernment
(一三六九)
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九七
againstevilatthehandsofothersinproportionastheyhavethe
powerofbeing,&are, self-protecting ;& theyonlyachieveahigh
amount
ofsuccessintheirstrugglewithnature,inproportionasthey
areself-dependent,&relyonwhattheythemselvescando,noton
whatothersdoforthem.
Fromthesetwoprinciplesitarisesthatallfreestates,whether
greatorsmall,havebothbeenfreerfromsocialinjustice
&crime,&haveattainedfarmorebrilliantprosperity
thananyothers,orthanthemselvesaftertheyhavelosttheirfreedom.
Allfreestates,providedtheyhavebeenabletoremainfree,have
beenbothbettergoverned&moreprosperousthanthecontemporary
subjectsofmonarchicaloroligarchicaldespotism.
TheGreekcitiescomparedwiththePersiansatrapies,theItalian
republic&thefreetownsofFlanders&Germanycomparedwith
thefeudalmonarchiesofEurope,Switzerland,Holland&England
comparedwithAustriaorante-revolutionaryFrance,arecases
too evident to require insisting on.The superiorprosperity is too
obvious
tohaveeverbeendenied;thesuperiorityingovernment
B_015
&socialconditionissufficientlyprovedbytheprosperity,&ismanifest
besides in everypageof history. Ifwe compare, not one agewith
another
but thegovernmentswhichcoexisted in thesameage,noamountof
disorder
&insecuritywhichexaggerationitselfcanmaintaintohaveexisted
inthepublicityofthefreestatesofformeragescanbecomparedfora
(一三六七)
174
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九六
momentwith
theodioustramplinguponthemassofthepeople
whichpervadedthewholelifeofthemonarchical
statesorwiththeterrible&disgustingindividualtyrannywhich
wasofdailyoccurrenceundertheirfiscalarrangements&inthe
securingoftheirfrightfulcourtsofjustice.
Itmustbeacknowledgedthatthesebenefitsoffreedom,sofar
astheyhavebeenrealized,wereobtainedbytheextensionofthe
privileges of freedom to a part only of the community ;& that a
government
inwhichtheyareextendedimpartiallytoall,isadesideratumstill
unrealized.Butthougheveryapproachtoithasanindependent
value,&inmanycasesmorethananapproachcouldnotin
the existing state of general improvement, be made, yet the
participation
ofallinthosebenefitsistheideallyperfectformoffreegovernment.
Inproportionasanyareexcludedfromit,theinterestsoftheexcluded
arewithoutthedegreeofprotectionaccordedtotherest
&theythemselveshavelessscopefor,&lessencouragementto
thatindividualcautionforthebenefitofthemselves&ofthecommunity
towhichthegeneralprosperityisalwaysproportioned.
Thusstandsthecaseasitregardspresentwellbeing:thegood
management of the affairs of the existing generation. Ifwe next
considerthe
influenceofthegovernmentonhumancharacter,weshallfindthe
superiorityofpopulargovernmentovereveryother tobestillmore
decided
&unquestionable.
Inconsideringthisquestionitisnecessarytomakeupourminds
(一三六六)
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九七
againstevilatthehandsofothersinproportionastheyhavethe
powerofbeing,&are, self-protecting ;& theyonlyachieveahigh
amount
ofsuccessintheirstrugglewithnature,inproportionasthey
areself-dependent,&relyonwhattheythemselvescando,noton
whatothersdoforthem.
Fromthesetwoprinciplesitarisesthatallfreestates,whether
greatorsmall,havebothbeenfreerfromsocialinjustice
&crime,&haveattainedfarmorebrilliantprosperity
thananyothers,orthanthemselvesaftertheyhavelosttheirfreedom.
Allfreestates,providedtheyhavebeenabletoremainfree,have
beenbothbettergoverned&moreprosperousthanthecontemporary
subjectsofmonarchicaloroligarchicaldespotism.
TheGreekcitiescomparedwiththePersiansatrapies,theItalian
republic&thefreetownsofFlanders&Germanycomparedwith
thefeudalmonarchiesofEurope,Switzerland,Holland&England
comparedwithAustriaorante-revolutionaryFrance,arecases
too evident to require insisting on.The superiorprosperity is too
obvious
tohaveeverbeendenied;thesuperiorityingovernment
B_015
&socialconditionissufficientlyprovedbytheprosperity,&ismanifest
besides in everypageof history. Ifwe compare, not one agewith
another
but thegovernmentswhichcoexisted in thesameage,noamountof
disorder
&insecuritywhichexaggerationitselfcanmaintaintohaveexisted
inthepublicityofthefreestatesofformeragescanbecomparedfora
(一三六七)
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九五
whichoftwocommontypesofcharacteristhatwhich,forthegeneral
B_016
goodofhumanity,itismostdesirableshouldprevail;theactive,orthe
passivetype;thatwhichstrugglesagainstevils,orthatwhichendures
them;
thatwhichbendstocircumstances,orthatwhichendeavourstobend
circumstancestoitself.
It is evident enough that neither of these types is separately
perfect
: that thecharactersofeachrequire tobemoreor lessmodifiedby
thoseofthe
other.Thereareinevitableevilsineverylot;&thereareavoidable,&
remediableones.Itisafaulttobeimpatientundertheformer;&it
isafault,thoughofanotherkind,tobepatientunderthelatter.
The commonplaces ofmoralists& the general sympathies of
mankind
areinfavourofthepassivetype.
Energeticcharacters,maybeadmiredbuttheacquiescent&submissive
arethosewhich
menpersonallyprefer.
Thepassivenessofourneighboursseemstoplayintothehands
ofourownactivity.Passivecharactersarelessofan
obstructioninourownway.Acontentedcharacterisnotaformidable
rival.Yetnothingismorecertainthanthatimprovement
inhumanaffairsiswhollytheworkofthenon-contented
characters;&moreoverthatitismucheasierfortheactive
mindtoacquirethevirtuesofpatience,thanforthepassiveoneto
acquirethoseofenergy
(一三六五)
176
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第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
九四
Ofthethreevarietiesofmentalexcellence,intellectual,
active,&moral,therenevercouldbeanydoubtinregard
tothetwofirstonwhichsidelaythepreponderance[sic].Intellectual
superiority
ofallkinds is the fruitof theactiveexertion.Enterprise, theeager
desireto
betterourcondition,isthesauceoftalent,evenspeculativemuchmore
practical.Theintellectualculturewhichgoeswiththeothertype,isof
that feeble&vaguedescriptionwhichalone iscalledforth inamind
which
stopsatamusement,oratsimplecontemplation.Thereisnotestofreal
&vigorousthinkingofthatwhichascertainstruthsinsteadofdreaming
dreamsbutsuccessfulapplicationtopractice;&wherethat
purposedoesnotexisttogivedefiniteness&precision
tothought,itproducesnothingbetterthanthemysticalmetaphysicsof
B_017
the Pythagoreans or the Veds[sic].With respect to practical
improvementthecase
isstillmoreobvious.Thecharacterwhichimproveshumanlifeisthat
whichstruggleswithnaturalpowers&tendencies,notthatwhichgives
way
tothem.Theself-benefittingqualitiesareallonthesideoftheactive
&
energeticcharacter;&thehabits&conductwhichpromotethe
advantageofeachindividualmemberofthecommunity,are
thosewhichconducemostintheendtotheadvancementofthe
communityasawhole.
Butonthepointofmoralpreferability,thereseemsatfirstsight
(一三六四)
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九五
whichoftwocommontypesofcharacteristhatwhich,forthegeneral
B_016
goodofhumanity,itismostdesirableshouldprevail;theactive,orthe
passivetype;thatwhichstrugglesagainstevils,orthatwhichendures
them;
thatwhichbendstocircumstances,orthatwhichendeavourstobend
circumstancestoitself.
It is evident enough that neither of these types is separately
perfect
: that thecharactersofeachrequire tobemoreor lessmodifiedby
thoseofthe
other.Thereareinevitableevilsineverylot;&thereareavoidable,&
remediableones.Itisafaulttobeimpatientundertheformer;&it
isafault,thoughofanotherkind,tobepatientunderthelatter.
The commonplaces ofmoralists& the general sympathies of
mankind
areinfavourofthepassivetype.
Energeticcharacters,maybeadmiredbuttheacquiescent&submissive
arethosewhich
menpersonallyprefer.
Thepassivenessofourneighboursseemstoplayintothehands
ofourownactivity.Passivecharactersarelessofan
obstructioninourownway.Acontentedcharacterisnotaformidable
rival.Yetnothingismorecertainthanthatimprovement
inhumanaffairsiswhollytheworkofthenon-contented
characters;&moreoverthatitismucheasierfortheactive
mindtoacquirethevirtuesofpatience,thanforthepassiveoneto
acquirethoseofenergy
(一三六五)
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九三
to
be room fordoubt .Apassive character,whichyields toobstacles
insteadof
strivingtoovercomethem,maynotindeedbeveryusefultoothers,no
more
than to itself, but itmight be expected to be at least inoffensive.
Contentment
istraditionallyoneofthefirstofmoralvirtues.Butitis
entirelyanerrortosupposethatcontentmentisthenaturalattendant
onpassivityofcharacter:&unlessitis,allthemoralconsequences
aremischievous.Wherethereexistsadesireforthingsnotpossessed
themindwhichdoesnotpotentially
possess thembymeansof itsownenergies,will lookwithhatred&
malice
onthosewhodo.Itisthepersonwhoisbestirringhimselfwithhopeful
prospectstogainriches,whofeelsgoodwilltowardsothersengagedin
orwhohavesucceededinthesamepursuit.Andwhenthisisthe
commoncase,thosewhoarenotequallysuccessfulhavehadthetone
giventotheirfeelingsbythegeneralhabitofthecountry.Iftheyhave
notbetteredtheirconditiontheyascribeittotheirnothavingtried,or
iftheyhavetried,thinkitistheirownfault,ortheirownpersonal
illlack.Butamongapeoplewhodesirewhatotherspossess,yetdonot
striveforit,ifthereisnotincessantgrumblingthat
fortune does not do for themwhat they do not attempt to do for
themselves
thesoilisatleastmostproductiveofenvy&malicetowardsthosewho
have
whattheyhavenot.Accordinglythisisthecommoncharacterofsociety
inapassivestateofthegeneralenergies.Justinproportionassuccess
(一三六三)
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九二
inlifehabituallyattributedtofatalityoraccident¬toexertion,in
that
B_018
proportiondoestheenviouscharacterprevail.Themostenviousofall
mankindaretheAsiatics.InallOrientalmoralists,in
allOrientaltales,theenviousmanoccupiesamostconspicuousplace;
heistheterrorofallwhopossessanythingdesirable,beitpalace,
ahandsomechild,orevengoodhealth&spirits;thesupposedeffectof
his
mere lookconstitutes theallpervadingsuperstitionof theevil eye.
Nexttothe
Orientals inenviousdispositioncame theSouthernEuropeans.The
Spaniards
pursuedalltheirgreatmenwithit,embitteredtheirlives,&generally
succeeded inputtinganearlystopto theirsuccesses. In theFrench,
who
areessentiallyasouthernpeople,thedoubleeducationofdespotism&
Catholicismhas,inspiteoftheirimpulsivetemperament
madesubmission,&enduranceatoncethecharacteristicof
the people& theirmost received notion ofwisdom&excellence ;
meanwhile
envyof one another,&of all superiority, thoughnot reaching the
heightof
OrientalsorSpaniards, isapervading feeling toadegreewhich the
selfhelping
& struggling Anglo-Saxons have no experience of. There are,
undoubtedlyin
allcountries,contentedcharacters,whonotmerelydonotseek,
(一三六二)
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九三
to
be room fordoubt .Apassive character,whichyields toobstacles
insteadof
strivingtoovercomethem,maynotindeedbeveryusefultoothers,no
more
than to itself, but itmight be expected to be at least inoffensive.
Contentment
istraditionallyoneofthefirstofmoralvirtues.Butitis
entirelyanerrortosupposethatcontentmentisthenaturalattendant
onpassivityofcharacter:&unlessitis,allthemoralconsequences
aremischievous.Wherethereexistsadesireforthingsnotpossessed
themindwhichdoesnotpotentially
possess thembymeansof itsownenergies,will lookwithhatred&
malice
onthosewhodo.Itisthepersonwhoisbestirringhimselfwithhopeful
prospectstogainriches,whofeelsgoodwilltowardsothersengagedin
orwhohavesucceededinthesamepursuit.Andwhenthisisthe
commoncase,thosewhoarenotequallysuccessfulhavehadthetone
giventotheirfeelingsbythegeneralhabitofthecountry.Iftheyhave
notbetteredtheirconditiontheyascribeittotheirnothavingtried,or
iftheyhavetried,thinkitistheirownfault,ortheirownpersonal
illlack.Butamongapeoplewhodesirewhatotherspossess,yetdonot
striveforit,ifthereisnotincessantgrumblingthat
fortune does not do for themwhat they do not attempt to do for
themselves
thesoilisatleastmostproductiveofenvy&malicetowardsthosewho
have
whattheyhavenot.Accordinglythisisthecommoncharacterofsociety
inapassivestateofthegeneralenergies.Justinproportionassuccess
(一三六三)
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butdonotdesire,whattheydonotalreadypossess,&thesenaturally
donotfeelillwilltowardsthosewhohaveanapparentlymorefavoured
lot.But
thegreatmassofapparentcontentment isrealdiscontent, combined
with
indolence,&whileittakesnolegitimatemeansofraisingitself,
delights in bringing others down to its own level.And ifwe look
narrowly
evenatthecasesofinnocentcontentment,weshallperceivethatthey
only excite our admiration, when the indifference is solely to
improvement
inexternalcircumstances,&iscombinedwithastrivingforperpetual
advancementinspiritualworth,orwithadisinterestedzealtobenefit
others.
Thecontentedman,orthecontentedfamily,whohavenoambition
tomake any one else happier, or to improve themselves inmoral
excellence
excitesinusnoadmiration.Werightlyconsiderthissortof
contentmentasmereunmanliness&wantofspirit.Thecontentwhich
weadmireiseithertheabilitytodocheerfullywithoutwhat
cannotbehad,or the justappreciationof thecomparativevalueof
different
B_019
[Leftsideofpage.Bquire018verso.]
(a)NothingcanbemoreremarkabletothosewholiveinFrance,after
having
lived inEngland, than the passive endurance of theFrenchunder
avoidableonly.
(一三六一)
180
政経研究
第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
九〇
IfanEnglishrailwaytrainstops,orlingersontheroad,scoresofthe
passengersrequire
toknowthereasonwhy;&ifthereasonisnotsatisfactory,thenext
daysome
oneormoreofthemuntototheTimes.
TheFrench,thoughanaturallymoreimpatientpeople,never
seemtoconcernthemselvesaboutthematter.Andthisdifferenceruns
through
mostoftheconcernsoflife.
[Rightsideofpage.Bquire019recto.]
objectsofdesire,&thewillingnesstodispensewiththelessinorder
topursue
thegreater.Nowthereareexcellenciesmostnaturaltothecharacter
inproportion
asitisactivelyengagedinendeavouringtoimproveitslot.Hewhois
constantly
measuring his activity against difficulties, learns what are the
difficulties
insuperabletohim,&whatthose,theovercomingofwhichisnotworth
the
effort.Hewhosethoughts&activitiesareallneededfor,&
habituallyemployedin,practicable&usefulenterprises,istheperson
ofall
othersleastlikelytolethisminddwellwithhabitualdiscontentupon
thingsnotworthobtaining,ornotworthhisattaining.Thustheactive
selfhelpingcharacterisnotonlythebestinitself,butitisthesurest
mode of requiring all that is really desirable or excellent in the
opposite
(一三六〇)
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九一
butdonotdesire,whattheydonotalreadypossess,&thesenaturally
donotfeelillwilltowardsthosewhohaveanapparentlymorefavoured
lot.But
thegreatmassofapparentcontentment isrealdiscontent, combined
with
indolence,&whileittakesnolegitimatemeansofraisingitself,
delights in bringing others down to its own level.And ifwe look
narrowly
evenatthecasesofinnocentcontentment,weshallperceivethatthey
only excite our admiration, when the indifference is solely to
improvement
inexternalcircumstances,&iscombinedwithastrivingforperpetual
advancementinspiritualworth,orwithadisinterestedzealtobenefit
others.
Thecontentedman,orthecontentedfamily,whohavenoambition
tomake any one else happier, or to improve themselves inmoral
excellence
excitesinusnoadmiration.Werightlyconsiderthissortof
contentmentasmereunmanliness&wantofspirit.Thecontentwhich
weadmireiseithertheabilitytodocheerfullywithoutwhat
cannotbehad,or the justappreciationof thecomparativevalueof
different
B_019
[Leftsideofpage.Bquire018verso.]
(a)NothingcanbemoreremarkabletothosewholiveinFrance,after
having
lived inEngland, than the passive endurance of theFrenchunder
avoidableonly.
(一三六一)
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八九
type.
Thestriving,go-aheadcharacterofEngland&theUnitedStates
isonlya
subjectofdisapprovingcriticismonaccountofthevery
secondaryobjectsonwhichitcommonlyexpendsits
energies. In itself it is the foundation of all hope for the general
improvement
ofmankind.Ithasbeenremarkedthatwheneveranythinggoes
amiss,theimpulseofFrenchpeopleistosay,Ilfautdelapatience;
&ofEnglishpeople.Whatashame.Thepeoplewhothinkitashame
whenanythinggoeswrong-whorush to theconclusion that theevil
could
havebeen&oughttohavebeenprevented,arethosewho inthe long
run
domosttomaketheworldbetter(a).Ifthedesiresarelowplaced,if
they
extend to littlebeyondphysical comfort,& the showof riches, the
results
oftheenergywillbelittlemorethanthecontinualextensionofman’s
powerovernature;butthisinitselfismakingroom&preparingthe
mechanicalappliancesforthehighestintellectual&socialachievements
&whiletheenergyisthere,itissuretobeappliedbysome,&there
arealways
hopesthatitmaybeappliedlargely&effectively,totheperfectingnot
merelyofman’soutwardconveniencesbutofhisinwardnature.
Inactivity,unaspiringness,absenceofdesire,isafar
morefatalhindrancetohumanimprovementthananymisdirectionof
(一三五九)
182
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第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
八八
B_020
theactivities;&itisthatwhichkeepsback,inasavageorsemisavage
state, all that vastmajority of the human racewho have not yet
emerged
fromsuchacondition.
Now there can be no doubtwhatever that the passive type of
character
istheoneprincipallyfavouredbythegovernmentofoneorofafew&
theactiveselfhelpingtypebythatoftheMany.Submissiveness
totheprescriptionsofmenasiftheywerenecessitiesofnature,isthe
lesson
practically inculcatedbyallgovernmentsupon thosewhoarewholly
without
participationinthem.Thelaw,orthewillofsuperiorsmustbe
passivelyyieldedto.Itisotherwisewhenahumanbeing
feelsundernoinsuperableexternalrestraintbutthat
ofthenecessitiesofnature,ormandatesofsocietywhichhehashis
shareinimposing&whichitisopentohim,ifhethinksthemwrong
tomakeapublicmanifestationofhisdissentfrom,&exerthimself
activelytogetaltered.Nodoubt,underagovernmentpartiallypopular,
thisfreedommaybeexercisedevenbythosewhoarenotpartakers,in
thefull
privilegesofcitizenship.Butitisagreatadditionalstimulustoanyone
feelings
ofselfhelp&selfreliancewhenhestartsfromanevenground
&hasnottofeelthathissuccessdependsupontheimpressionhe
canmakeuponthesentiments&dispositionsofabodyofwhomheis
notone.Themaximumoftheinvigoratingeffectoffreedomuponthe
characterisonlyobtainedwhenthepersonactedoneitherisorhasit
(一三五八)
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八九
type.
Thestriving,go-aheadcharacterofEngland&theUnitedStates
isonlya
subjectofdisapprovingcriticismonaccountofthevery
secondaryobjectsonwhichitcommonlyexpendsits
energies. In itself it is the foundation of all hope for the general
improvement
ofmankind.Ithasbeenremarkedthatwheneveranythinggoes
amiss,theimpulseofFrenchpeopleistosay,Ilfautdelapatience;
&ofEnglishpeople.Whatashame.Thepeoplewhothinkitashame
whenanythinggoeswrong-whorush to theconclusion that theevil
could
havebeen&oughttohavebeenprevented,arethosewho inthe long
run
domosttomaketheworldbetter(a).Ifthedesiresarelowplaced,if
they
extend to littlebeyondphysical comfort,& the showof riches, the
results
oftheenergywillbelittlemorethanthecontinualextensionofman’s
powerovernature;butthisinitselfismakingroom&preparingthe
mechanicalappliancesforthehighestintellectual&socialachievements
&whiletheenergyisthere,itissuretobeappliedbysome,&there
arealways
hopesthatitmaybeappliedlargely&effectively,totheperfectingnot
merelyofman’soutwardconveniencesbutofhisinwardnature.
Inactivity,unaspiringness,absenceofdesire,isafar
morefatalhindrancetohumanimprovementthananymisdirectionof
(一三五九)
182
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
八七
inhis
powertobecome,acitizenasfullyprivilegedasanyother.But
whatisstillmoreimportantthanthismatteroffeeling,isthepractical
disciplinewhich thewhole character obtains from the occasional
demand
madeuponthecitizenstoexerciseforatime&intheirturnsome
publicfunction.Notwithstandingthegreatdefectsofthesocialsystem
&
moralideasofantiquity,thepracticeofthedicastery&the
ecclesiaraisedtheintellectualstandardofanaverageAthenian
citizenforbeyondanythingyetexperiencedinanymassofmen
ancientormodern.Amonginnumerableproofs,manifestinevery
B_021
pageofourgreathistorianofGreece, it issufficient toobservethe
highqualityof
the addresseswhich their great oratorsdeemedbest calculated to
influence
theirunderstanding&theirwill.Thesamebenefit, though isamuch
less
degree,isproducedonEnglishcitizensofthelowermiddleclassbythe
liabilitytoserveon juries&toserveparishoffices ;whichthoughit
does
notoccurtosomanynorissocontinuousastoapproachtothe
publiceducationwhicheverycitizenofAthensobtainedfromhis
democraticinstitutions,musthaveasensibleeffectindeveloping
theintelligence&extendingtherangeofideas.Morethanall,the
participationoftheprivatecitizen,ifevenrarely,inpublicfunctions,
isoneofthemostsalutarykindsofmoralinstitution.
(一三五七)
184
政経研究
第五十六巻第四号(二〇二〇年三月)
八六
Where itdoesnotexist, there isno feelingwhatever thataprivate
family
innoeminentsocialsituation,overanydutiestosociety,except
toobeythelaws,&submittothegovernment.Thereisnounselfish
sentimentof identificationwith thepublic.All the thoughts,all the
feelings
ofinterest&ofdutyareabsorbedintheindividual&inthefamily.
Thereisnotathoughtofanycollectiveinterest,ofanyobjectsto
bepursuedjointlywith,butonlyattheexpenseof,&incompetition
withothers.Aneighbourisnotanally,oranassociate,however
heisneverengagedinanycommonundertakingforthegoodofboth;
he
isthereforeonlyarival.Thusprivatemoralitysufferswhilepublic
isactuallyextinct.Werethistheonlypossiblestateofthings,the
utmostaspirationsofthelawgiverorthemoralistcouldonlyreach
torenderingthebulkofthecommunityharmless;makingthena
flockofsheep,innocentlynibblingthegrasssidebyside,¬wolves
mergingupononeanother.
Fromtheseaccumulatedconsiderationsitisevidentthattheonly
governmentwhichcanfullysatisfyalltheexigenciesofthesocial
state,isgovernmentinwhichthewholepeopleparticipate;&since
theycannotinanycommunityexceedingasinglesmalltown,participate
B_022
personallyinanybutsomeveryminorportionsofthepublicbusiness,
it
followsthattheidealtypeofgoodgovernmentmustberepresentative.
(一三五六)
185
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
八七
inhis
powertobecome,acitizenasfullyprivilegedasanyother.But
whatisstillmoreimportantthanthismatteroffeeling,isthepractical
disciplinewhich thewhole character obtains from the occasional
demand
madeuponthecitizenstoexerciseforatime&intheirturnsome
publicfunction.Notwithstandingthegreatdefectsofthesocialsystem
&
moralideasofantiquity,thepracticeofthedicastery&the
ecclesiaraisedtheintellectualstandardofanaverageAthenian
citizenforbeyondanythingyetexperiencedinanymassofmen
ancientormodern.Amonginnumerableproofs,manifestinevery
B_021
pageofourgreathistorianofGreece, it issufficient toobservethe
highqualityof
the addresseswhich their great oratorsdeemedbest calculated to
influence
theirunderstanding&theirwill.Thesamebenefit, though isamuch
less
degree,isproducedonEnglishcitizensofthelowermiddleclassbythe
liabilitytoserveon juries&toserveparishoffices ;whichthoughit
does
notoccurtosomanynorissocontinuousastoapproachtothe
publiceducationwhicheverycitizenofAthensobtainedfromhis
democraticinstitutions,musthaveasensibleeffectindeveloping
theintelligence&extendingtherangeofideas.Morethanall,the
participationoftheprivatecitizen,ifevenrarely,inpublicfunctions,
isoneofthemostsalutarykindsofmoralinstitution.
(一三五七)
184
ジョン・ステュアート・ミル『代議制統治論』自筆草稿(川又・吉野・荒井・ロックリー)
八五
注( 1 ) 筆者たちが翻刻できなかったものを画像で示す。以下同じ。
( 2 )
( 3 )
( 4 )
( 5 )
( 6 )
( 7 )
( 8 )
beproof[?]
(一三五五)
186