COPYRIGHT NOTICE

Diego Gambetta Codes of the Underworld

is published by Princeton University Press and copyrighted copy 2009 by Princeton University Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying recording or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher except for reading and browsing via the World Wide Web Users are not permitted to mount this file on any network servers

Follow links for Class Use and other Permissions For more information send email to permissionspressprincetonedu

CHAPTER1

CriminalCredentials

JustlikeordinarybusinessmostcriminalendeavorsarenotsoloaffairsThievesneedfencesrobbersrelyoninformantsdrugdealersdepend

onproducersandpusherspushersandcontractkillersrequirecustomshyers terroristswant armsdealers and corruptofficials are lostwithoutcorruptersAmongthefeweconomiststopayattentiontocriminalcomshymunicationsThomasSchellingwroteldquoThebankemployeewhowouldliketorobthebankifhecouldonlyfindanoutsidecollaboratorandthebankrobberwhowouldliketorobthebankifonlyhecouldfindaninsideaccomplicemayfinditdifficulttocollaboratebecausetheyareunabletoidentifyeachothertherebeingseverepenaltiesintheeventthateithershoulddeclarehisintentionstosomeonewhoprovednottohaveidenticalinterestsrdquo1Identifyingpartnersandcorrespondinglyadshyvertising as bona fide denizens of the underworld are indispensablemeanstocarryingoutcriminalactivitiesAndtheyaremuchmorecomshyplicatedthantheparalleloperationsareforordinarybusinessEvenbeshyforeworryingabouttheirpartnerrsquostrustworthinessorcompetenceasacriminalpeoplewhowanttocommitacrimeneedfirstofalltoidenshytifywhoispotentiallypreparedtocooperatewiththeminbreakingthelaw

When contemplating straying from the lawful path people whosemainbusinessisnotcriminalareevenmorehinderedthanprofessionalcriminalsbytheproblemsofidentificationAbuildingcontractoroncetoldmethathewouldhavebeendelightedtopassonabrownenvelopetoendhislongwaitforaplanningpermissionifonlyheknewwhomtoapproach Identification mistakes can cost dearly but while the risksdetermanytheydonotdeterallGeorgeFallowsapropertylandlordofLlangernywnearAbergelenorthWaleswasdeterminedtoavoidpayinghiswifealargedivorcesettlementandtriedtohaveherkilledbyahit

4 c h a p t e r 1

manwhowas supposed to crash a lorryheadshyon intoher car as shedrovedownacountrylaneThecontractkillerhesoughttohirehowshyever turnedout tobe anundercoverpolicemanposing as a criminalThepolicemanrecordedthenegotiationsandin2003Fallowswassenshytencedtofiveyearsinprisonluckytohavefoundalenientjudge2

In2000amemberofaSiciliangangwhowasplanningamonumenshytalrobberybysettingupawebsiteimitatingtheonlineservicesoftheBanco di Sicilia contacted the director of a branch of the Banco diRomatoenlisthisassistanceinthefraudHefailedtorealizethatthedirectorwasanundercoverpolicemanandhismistakeledtohisarrestand to that of twentyshytwo others including members of a Palermomafiafamily3

ThehotterthetradethemoredauntingaretheproblemsofidentifishycationHowdoyougoaboutforinstancefindingablackshymarketbuyerforeightbarsof enricheduraniumThisquestion taxed thebrainsofeleven Italian mobsters an unholy coalition of Sicilian mafiosi andRomanandCalabrianorganizedcriminalswhohad thebars in theirhands for some timeThese bars have a troubled historyThey are90shycentimetershylong cylinders wrapped in steel each containing 200gramsofuraniumanddesignedforpeacefulusesTheywereproducedinthelabsofGeneralAtomicsinSanDiegoandsenttotheCongoasagiftinFebruary1971wheretheyweretobeusedasnuclearfuelinthelabsoftheexperimentalreactorMarkIIinKinshasaThegiftprogramwasknown ironicallyasldquoAtoms forPeacerdquoHowever ifblownupbymeansofanordinaryexplosivetheycanserveasldquothepoormanrsquosnushyclearbombrdquospreadingdeadlynuclearradiationInthewordsofCaptainRobertoFerronioftheItaliancustomspoliceinRomeldquoIftheywereblownupinVillaBorghesethecenterofRomewouldbecomeuninshyhabitable for a centuryrdquo4From the labs inKinshasa thebarsmysterishyouslydisappearedIn1997whenMobutursquosregimewasoverturnedandheleftforFrancewherehediedofcancerthebarsapparentlytraveledwithhimTheysurfacedonceinFranceandwerethecauseofagunshyfight betweenFrenchpolice and a groupof criminalmerchantswhoweretryingtosellthem

A year later they reemerged in the hands of the Italian mobsters

5 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

whosetelephonecommunicationswereinterceptedbytheItaliancusshytomspolice in thecourseof investigating them forothercrimesThepolicewereamazedtohearthemobstersspeakofunspecifiedldquonuclearstuffrdquoandwereinitiallyunsurewhatthatmeantInthespringof1998themobstersfinallythoughttheyhadfoundabuyeranemissaryofanArabcountryThebuyerwhointroducedhimselfasldquotheAccountantrdquowasinrealityanundercoveragentforwhomthepolicehadcreatedawholenew identityTheygavehim falsepenal andprison records forfencingandfabricatedanonexistentrelationshipbetweenhimandanArabcountryandtheIslamicJihadwhichtheagentmentionedastheultimatebuyerldquoOursellersrdquosaysCaptainFerroniwholedtheoperashytionldquodidnotlosetheircomposureOnthecontrarythecredibilityoftheArabworldwhichisalwayshuntingfornuclearmaterialconvincedthemthat[ourman]wasnotatraprdquoTheagentbroughtwithhimanasshysociateanengineerwhowasallowedtotestoneofthebarsandfoundthatitdidindeedcontainuraniumThepolicethentransferredavirtualsumof20billion lireonaSwissBankaccountbargainingdown therequestedprice thatwas twiceasmuchThebrilliantoperationhowshyeverwasonlyapartialsuccessAsinthebestcrimestoriesthemafiosicheatedtwiceoverOntheagreeddayforcompletingthetransactiontheyshowedupwithonlyonebaradifferentonefromtheonethathadbeentestedandfailedtodelivertheothersevenAtthatpointhoweverthecoverwasblownandthepolicehadtoarrestthemThebarsrsquocurshyrent location remainsunknownCaptainFerroni saysldquoThemanwhocouldhavetakenustothosebarsDomenicoStilitanorefusestospeakItisnotinhisinterestOnthe11thofOctober[2001]hewassentencedto4yearsand6monthsasthenewantiterrorismlawsarenotyetapplishycableandthetrafficofstrategicmaterialisstillconsideredasitwereaminorcrimerdquo5

TheidentificationproblemisfurtherintensifiedbythefactthatconshytrarytoawidespreadbeliefcriminalgroupsareunstableIntheundershyworld people have a higher rate of mobility (and mortality) than inmostprofessionsldquomostadultcoshyoffendingdoesnotarisefromparticishypationingroupsthetypicalcoshyoffendingrelationshipappearstobetransitory and there is a continual search forcoshyoffendersrdquo6Andldquothe

4 c h a p t e r 1

manwhowas supposed to crash a lorryheadshyon intoher car as shedrovedownacountrylaneThecontractkillerhesoughttohirehowshyever turnedout tobe anundercoverpolicemanposing as a criminalThepolicemanrecordedthenegotiationsandin2003Fallowswassenshytencedtofiveyearsinprisonluckytohavefoundalenientjudge2

In2000amemberofaSiciliangangwhowasplanningamonumenshytalrobberybysettingupawebsiteimitatingtheonlineservicesoftheBanco di Sicilia contacted the director of a branch of the Banco diRomatoenlisthisassistanceinthefraudHefailedtorealizethatthedirectorwasanundercoverpolicemanandhismistakeledtohisarrestand to that of twentyshytwo others including members of a Palermomafiafamily3

ThehotterthetradethemoredauntingaretheproblemsofidentifishycationHowdoyougoaboutforinstancefindingablackshymarketbuyerforeightbarsof enricheduraniumThisquestion taxed thebrainsofeleven Italian mobsters an unholy coalition of Sicilian mafiosi andRomanandCalabrianorganizedcriminalswhohad thebars in theirhands for some timeThese bars have a troubled historyThey are90shycentimetershylong cylinders wrapped in steel each containing 200gramsofuraniumanddesignedforpeacefulusesTheywereproducedinthelabsofGeneralAtomicsinSanDiegoandsenttotheCongoasagiftinFebruary1971wheretheyweretobeusedasnuclearfuelinthelabsoftheexperimentalreactorMarkIIinKinshasaThegiftprogramwasknown ironicallyasldquoAtoms forPeacerdquoHowever ifblownupbymeansofanordinaryexplosivetheycanserveasldquothepoormanrsquosnushyclearbombrdquospreadingdeadlynuclearradiationInthewordsofCaptainRobertoFerronioftheItaliancustomspoliceinRomeldquoIftheywereblownupinVillaBorghesethecenterofRomewouldbecomeuninshyhabitable for a centuryrdquo4From the labs inKinshasa thebarsmysterishyouslydisappearedIn1997whenMobutursquosregimewasoverturnedandheleftforFrancewherehediedofcancerthebarsapparentlytraveledwithhimTheysurfacedonceinFranceandwerethecauseofagunshyfight betweenFrenchpolice and a groupof criminalmerchantswhoweretryingtosellthem

A year later they reemerged in the hands of the Italian mobsters

5 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

whosetelephonecommunicationswereinterceptedbytheItaliancusshytomspolice in thecourseof investigating them forothercrimesThepolicewereamazedtohearthemobstersspeakofunspecifiedldquonuclearstuffrdquoandwereinitiallyunsurewhatthatmeantInthespringof1998themobstersfinallythoughttheyhadfoundabuyeranemissaryofanArabcountryThebuyerwhointroducedhimselfasldquotheAccountantrdquowasinrealityanundercoveragentforwhomthepolicehadcreatedawholenew identityTheygavehim falsepenal andprison records forfencingandfabricatedanonexistentrelationshipbetweenhimandanArabcountryandtheIslamicJihadwhichtheagentmentionedastheultimatebuyerldquoOursellersrdquosaysCaptainFerroniwholedtheoperashytionldquodidnotlosetheircomposureOnthecontrarythecredibilityoftheArabworldwhichisalwayshuntingfornuclearmaterialconvincedthemthat[ourman]wasnotatraprdquoTheagentbroughtwithhimanasshysociateanengineerwhowasallowedtotestoneofthebarsandfoundthatitdidindeedcontainuraniumThepolicethentransferredavirtualsumof20billion lireonaSwissBankaccountbargainingdown therequestedprice thatwas twiceasmuchThebrilliantoperationhowshyeverwasonlyapartialsuccessAsinthebestcrimestoriesthemafiosicheatedtwiceoverOntheagreeddayforcompletingthetransactiontheyshowedupwithonlyonebaradifferentonefromtheonethathadbeentestedandfailedtodelivertheothersevenAtthatpointhoweverthecoverwasblownandthepolicehadtoarrestthemThebarsrsquocurshyrent location remainsunknownCaptainFerroni saysldquoThemanwhocouldhavetakenustothosebarsDomenicoStilitanorefusestospeakItisnotinhisinterestOnthe11thofOctober[2001]hewassentencedto4yearsand6monthsasthenewantiterrorismlawsarenotyetapplishycableandthetrafficofstrategicmaterialisstillconsideredasitwereaminorcrimerdquo5

TheidentificationproblemisfurtherintensifiedbythefactthatconshytrarytoawidespreadbeliefcriminalgroupsareunstableIntheundershyworld people have a higher rate of mobility (and mortality) than inmostprofessionsldquomostadultcoshyoffendingdoesnotarisefromparticishypationingroupsthetypicalcoshyoffendingrelationshipappearstobetransitory and there is a continual search forcoshyoffendersrdquo6Andldquothe

5 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

whosetelephonecommunicationswereinterceptedbytheItaliancusshytomspolice in thecourseof investigating them forothercrimesThepolicewereamazedtohearthemobstersspeakofunspecifiedldquonuclearstuffrdquoandwereinitiallyunsurewhatthatmeantInthespringof1998themobstersfinallythoughttheyhadfoundabuyeranemissaryofanArabcountryThebuyerwhointroducedhimselfasldquotheAccountantrdquowasinrealityanundercoveragentforwhomthepolicehadcreatedawholenew identityTheygavehim falsepenal andprison records forfencingandfabricatedanonexistentrelationshipbetweenhimandanArabcountryandtheIslamicJihadwhichtheagentmentionedastheultimatebuyerldquoOursellersrdquosaysCaptainFerroniwholedtheoperashytionldquodidnotlosetheircomposureOnthecontrarythecredibilityoftheArabworldwhichisalwayshuntingfornuclearmaterialconvincedthemthat[ourman]wasnotatraprdquoTheagentbroughtwithhimanasshysociateanengineerwhowasallowedtotestoneofthebarsandfoundthatitdidindeedcontainuraniumThepolicethentransferredavirtualsumof20billion lireonaSwissBankaccountbargainingdown therequestedprice thatwas twiceasmuchThebrilliantoperationhowshyeverwasonlyapartialsuccessAsinthebestcrimestoriesthemafiosicheatedtwiceoverOntheagreeddayforcompletingthetransactiontheyshowedupwithonlyonebaradifferentonefromtheonethathadbeentestedandfailedtodelivertheothersevenAtthatpointhoweverthecoverwasblownandthepolicehadtoarrestthemThebarsrsquocurshyrent location remainsunknownCaptainFerroni saysldquoThemanwhocouldhavetakenustothosebarsDomenicoStilitanorefusestospeakItisnotinhisinterestOnthe11thofOctober[2001]hewassentencedto4yearsand6monthsasthenewantiterrorismlawsarenotyetapplishycableandthetrafficofstrategicmaterialisstillconsideredasitwereaminorcrimerdquo5

TheidentificationproblemisfurtherintensifiedbythefactthatconshytrarytoawidespreadbeliefcriminalgroupsareunstableIntheundershyworld people have a higher rate of mobility (and mortality) than inmostprofessionsldquomostadultcoshyoffendingdoesnotarisefromparticishypationingroupsthetypicalcoshyoffendingrelationshipappearstobetransitory and there is a continual search forcoshyoffendersrdquo6Andldquothe

6 c h a p t e r 1

life of most of the mobsrdquo said a professional thiefldquois comparativelyshortrdquo7Thisispartlybecausecriminalsarechasedbylawenforcersandhavetokeepmovingandhidingandbecausetheyaremoreinclinedtouseviolenceagainsteachother thanregularbusinessmenare ItcouldalsobeforldquoendogenousreasonsThemorelucrativethebusinessthemorepotentialentry itwillattract resulting in(literally)cutthroatcompetishytionandshortexpectedlifeforanincumbentrdquo8

ThedifficultiesofidentifyingpartnerskeepmuchpotentialcrimeatbayMakingidentificationhardisarguablythemostpowerfuldeterrentagainstcrimethattheforceofthelawbringsaboutbydiscouragingthecountlessdormantcriminalswhorefrainfromactingunlawfullyforfearof being caughtwhen searching or advertisingA blessing for societyidentification constraints are a serious hindrance for criminals whodearly wish they could use theYellowPagesHowdo they solve theproblem

MISTAKEN IDENTIF ICATION

WhentryingtoidentifypartnerscriminalscanmaketwotypesofmisshytakesFirsttheycanmissopportunitiesfailingtoseethroughthedisshyguisesthatgenuinepotentialpartnersadoptinordertopassthemselvesoff as lawshyabiding citizens and avoid being caught (the falseshynegativemistake)InthiscasebothpartieshavethesameinterestsbutmisstheopportunityforafruitfulpartnershipNoticethatthefailureofonetoidentifyreflectsthefailureoftheothertoadvertiseMimickingalawshyabidingcitizenwhichsometimessimplymeanskeepingalowprofileissomethingmost criminals have to doThis however can succeed toowellandonecanfailtoadvertisewhenitwouldbeinonersquosinteresttodoso

Second searchersmay approach a lawshyabidingcitizenorworse anundercoveragentmistaking themforpotentialpartners incrime (thefalseshypositive mistake) Lawshyabiding citizens are not a cause of greatconcernforcriminalsTrueifapproachedtheymayinformtheauthorishytiesButordinarypeopledonothaveaninterestinpassingthemselves

7 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

offascriminalsIfanythingtheyarecareful toavoid lookinglikeoneOnlyuttercarelessnessinapproachingothersorsomeinanemisundershystandingscanleadtoconfusinglawshyabidingcitizensforcriminalsmdashsuchas thatof the fortyshysevenshyyearshyoldCanadianwomanwho in 1991diduse theYellowPagesandcontactedafirminPhoenixArizonacalledldquoGuns forHirerdquo seeking to put a contract on her husbandrsquos life ShefailedtonoticethatthefirmspecializedinputtingonldquoWildWesttheatshyricalshowsforconventionsprivatepartiesandthelikerdquoAfterhanding$2000toanundercoverdetectiveposingasahitmanthewomanwasarrestedandlatersentencedtofourandahalfyearsinjailBeforecallingGunsforHirethedetectivelaterexplainedshehadconsideredcallingmotorcycleclubsandanItalianshyAmericanassociation9Ifcontractkillshyersandpeopleseekingthemreallycouldadvertiseopenlyonewondershowmanymoremurderstherewouldbe

Therealworryconcernsundercoveragentsorinformerswhohaveanactiveinterest inpretendingtobeagenuinepartneranddeceivingthesearchingcriminalInthiscasewhichIconsiderherethecriminalrsquosfailure to identify correctly a lawshyandshyorder agent reflects the latterrsquosmimickingsuccessInparticularIconsiderthecaseoftwoindividualswhoareinasymmetricalpositionsAalreadyknowsthatBisacriminal(andBknowsthatAknowsthat)BhoweverdoesnotknowwhetherAisacriminalRegardlessofwhetherAistrulyacriminaloranundershycoveragentposingasoneAwantstopersuadeBthatheisarealcrimishynalBatthesametimeislookingforevidenceofthetypethatAisThequestioniswhatkindofevidencecansatisfyB

Theprobabilityofmaking identificationmistakes isldquofrequencydeshypendentrdquothehighertheproportionofcriminalsinthesearchenvironshymentthelowertheriskofapproachingthewrongpeopleWherecorshyruption isknowntobewidespread for instancecorruptingothersorsignalingonersquoswillingnesstoacceptbribesisnotmuchofaproblemIftheprobabilityofencounteringacorruptagentiscorrectlybelievedtobehighcriminalswill rationally trymoreandbolderapproachesandwill easily uncover corrupt partners In Russia which may have apshyproached this stateof affairs in recent times the values of corruptionldquofeesrdquo fordifferentpositionsofauthoritywereopenlyreported inthe

8 c h a p t e r 1

press10IdentificationmistakesarealsolesslikelytooccurortobeconshysequentialwhereverlawenforcementisfeebleWherelawsareenforcedthereisalwaysagreaterprobabilitythatacriminalwillmakeacquainshytancesofthewrongkindwhilesearchingforpartners

Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup

ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk

COST-DISCRIMINATINGSIGNALS

JusthowtoughshouldthesetestsbeThegeneralpropertyforasignalincludinganidentifyingsignaltobepersuasiveisthecostshydiscriminatshy

7 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

offascriminalsIfanythingtheyarecareful toavoid lookinglikeoneOnlyuttercarelessnessinapproachingothersorsomeinanemisundershystandingscanleadtoconfusinglawshyabidingcitizensforcriminalsmdashsuchas thatof the fortyshysevenshyyearshyoldCanadianwomanwho in 1991diduse theYellowPagesandcontactedafirminPhoenixArizonacalledldquoGuns forHirerdquo seeking to put a contract on her husbandrsquos life ShefailedtonoticethatthefirmspecializedinputtingonldquoWildWesttheatshyricalshowsforconventionsprivatepartiesandthelikerdquoAfterhanding$2000toanundercoverdetectiveposingasahitmanthewomanwasarrestedandlatersentencedtofourandahalfyearsinjailBeforecallingGunsforHirethedetectivelaterexplainedshehadconsideredcallingmotorcycleclubsandanItalianshyAmericanassociation9Ifcontractkillshyersandpeopleseekingthemreallycouldadvertiseopenlyonewondershowmanymoremurderstherewouldbe

Therealworryconcernsundercoveragentsorinformerswhohaveanactiveinterest inpretendingtobeagenuinepartneranddeceivingthesearchingcriminalInthiscasewhichIconsiderherethecriminalrsquosfailure to identify correctly a lawshyandshyorder agent reflects the latterrsquosmimickingsuccessInparticularIconsiderthecaseoftwoindividualswhoareinasymmetricalpositionsAalreadyknowsthatBisacriminal(andBknowsthatAknowsthat)BhoweverdoesnotknowwhetherAisacriminalRegardlessofwhetherAistrulyacriminaloranundershycoveragentposingasoneAwantstopersuadeBthatheisarealcrimishynalBatthesametimeislookingforevidenceofthetypethatAisThequestioniswhatkindofevidencecansatisfyB

Theprobabilityofmaking identificationmistakes isldquofrequencydeshypendentrdquothehighertheproportionofcriminalsinthesearchenvironshymentthelowertheriskofapproachingthewrongpeopleWherecorshyruption isknowntobewidespread for instancecorruptingothersorsignalingonersquoswillingnesstoacceptbribesisnotmuchofaproblemIftheprobabilityofencounteringacorruptagentiscorrectlybelievedtobehighcriminalswill rationally trymoreandbolderapproachesandwill easily uncover corrupt partners In Russia which may have apshyproached this stateof affairs in recent times the values of corruptionldquofeesrdquo fordifferentpositionsofauthoritywereopenlyreported inthe

8 c h a p t e r 1

press10IdentificationmistakesarealsolesslikelytooccurortobeconshysequentialwhereverlawenforcementisfeebleWherelawsareenforcedthereisalwaysagreaterprobabilitythatacriminalwillmakeacquainshytancesofthewrongkindwhilesearchingforpartners

Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup

ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk

COST-DISCRIMINATINGSIGNALS

JusthowtoughshouldthesetestsbeThegeneralpropertyforasignalincludinganidentifyingsignaltobepersuasiveisthecostshydiscriminatshy

8 c h a p t e r 1

press10IdentificationmistakesarealsolesslikelytooccurortobeconshysequentialwhereverlawenforcementisfeebleWherelawsareenforcedthereisalwaysagreaterprobabilitythatacriminalwillmakeacquainshytancesofthewrongkindwhilesearchingforpartners

Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup

ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk

COST-DISCRIMINATINGSIGNALS

JusthowtoughshouldthesetestsbeThegeneralpropertyforasignalincludinganidentifyingsignaltobepersuasiveisthecostshydiscriminatshy

9 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford

SelectiveEnvironments

Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods

Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy

22 c h a p t e r 1

saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64

Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67

WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68

Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions

23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69

InothercasesDonniewassubtlywatchfulinavoidinggiveaways

IdidnrsquotgooutofmywaytolearnwhatintelligencetheFBImighthavebeengettingaboutthemurder[ofCarmineGalanteinLittleItalyin1979]frominformantsIdidnotwanttoknowmorethatIcouldlogicallyknowasaconnectedguyItwouldbejustasriskytoknowtoomuchastoknowtoolittleIdidnotwanttheburdenofhavingtosortoutwhatIshouldknowfromwhatIshouldnrsquot70

WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71

ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent

24 c h a p t e r 1

would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford

Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity

SonnypaidforhismistakewithhislifeHewaskilledin1981buthisdecomposingbodywasnotdiscovereduntil1982HehadbeenshothishandsseveredandthenplacedinabodybagonStatenIslandLeftygottwentyyearsinjailwherehediedoflungcancerin1995

FROMTHEMIMICSrsquoPERSPECTIVE

Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor

25 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

instanceReuelMarcGerechtaformerCIAoperativehasraisedserishyousdoubtsoverthefeasibilityofinfiltratingIslamicmovements74

EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly

UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma

Agrandcaseof infiltrationthatwentwellbeyondthelimitsofthelawoccurredinRussiaintheearly1900sIntheirstruggleagainsttheterroristbombersoftheSocialistshyRevolutionaryPartythetsarrsquosagenciesmadeampleuseofinfiltration

According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy

26 c h a p t e r 1

sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75

AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76

EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment

27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79

Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall

ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace

Ifthepunishmentiskeptlowmdashandamountsforexample justtoarefusaltodealwiththosewhowillnotswallowaspoonfulofdrugmdashthe

28 c h a p t e r 1

undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug

CONCLUSIONS

OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort

28 c h a p t e r 1

undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug

CONCLUSIONS

OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort

29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s

Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3