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Country Capital Area (sq. km) Population Currency unit

Afghanistan Kabul 648,000 27,755,775 afghani = 100 pulsAlbania Tirana 28,700 3,544,841 lek = 100 qintarsAlgeria Algiers 2,319,000 32,277,942 dinar = 100 centimesAndorra Andorra la Vella 468 68,403 euro = 100 centsAngola Luanda 1,246,000 10,593,171 kwanza = 100 lwei

Antigua and Barbuda St John’s 442 67,448 dollar = 100 centsArgentina Buenos Aires 2,780,000 37,812,817 peso = 100 centavosArmenia Yerevan 29,800 3,330,099 dram = 100 lumaAustralia Canberra 7,692,000 19,564,792 dollar = 100 centsAustria Vienna 83,900 8,169,929 euro = 100 centsAzerbaijan Baku 86,600 7,798,497 manat = 100 gopik

Bahamas Nassau 13,900 300,529 dollar = 100 centsBahrain Manama 620 656,397 dinar = 1,000 filsBangladesh Dhaka 144,000 133,376,684 taka = 100 poishaBarbados Bridgetown 431 276,607 dollar = 100 centsBelarus Minsk 208,000 10,335,352 Belarusian roubleBelgium Brussels 30,500 10,274,595 euro = 100 cents

Belize Belmopan 23,000 262,999 dollar = 100 centsBenin Porto Novo 113,000 6,787,625 franc = 100 centimesBhutan Thimphu 46,600 2,094,176 ngultrum = 100 chetrum,

Indian rupeeBolivia La Paz 1,099,000 8,445,134 boliviano = 100 centavosBosnia-Herzegovina Sarajevo 51,100 3,964,388 dinar = 100 parasBotswana Gaborone 600,000 1,591,232 pula = 100 thebeBrazil Brasilia 8,512,000 176,029,560 real = 100 centavosBrunei Bandar Seri Begawan 5,770 350,898 dollar = 100 senBulgaria Sofia 111,000 7,621,337 lev = 100 stotinkiBurkina Faso Ouagadougou 274,000 12,603,185 franc = 100 centimesBurma (Myanmar) Rangoon 677,000 42,238,224 kyat = 100 pyasBurundi Bujumbura 27,800 6,373,002 franc = 100 centimes

Cambodia Phnom Penh 181,000 12,775,324 riel = 100 senCameroon Yaoundé 475,000 16,184,748 franc = 100 centimesCanada Ottawa 9,976,000 31,902,268 dollar = 100 centsCape Verde Islands Praia 4,030 408,760 escudo = 100 centavosCentral African Republic Bangui 625,000 3,642,739 franc = 100 centimesChad N’Djamena 1,284,000 8,997,237 franc = 100 centimesChile Santiago 757,000 15,498,930 peso = 100 centavosChina Beijing 9,561,000 1,284,303,705 yuan = 10 jiao or 100 fenColombia Bogotá 1,140,000 41,008,227 peso = 100 centavosComoros Moroni 1,790 614,382 franc = 100 centimesCongo Brazzaville 342,000 2,958,448 franc = 100 centimesCongo, Democratic Kinshasa 2,344,000 55,225,478 franc = 100 centimes

Republic of (Zaire)

Costa Rica San José 51,000 3,834,934 colón = 100 centimosCroatia Zagreb 56,500 4,390,751 kuna = 100 lipaCuba Havana 111,000 11,224,321 peso = 100 centavosCyprus Nicosia 9,250 767,314 pound = 100 centsCzech Republic Prague 78,900 10,256,760 koruna = 100 halers

Denmark Copenhagen 43,100 5,368,854 krone = 100 øreDjibouti Djibouti 23,300 820,600 franc = 100 centimesDominica Roseau 751 70,158 dollar = 100 centsDominican Republic Santo Domingo 48,400 8,721,594 peso = 100 centavos

Appendix 1

Countries of the world

Population figures are based on 2002 estimates.

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Ecuador Quito 271,000 13,447,494 sucre = 100 centavosEgypt Cairo 1,002,000 70,712,345 pound = 100 piastres or

1,000 milliemesEl Salvador San Salvador 21,400 6,353,681 colón = 100 centavosEquatorial Guinea Malabo 28,100 498,144 franc = 100 centimesEritrea Asmara 118,000 4,465,651 nakfa; Ethiopian birrEstonia Tallinn 45,100 1,415,681 kroon = 100 sents

Ethiopia Addis Ababa 1,224,000 67,673,031 birr = 100 cents

Fiji Suva 18,300 856,436 dollar = 100 centsFinland Helsinki 338,000 5,183,545 euro = 100 centsFrance Paris 547,000 59,765,983 euro = 100 cents

Gabon Libreville 268,000 1,233,353 franc = 100 centimesGambia Banjul 11,300 1,455,842 dalasi = 100 bututGeorgia Tbilisi 69,700 4,960,951 lari = 100 tetriGermany Berlin 357,000 83,251,851 euro = 100 centsGhana Accra 239,000 20,244,154 cedi = 100 pesewasGreece Athens 131,000 10,645,343 euro = 100 centsGrenada St George’s 345 89,211 dollar = 100 centsGuatemala Guatemala City 109,000 13,314,079 quetzal = 100 centavosGuinea Conakry 246,000 7,775,065 franc = 100 centimesGuinea-Bissau Bissau 36,000 1,345,479 peso = 100 centavosGuyana Georgetown 215,000 698,209 dollar = 100 cents

Haiti Port-au-Prince 27,800 7,063,722 gourde = 100 centimesHonduras Tegucigalpa 112,000 6,560,608 lempira = 100 centavosHungary Budapest 93,000 10,075,034 forint = 100 filler

Iceland Reykjavik 103,000 279,384 krona = 100 aurarIndia New Delhi 3,185,000 1,045,845,226 rupee = 100 paisaIndonesia Djakarta 1,905,000 231,328,092 rupiah = 100 senIran Tehran 1,648,000 66,622,704 rial = 100 dinarsIraq Baghdad 438,000 24,001,816 dinar = 1,000 fils

Ireland, Republic of Dublin 70,300 3,883,159 euro = 100 centsIsrael Jerusalem 20,800 6,029,529 shekel = 100 agoraItaly Rome 301,000 57,715,625 euro = 100 centsIvory Coast Yamoussoukro 322,000 16,804,784 franc = 100 centimes

Jamaica Kingston 11,000 2,680,029 dollar = 100 cents Japan Tokyo 378,000 126,974,628 yen = 100 sen Jordan Amman 97,700 5,307,470 dinar = 1,000 fils

Kazakhstan Astana 2,717,000 16,741,519 tenge = 100 teinsKenya Nairobi 583,000 31,138,735 shilling = 100 centsKiribati Bairiki 717 96,335 Australian dollarKuwait Kuwait City 17,800 2,111,561 dinar = 1,000 filsKyrgyzstan Bishkek 199,000 4,822,166 som = 100 tiyin

Laos Vientiane 237,000 5,777,180 kip = 100 atsLatvia Riga 64,600 2,366,515 lat = 100 santimsLebanon Beirut 10,500 3,677,780 pound = 100 piastresLesotho Maseru 30,300 2,207,954 loti = 100 lisenteLiberia Monrovia 111,000 3,288,198 dollar = 100 centsLibya Tripoli 1,776,000 5,368,585 dinar = 1,000 dirhamsLiechtenstein Vaduz 160 32,842 franc = 100 centimesLithuania Vilnius 65,200 3,601,138 litas = 100 centasLuxembourg Luxembourg 2,590 448,569 euro = 100 cents

Macedonia Skopje 25,700 2,054,800 denar = 100 deniMadagascar Antananarivo 587,000 16,473,477 franc = 100 centimesMalawi Lilongwe 118,000 10,701,824 kwacha = 100 tambala

Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 330,000 22,662,365 ringgit = 100 senMaldives Male 298 320,165 rufiyaa = 100 larisMali Bamako 1,240,000 11,340,480 franc = 100 centimesMalta Valletta 316 397,499 lira = 100 centsMarshall Islands Majuro 181 73,630 US dollarMauritania Nouakchott 1,031,000 2,828,858 ouguiya = 5 khoumsMauritius Port Louis 2,040 1,200,206 rupee = 100 centsMexico Mexico City 1,958,000 103,400,165 peso = 100 centavosMicronesia Kolonia 701 135,869 US dollarMoldova Chisinau 33,700 4,434,547 leu = 100 bani

countries of the world


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Monaco – 1.5 31,987 euro = 100 centsMongolia Ulan Bator 1,565,000 2,694,432 tugrik = 100 mongosMontenegro (see Union of Serbia and Montenegro)Morocco Rabat 459,000 31,167,783 dirham = 100 centimesMozambique Maputo 799,000 19,607,519 metical = 100 centavosMyanmar (see Burma)

Namibia Windhoek 824,000 1,820,916 rand = 100 centsNauru – 21 12,329 Australian dollarNepal Kathmandu 147,000 25,873,917 rupee = 100 paisaNetherlands Amsterdam 37,000 16,067,754 euro = 100 centsNew Zealand Wellington 268,000 3,908,037 dollar = 100 centsNicaragua Managua 120,000 5,023,818 cordoba = 100 centavosNiger Niamey 1,267,000 10,639,744 franc = 100 centimesNigeria Abuja 924,000 129,934,911 naira = 100 koboNorth Korea Pyongyang 121,000 22,224,195 won = 100 junNorway Oslo 324,000 4,525,116 krone = 100 øre

Oman Muscat 212,000 2,713,462 rial = 1,000 baiza

Pakistan Islamabad 804,000 147,663,429 rupee = 100 paisaPanama Panama City 77,100 2,882,329 balboa = 100 centésimosPapua New Guinea Port Moresby 463,000 5,172,033 kina = 100 toeaParaguay Asunción 407,000 5,884,491 guarani = 100 centimosPeru Lima 1,285,000 27,949,639 sol = 100 centsPhilippines Manila 300,000 84,525,639 peso = 100 centavosPoland Warsaw 304,000 38,625,478 zloty = 100 groszyPortugal Lisbon 92,000 10,084,245 euro = 100 cents

Qatar Doha 11,400 793,341 riyal = 100 dirhams

Romania Bucharest 229,000 22,317,730 leu = 100 baniRussia Moscow 17,075,000 144,978,573 rouble = 100 copecksRwanda Kigali 26,300 7,398,074 franc = 100 centimes

St Kitts and Nevis Basseterre 261 38,736 dollar = 100 centsSt Lucia Castries 616 160,145 dollar = 100 centsSt Vincent and the Kingstown 389 116,394 dollar = 100 cents

GrenadinesSamoa Apia 2,840 178,631 tala = 100 seneSan Marino San Marino 61 27,730 euro = 100 centsSão Tomé and Principe São Tomé 964 170,372 dobra = 100 centavosSaudi Arabia Riyadh 2,150,000 23,513,330 riyal = 20 qursh or 100

halalasSenegal Dakar 197,000 10,589,571 franc = 100 centimesSerbia (see Union of Serbia and Montenegro)Seychelles Victoria 453 80,098 rupee = 100 centsSierra Leone Freetown 71,700 5,614,743 leone = 100 cents

Singapore Singapore City 618 4,452,732 dollar = 100 centsSlovakia Bratislava 49,000 5,422,366 koruna = 100 haliersSlovenia Ljubljana 20,300 1,932,917 tolar = 100 stotinsSolomon Islands Honiara 276,000 494,786 dollar = 100 centsSomalia Mogadishu 638,000 7,753,310 shilling = 100 centsSouth Africa Pretoria 1,221,000 43,647,658 rand = 100 centsSouth Korea Seoul 99,300 48,324,000 won = 100 jeonSpain Madrid 505,000 40,077,100 euro = 100 centsSri Lanka Colombo 64,000 19,576,783 rupee = 100 centsSudan Khartoum 2,506,000 37,090,298 dinar = 10 poundsSuriname Paramaribo 163,000 436,494 guilder = 100 centsSwaziland Mbabane 17,000 1,123,605 lilangeni = 100 centsSweden Stockholm 450,000 8,876,744 krona = 100 öreSwitzerland Berne 41,000 7,301,994 franc = 100 centimes

Syria Damascus 184,000 17,155,814 pound = 100 piastres

Taiwan Taipei 36,000 22,548,009 New Taiwan dollar= 100 cents

Tajikistan Dushanbe 143,000 6,719,567 somoni = 100 diramsTanzania Dodoma 940,000 37,187,939 shilling = 100 centsThailand Bangkok 513,000 62,354,402 baht = 100 satangsTogo Lomé 57,000 5,285,501 franc = 100 centimesTonga Nuku’alofa 668 106,137 pa’anga = 100 senitiTrinidad and Tobago Port-of-Spain 5,130 1,163,724 dollar = 100 cents



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Tunisia Tunis 164,000 9,815,644 dinar = 1,000 milliemesTurkey Ankara 779,000 67,308,928 lira = 100 kurusTurkmenistan Ashgabat 488,000 4,688,963 manat = 100 tenesiTuvalu Funafuti 26 11,146 dollar = 100 cents

Uganda Kampala 241,000 24,699,073 shilling = 100 centsUkraine Kiev 604,000 48,396,470 hryvna = 100 kopiykas

Union of Serbia and Belgrade 102,200 10,656,929 dinar = 100 parasMontenegro

United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi 77,770 2,445,989 dirham = 100 filsUnited Kingdom London 244,000 58,789,194 pound = 100 penceUnited States Washington DC 9,373,000 280,562,489 dollar = 100 centsUruguay Montevideo 176,000 3,386,575 peso = 100 centésimosUzbekistan Tashkent 447,000 25,563,441 som = 100 tiyin

Vanuatu Vila 14,800 196,178 vatu = 100 centimesVatican City – 0.44 1,000 euro = 100 centsVenezuela Caracas 912,000 24,287,670 bolivar = 100 centimosVietnam Hanoi 330,000 81,098,416 dong = 100 xu

Yemen Sana’a 540,000 18,701,257 riyal = 100 fils

Zambia Lusaka 753,000 9,959,037 kwacha = 100 ngweeZimbabwe Harare 391,000 11,376,676 dollar = 100 cents



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Appendix 2

Prime Ministers

and Presidents

[1721]–1742 Sir Robert Walpole Whig1742–1743 Earl of Wilmington „1743–1754 Henry Pelham „1754–1756 Duke of Newcastle „1756–1757 Duke of Devonshire „

1757–1762 Duke of Newcastle „1762–1763 Earl of Bute Tory1763–1765 George Grenville Whig1765–1766 Marquess of Rockingham „1766–1768 William Pitt the Elder „1768–1770 Duke of Grafton „1770–1782 Lord North Tory1782 Marquess of Rockingham Whig1782–1783 Earl of Shelburne „1783 Duke of Portland coalition1783–1801 William Pitt the Younger Tory1801–1804 Henry Addington „1804–1806 William Pitt the Younger „1806–1807 Lord William Grenville Whig

1807–1809 Duke of Portland Tory1809–1812 Spencer Perceval „1812–1827 Earl of Liverpool „1827 George Canning „1827–1828 Viscount Goderich „1828–1830 Duke of Wellington „1830–1834 Earl Grey Whig1834 Viscount Melbourne „1834 Duke of Wellington Tory1834–1835 Sir Robert Peel Conservative1835–1841 Viscount Melbourne Whig1841–1846 Sir Robert Peel Conservative1846–1852 Lord John Russell Whig1852 Earl of Derby Conservative

1852–1855 Earl of Aberdeen coalition1855–1858 Viscount Palmerston Whig1858–1859 Earl of Derby Conservative1859–1865 Viscount Palmerston Liberal

1865–1866 Earl Russell Liberal1866–1868 Earl of Derby Conservative1868 Benjamin Disraeli „1868–1874 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal1874–1880 Benjamin Disraeli Conservative

1880–1885 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal1885–1886 Marquess of Salisbury Conservative1886 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal1886–1892 Marquess of Salisbury Conservative1892–1894 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal1894–1895 Earl of Rosebery „1895–1902 Marquess of Salisbury Conservative1902–1905 Arthur James Balfour „1905–1908 Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman

Liberal1908–1916 Herbert Henry Asquith „1916–1922 David Lloyd George coalition1922–1923 Andrew Bonar Law Conservative1923–1924 Stanley Baldwin „

1924 James Ramsay MacDonald Labour1924–1929 Stanley Baldwin Conservative1929–1935 James Ramsay MacDonald coalition1935–1937 Stanley Baldwin „1937–1940 Neville Chamberlain „1940–1945 Winston Churchill „1945–1951 Clement Attlee Labour1951–1955 Sir Winston Churchill Conservative1955–1957 Sir Anthony Eden „1957–1963 Harold Macmillan „1963–1964 Sir Alec Douglas-Home „1964–1970 Harold Wilson Labour1970–1974 Edward Heath Conservative1974–1976 Harold Wilson Labour

1976–1979 James Callaghan „1979–1990 Margaret Thatcher Conservative1990–1997 John Major „1997– Tony Blair Labour

1867–1873 John A. Macdonald Conservative1873–1878 Alexander Mackenzie

Liberal/Reform1878–1891 John A. Macdonald Conservative1891–1892 John J. C. Abbott

Liberal-Conservative

1892–1894 John S. D. Thompson Conservative1894–1896 Mackenzie Bowell „1896 Charles Tupper „1896–1911 Wilfrid Laurier Liberal1911–1920 Robert L. Borden Conservative1920–1921 Arthur Meighen Liberal1921–1926 W. L. Mackenzie King „1926 Arthur Meighen Conservative1926–1930 W. L. Mackenzie King Liberal1930–1935 Richard B. Bennett Conservative

1935–1948 W. L. Mackenzie King Liberal1948–1957 Louis Stephen St Laurent „1957–1963 John George Diefenbaker

Progressive Conservative1963–1968 Lester B. Pearson Liberal1968–1979 Pierre Trudeau „

1979–1980 Joseph ClarkProgressive Conservative

1980–1984 Pierre Trudeau Liberal1984 John Turner „1984–1993 Brian Mulroney

Progressive Conservative1993 Kim Campbell „1993–2003 Jean Chrétien Liberal2003– Paul Martin „

Prime Ministers of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom

Prime Ministers of Canada

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prime ministers and presidents

Prime Ministers of Australia

1901–1903 Edmund Barton —1903–1904 Alfred Deakin Liberal1904 John C. Watson Labor1904–1905 George Houstoun Reid Free Trade1905–1908 Alfred Deakin Liberal1908–1909 Andrew Fisher Labor1909–1910 Alfred Deakin Liberal

1910–1913 Andrew Fisher Labor1913–1914 Joseph Cook Liberal1914–1915 Andrew Fisher Labor1915–1923 William M. Hughes Nationalist1923–1929 Stanley M. Bruce „1929–1932 James H. Scullin Labor1932–1939 Joseph A. Lyons

United Australia Party

1939–1941 Robert Gordon Menzies Liberal1941 Arthur William Fadden

Country Party1941–1945 John Curtin Labor1945–1949 Joseph Benedict Chifley Labor1949–1966 Robert Gordon Menzies Liberal1966–1967 Harold Edward Holt „

1967–1968 John McEwen „1968–1971 John Grey Gorton „1971–1972 William McMahon „1972–1975 Gough Whitlam Labor1975–1983 Malcolm Fraser Liberal1983–1991 Bob Hawke Labor1991–1996 Paul Keating „1996– John Howard Liberal

1891–1893 John Ballance Liberal1893–1906 Richard John Seddon „1906 William Hall-Jones „1906–1912 Joseph George Ward „1912 Thomas Mackenzie „1912–1925 William Ferguson Massey Reform1925 Francis Henry Dillon Bell „1925–1928 Joseph Gordon Coates „1928–1930 Joseph George Ward Liberal1930–1935 George William Forbes „1935–1940 Michael J. Savage Labour1940–1949 Peter Fraser „1949–1957 Sidney G. Holland National Party

1957 Keith J. Holyoake National Party1957–1960 Walter Nash Labour1960–1972 Keith J. Holyoake National Party1972 John R. Marshall „1972–1974 Norman Kirk Labour1974–1975 Wallace Rowling „1975–1984 Robert D. Muldoon National Party1984–1989 David Lange Labour1989–1990 Geoffrey Palmer „1990 Mike Moore „1990–1997 James B. Bolger National Party1997–1999 Jenny Shipley „1999– Helen Clark Labour

Prime Ministers of New Zealand (since the emergence of party government in 1891)

Presidents of the United States of America

1789–1797 1. George Washington Federalist1797–1801 2. John Adams „1801–1809 3. Thomas Jefferson

Democratic Republican1809–1817 4. James Madison „1817–1825 5. James Monroe „1825–1829 6. John Quincy Adams

Independent1829–1837 7. Andrew Jackson Democrat1837–1841 8. Martin Van Buren „1841 9. William H. Harrison Whig1841–1845 10. John Tyler

Whig, then Democrat1845–1849 11. James K. Polk Democrat1849–1850 12. Zachary Taylor Whig1850–1853 13. Millard Fillmore „1853–1857 14. Franklin Pierce Democrat1857–1861 15. James Buchanan „1861–1865 16. Abraham Lincoln Republican1865–1869 17. Andrew Johnson Democrat1869–1877 18. Ulysses S. Grant Republican1877–1881 19. Rutherford B. Hayes „1881 20. James A. Garfield „

1881–1885 21. Chester A. Arthur „

1885–1889 22. Grover Cleveland Democrat1889–1893 23. Benjamin Harrison Republican1893–1897 24. Grover Cleveland Democrat1897–1901 25. William McKinley Republican1901–1909 26. Theodore Roosevelt „1909–1913 27. William H. Taft „1913–1921 28. Woodrow Wilson Democrat1921–1923 29. Warren G. Harding Republican1923–1929 30. Calvin Coolidge „1929–1933 31. Herbert Hoover „

1933–1945 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt Democrat1945–1953 33. Harry S. Truman „1953–1961 34. Dwight D. Eisenhower

Republican1961–1963 35. John F. Kennedy Democrat1963–1969 36. Lyndon B. Johnson „1969–1974 37. Richard Nixon Republican1974–1977 38. Gerald Ford „1977–1981 39. Jimmy Carter Democrat1981–1989 40. Ronald Reagan Republican1989–1993 41. George Bush „1993–2001 42. Bill Clinton Democrat2001– 43. George W. Bush Republican

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Ruler Dates of Lifereign

Saxon LineEdwy 955–957 died 959Edgar 959–975 944–975Edward the Martyr 975–978 c.963–978Ethelred the Unready 978–1016 c.969–1016Edmund Ironside 1016 c.980–1016

Danish LineCanute (Cnut) 1017–1035 d.1035Harold I 1037–1040 d.1040Hardecanute 1040–1042 c.1019–1042

Saxon LineEdward the Confessor 1042–1066 c.1003–1066

Harold II 1066 c.1019–1066

House of NormandyWilliam I (the 1066–1087 c.1027–1087

Conqueror)William II 1087–1100 c.1060–1100Henry I 1100–1135 1068–1135Stephen 1135–1154 c.1097–1154

House of Plantagenet Henry II 1154–1189 1133–1189Richard I 1189–1199 1157–1199

John 1199–1216 1165–1216Henry III 1216–1272 1207–1272

Edward I 1272–1307 1239–1307Edward II 1307–1327 1284–1327Edward III 1327–1377 1312–1377Richard II 1377–1399 1367–1400

House of Lancaster Henry IV 1399–1413 1367–1413Henry V 1413–1422 1387–1422Henry VI 1422–1461, 1421–1471

1470–1

House of YorkEdward IV 1461–1483 1442–1483Edward V 1483 1470–c.1483

Richard III 1483–1485 1452–1485

Ruler Dates of Lifereign

House of Tudor Henry VII 1485–1509 1457–1509Henry VIII 1509–1547 1491–1547Edward VI 1547–1553 1537–1553Mary I 1553–1558 1516–1558Elizabeth I 1558–1603 1533–1603

House of Stuart James I 1603–1625 1566–1625Charles I 1625–1649 1600–1649

Commonwealth (declared 1649)Oliver Cromwell, 1653–1658 1599–1658

Lord Protector

Richard Cromwell 1658–1659 1626–1712

House of Stuart Charles II 1660–1685 1630–1685

James II 1685–1688 1633–1701William III and 1689–1702 William

Mary II (Mary 1650–1702d.1694)

Anne 1702–1714 1665–1714

House of Hanover George I 1714–1727 1660–1727George II 1727–1760 1683–1760George III 1760–1820 1738–1820

George IV 1820–1830 1762–1830William IV 1830–1837 1765–1837Victoria 1837–1901 1819–1901

House of Saxe-Coburg-GothaEdward VII 1901–1910 1841–1910

House of Windsor George V 1910–1936 1865–1936Edward VIII 1936 1894–1972George VI 1936–1952 1895–1952Elizabeth II 1952– b.1926

Appendix 3

Kings and Queens

of England and theUnited Kingdom

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Appendix 4

Weights, Measures,

and Notation

British and American,with Metric Equivalents

Linear measure

1 inch = 25.4 millimetres exactly1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 metre exactly1 yard = 3 feet = 0.9144 metre exactly1 (statute) mile = 1,760 yards = 1.609 kilometres1 int. nautical mile = 1.852 kilometres exactly

= 1.150779 miles

Square measure

1 square inch = 6.45 sq. centimetres1 square foot = 144 sq. in. = 9.29 sq. decimetres1 square yard = 9 sq. ft = 0.836 sq. metre1 acre = 4,840 sq. yd = 0.405 hectare1 square mile = 640 acres = 259 hectares

Cubic measure

1 cubic inch = 16.4 cu. centimetres1 cubic foot = 1,728 cu. in. = 0.0283 cu. metre1 cubic yard = 27 cu. ft = 0.765 cu. metre

Capacity measure

british

1 fluid oz = 1.7339 cu. in. = 0.0284 litre1 gill = 5 fluid oz = 0.1421 litre1 pint = 20 fluid oz = 34.68 cu. in. = 0.568 litre1 quart = 2 pints = 1.136 litres1 gallon = 4 quarts = 4.546 litres

1 peck = 2 gallons = 9.092 litres1 bushel = 4 pecks = 36.4 litres

american dry

1 pint = 33.60 cu. in. = 0.550 litre1 quart = 2 pints = 1.101 litres1 peck = 8 quarts = 8.81 litres1 bushel = 4 pecks = 35.3 litres

american liquid

1 pint = 16 fluid oz = 28.88 cu. in. = 0.473 litre1 quart = 2 pints = 0.946 litre1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785 litres

Avoirdupois weight

1 grain = 0.065 gram1 dram = 1.772 grams1 ounce = 16 drams = 28.35 grams1 pound = 16 ounces = 0.4536 kilogram

= 7,000 grains (0.4535923 exactly)1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms1 hundredweight = 112 pounds = 50.80 kilograms1 short ton = 2,000 pounds = 0.907 tonne1 (long) ton = 20 hundredweight = 1.016 tonnes

Metric, with BritishEquivalents

Linear measure

1 millimetre = 0.039 inch1 centimetre = 10 mm = 0.394 inch1 decimetre = 10 cm = 3.94 inches1 metre = 100 cm = 1.094 yards1 kilometre = 1,000 m = 0.6214 mile

Square measure

1 square centimetre = 0.155 sq. inch1 square metre = 10,000 sq. cm = 1.196 sq. yards1 are = 100 square metres = 119.6 sq. yards1 hectare = 100 ares = 2.471 acres1 square kilometre = 0.386 sq. mile

= 100 hectares

Cubic measure

1 cubic centimetre = 0.061 cu. inch1 cubic metre = 1,000,000 cu. cm = 1.308 cu. yards

Capacity measure

1 millilitre = 0.002 pint (British)1 centilitre = 10 ml = 0.018 pint1 decilitre = 10 cl = 0.176 pint1 litre = 1,000 ml = 1.76 pints1 decalitre = 10 l = 2.20 gallons1 hectolitre = 100 l = 2.75 bushels1 kilolitre = 1,000 l = 3.44 quarters

Weight

1 milligram = 0.015 grain1 centigram = 10 mg = 0.154 grain1 decigram = 100 mg = 1.543 grains1 gram = 1,000 mg = 15.43 grains1 decagram = 10 g = 5.64 drams1 hectogram = 100 g = 3.527 ounces1 kilogram = 1,000 g = 2.205 pounds1 tonne (metric ton) = 1,000 kg = 0.984 (long) ton

The conversion factors are not exact unless so marked. They are givenonly to the accuracy likely to be needed in everyday calculations.

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weights, measures, and notation

Temperature

Fahrenheit water boils (under standardconditions) at 212° and freezes at 32°.

Celsius or Centigrade water boils at 100° andfreezes at 0°.

Kelvin water boils at 373.15 K and freezes at

273.15 K.

To convert Centigrade into Fahrenheit:multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32.

To convert Fahrenheit into Centigrade:subtract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9.

To convert Centigrade into Kelvin:add 273.15.

°F °C °C °F

–40 –40 –40 –40

–10 –23 –10 140 –18 0 32

10 –12 10 50

20 –7 20 68

30 –1 30 86

40 4 40 104

50 10 50 122

60 16 60 140

70 21 70 158

80 27 80 176

90 32 90 194

100 38 100 212

(approx.) (exact)

The metric prefixes

Abbreviations Factors

deca- da 10hecto- h 102

kilo- k 103

mega- M 106

giga- G 109

tera- T 1012

peta- P 1015exa- E 1018

deci- d 10–1

centi- c 10–2

milli- m 10–3

micro- µ 10–6

nano- n 10–9

pico- p 10–12

femto- f 10–15

atto- a 10–18

Pronunciations and derivations of these aregiven at their alphabetical places in the

dictionary. They may be applied to any unitsof the metric system: hectogram (abbr. hg)= 100 grams; kilowatt (abbr. kW) = 1,000 watts;megahertz (MHz) = 1 million hertz; centimetre(cm) = 1 ⁄100 metre; microvolt (µV) = onemillionth of a volt; picofarad (pF) = 10–12 farad,and are sometimes applied to other units(megabit, microinch).

Power notation

This expresses concisely any power of 10 (anynumber that is formed by multiplying or dividingten by itself), and is sometimes used in thedictionary.

102 (ten squared) = 10 × 10 = 100103 (ten cubed) = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1,000

104 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10,0001010 = 10,000,000,000 (1 followed by ten

noughts)10–2 = 1/102 = 1/100 = 0.0110–10 = 1/1010 = 1/10,000,000,0006.2 × 103 = 6,2004.7 × 10–2 = 0.047

SI units

1. Base units

Physical quantity Name Abbreviationor symbol

length metre mmass kilogram kgtime second selectric current ampere Atemperature kelvin Kamount of substance mole molluminous intensity candela cd

2. Supplementary unitsPhysical quantity Name Abbreviation

or symbol

plane angle radian radsolid angle steradian sr

3. Derived units with special names

Physical quantity Name Abbreviationor symbol

frequency hertz Hz

energy joule Jforce newton Npower watt Wpressure pascal Paelectric charge coulomb Celectromotive force volt Velectric resistance ohm Ωelectric conductance siemens Selectric capacitance farad Fmagnetic flux weber Wbinductance henry Hmagnetic flux density tesla T

luminous flux lumen lmillumination lux lx

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Element Symbol Atomicno.

actinium Ac 89aluminium Al 13americium Am 95antimony Sb 51argon Ar 18arsenic As 33astatine At 85barium Ba 56berkelium Bk 97

beryllium Be 4bismuth Bi 83bohrium Bh 107boron B 5bromine Br 35cadmium Cd 48caesium Cs 55calcium Ca 20californium Cf 98carbon C 6cerium Ce 58chlorine Cl 17chromium Cr 24cobalt Co 27

copper Cu 29curium Cm 96dubnium Db 105dysprosium Dy 66einsteinium Es 99erbium Er 68europium Eu 63fermium Fm 100fluorine F 9francium Fr 87gadolinium Gd 64gallium Ga 31germanium Ge 32gold Au 79


hafnium Hf 72hassium Hs 108helium He 2holmium Ho 67hydrogen H 1indium In 49iodine I 53iridium Ir 77iron Fe 26

krypton Kr 36lanthanum La 57lawrencium Lr 103lead Pb 82lithium Li 3lutetium Lu 71magnesium Mg 12manganese Mn 25meitnerium Mt 109mendelevium Md 101mercury Hg 80molybdenum Mo 42neodymium Nd 60neon Ne 10

neptunium Np 93nickel Ni 28niobium Nb 41nitrogen N 7nobelium No 102osmium Os 76oxygen O 8palladium Pd 46phosphorus P 15platinum Pt 78plutonium Pu 94polonium Po 84potassium K 19praseodymium Pr 59


promethium Pm 61protactinium Pa 91radium Ra 88radon Rn 86rhenium Re 75rhodium Rh 45rubidium Rb 37ruthenium Ru 44rutherfordium Rf 104

samarium Sm 62scandium Sc 21seaborgium Sg 106selenium Se 34silicon Si 14silver Ag 47sodium Na 11strontium Sr 38sulphur S 16tantalum Ta 73technetium Tc 43tellurium Te 52terbium Tb 65thallium Tl 81

thorium Th 90thulium Tm 69tin Sn 50titanium Ti 22tungsten W 74uranium U 92vanadium V 23xenon Xe 54ytterbium Yb 70yttrium Y 39zinc Zn 30zirconium Zr 40

Appendix 5

Chemical Elements

Appendix 6

Greek Alphabet

A a alpha a

beta b

gamma g

delta d

epsilon e

zeta z

eta ē

theta th

iota i

kappa k

lambda l

mu m

nu n

xi x

omicron o

pi p

rho r, rh

sigma s

tau t

upsilon u

Φ phi ph

chi kh

psi ps

omega ō

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Principal Planetary Satellites

Planet Satellite Year of Diameter Mean distance from Orbitaldiscovery (km) centre of planet (103km) period (d)

Earth Moon – 3,476* 384.4 27.32

Mars Phobos 1877 27* 9.4 0.319Deimos 1877 15* 23.5 1.262

Jupiter Amalthea 1892 262* 181 0.498Io 1610 3,630* 422 1.769Europa 1610 3,138* 671 3.551Ganymede 1610 5,262* 1,070 7.155Callisto 1610 4,800* 1,883 16.69

Saturn Mimas 1789 390* 199 0.942Enceladus 1789 500* 238 1.370Tethys 1684 1,050* 295 1.888Dione 1684 1,120* 377 2.737Rhea 1672 1,530* 527 4.518Titan 1655 5,150* 1,222 15.95Hyperion 1848 340* 1,481 21.28Iapetus 1671 1,440* 3,561 79.33Phoebe 1898 220* 12,952 550.5(R)

Uranus Miranda 1948 480* 130 1.414Ariel 1851 1,160* 191 2.520Umbriel 1851 1,190* 266 4.144Titania 1787 1,600* 436 8.706

Oberon 1787 1,550* 583 13.46

Neptune Proteus 1989 400* 118 1.12Triton 1846 2,700* 354 5.877(R)Nereid 1949 340* 551 360.2

Pluto Charon 1978 1,190* 20 6.387

*Irregular: maximum dimension. (R) retrograde.Many other small satellites are known for Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune

Appendix 7

The Solar System

The Sun and Planets

Planet Mean distance Equatorial Mass Volume Orbital Rotation from sun diameter (earth1) (earth1) period period(106km) (km) or ‘year’ or ‘day’

Sun – 1,400,000 330,000 1,300,000 – 25d*Mercury 57.9 4,878 0.06 0.06 87.97d 58.65dVenus 108.2 12,102 0.81 0.86 224.7d 243.0d(R)Earth 149.6 12,756 1.00 1.00 365.3d 23.93hMars 227.9 6,786 0.11 0.15 687.0d 24.62h

Jupiter 778.3 142,980 318 1,323 11.86y 9.93h*Saturn 1,427 120,540 95.2 752 29.46y 10.66h*Uranus 2,871 51,120 14.5 64 84.01y 17.24h*(R)Neptune 4,497 49,530 17.1 54 164.8y 16.11h*Pluto 5,914 2,280 0.002 0.01 248.5y 6.39d(R)

*At equator. (R) retrograde.

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a *shrewdness of apesa herd or *pace of assesa *cete of badgersa *sloth or *sleuth of bearsa hive of bees; a swarm, drift, or bike of beesa flock, flight, (dial.) parcel, pod, *fleet, or

*dissimulation of (small) birds; a volary of birds

in an aviarya sounder of wild boara *blush of boysa herd or gang of buffaloa *clowder or *glaring of cats; a *dowt (= ?do-out)

or *destruction of wild catsa herd, drove, (dial.) drift, or (US & Austral.) mob

of cattlea brood, (dial.) cletch or clutch, or *peep of

chickensa *chattering or *clattering of choughsa *drunkship of cobblersa *rag or *rake of coltsa *hastiness of cooks

a *covert of cootsa herd of cranesa litter of cubsa herd of curlewa *cowardice of cursa herd or mob of deera pack or kennel of dogsa trip of dotterela flight, *dole, or *piteousness of dovesa raft, bunch, or *paddling of ducks on water;

a team of wild ducks in flighta fling of dunlinsa herd of elephantsa herd or (US) gang of elk

a *business of ferretsa charm or *chirm of finchesa shoal of fish; a run of fish in motiona cloud of fliesa *stalk of forestersa *skulk of foxesa gaggle or (in the air) a skein, team, or wedge of

geesea herd of giraffesa flock, herd, or (dial.) trip of goatsa pack or covey of grousea *husk or *down of haresa cast of hawks let flyan *observance of hermits

a *siege of heronsa stud or *haras of (breeding) horses; (dial.) a team

of horsesa kennel, pack, cry, or *mute of houndsa flight or swarm of insectsa mob or troop of kangaroosa kindle of kittensa bevy of ladiesa *desert of lapwingan *exaltation or bevy of larks

a *leap of leopardsa pride of lionsa *tiding of magpiesa *sord or *sute (= suit) of mallarda *richesse of martensa *faith of merchants

a *labour of molesa troop of monkeysa *barren of mulesa *watch of nightingalesa *superfluity of nunsa covey of partridgesa *muster of peacocksa *malapertness (= impertinence) of pedlarsa rookery of penguinsa head or (dial.) nye of pheasantsa kit of pigeons flying togethera herd of pigsa stand, wing, or *congregation of plovers

a rush or flight of pochardsa herd, pod, or school of porpoisesa *pity of prisonersa covey of ptarmigana litter of pupsa bevy or drift of quaila string of racehorsesan *unkindness of ravensa bevy of roe deera parliament or *building of rooksa hill of ruffsa herd or rookery of seals; a pod of sealsa flock, herd, (dial.) drift or trip, or ( Austral.) mob

of sheepa *dopping of sheldrakea wisp or *walk of snipea *host of sparrowsa *murmuration of starlingsa flight of swallowsa game or herd of swans; a wedge of swans in the

aira herd of swine; a *sounder of tame swine, a *drift

of wild swinea *glozing (= fawning) of tavernersa *spring of teal

a bunch or knob of waterfowla school, herd, or gam of whales; a pod of whales; agrind of bottle-nosed whales

a company or trip of wigeona bunch, trip, or plump of wildfowl; a knob (less

than 30) of wildfowla pack or *rout of wolvesa gaggle of women (derog .)a *fall of woodcocka herd of wrens

Appendix 8

Collective nounsTerms marked * belong to 15th-century lists of ‘proper terms’, notably that

in the Book of St Albans attributed to Dame Juliana Barnes (1486). Manyof these are fanciful or humorous terms which probably never had any realcurrency, but have been taken up by Joseph Strutt in Sports and Pastimesof England(1801) and by other antiquarian writers.

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English, like all languages, is used at many differ-ent levels of formality depending on the contextand purpose of the speech or writing. In the mostformal register, a machine might be said to be mal-

functioning ; in a neutral or everyday register (stan-dard English) it will be described as not working ,

and in informal contexts it will be said to be bust orkaput . Each situation or context calls for its owndifferent kind of language. No one style of vocabu-lary and grammar is superior to another; it is theirappropriateness to the occasion that matters. Ingeneral people naturally vary the way that theyspeak or write in different situations, be they mak-ing a speech, chatting to a friend, or writing to anelderly relative.

The technical term for a particular level of use inlanguage is register. Register is not the same asaccent: a person with a strong regional accent may

speak standard English, and a speaker of ReceivedPronunciation (the standard accent of English asspoken in the south of England) may use the lateststreet slang.

Unless otherwise stated, the words and sensesrecorded in this dictionary are classed as standardEnglish. Standard English is generally appropriatein most situations and contexts. It is typically thelanguage of official communications, broadcast-ing, and printed matter. It is not the same as ‘cor-rect English’; a particular form of dialect or slangmay have syntactical rules that are just as strict and

consistent as those of standard English.

Informal languageInformal language is used more in conversationthan in writing, especially among people who knoweach other, or by particular social groups or occupa-tions. It is sometimes called slang; slang also refersspecifically to the informal vocabulary of particu-lar groups of people, for example teenagers ormembers of the armed forces. Informal language isalso sometimes described as colloquial language.

Informal speech is marked by short sentences, apreference for the active over the passive voice,and unconventional syntax features such as omis-sion of the subject—as in Just been shopping orWanna go for a drink?

Informal vocabulary typically includes exten-sions or reversals of meanings of established words(e.g. wicked = very good), shortenings of words(e.g. brill from brilliant and cred from credibility),

compound formations (e.g. airhead and couchpotato), and blends (e.g. ginormous from giganticand enormous), contractions such as I’ll, he’s, andgonna (for going to), as well as special processessuch as rhyming slang (e.g. butcher’s = butcher’shook = look) and back slang, in which words are

reversed (e.g. yob = boy).Inclusion of informal terms in dictionaries is not

a new idea: Samuel Johnson included some in hisDictionary of the English Language (1755),although he used the disapproving term ‘low word’.Much informal vocabulary is short-lived, and rela-tively few words and uses pass into standard Eng-lish. Exceptions include bogus, clever , flog , joke,prim, rogue, and snob, which were all classed by

Johnson as ‘low words’. Conversely, some wordsthat were once standard have passed into vulgarslang (e.g. arse, shit , and tit ): this is taboo language,

typically relating to sex or bodily functions.

Formal and technical languageIn more formal writing, as is found in reports,official letters, etc., sentences tend to be longerwith more subordinate clauses, and the passive iscommoner than it is in standard or informal Eng-lish. The indefinite personal pronoun one is morelikely to be used than the less formal you, and uponmay be used rather than on. Formal vocabularyincludes such words as ascertain, desirous, pur-

chase, and endeavour . More formal words aresometimes also used for humorous effect, forexample purloin (meaning steal). Formal words areusual in instructions and notices: alight (from a busor train), conveyance (for vehicle), enquire (ratherthan ask), notify (rather than tell), and select (rather than choose). The language of technicalwriting has its own terminology: for example,gravid, meaning pregnant, occurs only in medicineand biology.

Old uses and literary languageSome expressions that were formerly common areno longer in ordinary use but remain in the generalword stock, and are employed to give a deliberatelyold-fashioned effect, for example in historicalfiction or in humorous contexts. This dictionarydistinguishes between archaic expressions, whichhave generally not been everyday currency for acentury or more (e.g. fain or bedchamber ), and

Appendix 9

Types of language

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types of language

those that are dated: these may still be encoun-

tered occasionally, especially among older people,or they may be words that were coined relativelyrecently but then fell out of use again, such asgasper (a cigarette) or wizard (excellent).

Some words are found chiefly in literature orpoetry written in an elevated style, such as corus-cate, dolorous, enshroud, or eve. Many such expres-sions are old words that have dropped out of ordinary use.

The table above gives some standard Englishwords with their equivalents in different registers.

DialectA dialect is a non-standard form of language that isused in a particular local region. Examples of Eng-lish dialects are those of NE England (known asGeordie) and of Liverpool (known as Scouse). A dis-tinction can be made between traditional dialect,which is generally to do with rural life and farmingpractices which have mostly died out, and contem-porary dialect, where speakers may not be awarethat a particular term is in fact a regional one. Thisdictionary aims to include the more frequentlyencountered contemporary dialect terms, such asclaggy, emmet , and scran, but in general does notset out to record traditional dialect.

Scottish and IrishScottish and Irish English have a long history and anumber of distinctive features, which have in turninfluenced North American and other varieties of

English. This dictionary gives a wide coverage of

Scottish and Irish English expressions, such asagley, dreich, howff , jaggy, and scoosh (Scottish)and fáilte, gossoon, and make a hames of (Irish).

World EnglishEnglish is spoken as a first language by more than300 million people throughout the world, and usedas a second language by many millions more. Onein five of the world’s population speaks Englishwith a good level of competence, and within thenext few years the number of people speaking Eng-

lish as a second language will exceed the number of native speakers. This could have a dramatic effecton the evolution of the language: in the process of being absorbed by new cultures, English developsto take account of local language needs, giving risenot just to new vocabulary but also to new forms of grammar and pronunciation. At the same time,however, a standardized ‘global’ English is spreadby the media and the Internet.

The main regional standards of English areBritish, US and Canadian, Australian and NewZealand, South African, Indian, and West Indian.

Within each of these regional varieties a number of highly differentiated local dialects may be found.This dictionary includes thousands of region-alisms encountered in different English-speakingareas of the world, although its scope must neces-sarily be limited. In general it is the similarityrather than the difference between the regionalvarieties that is striking, particularly in terms of grammar.

Standard

attractive,good-looking

clothes, clothing

criminal, villain

criticize

die

drunk, intoxicated

house, home

praise

small

walk

Informal

bootylicious, dishy,fit, foxy, lush

clobber, duds, gear,glad rags, threads,togs

baddy, crim, crook,gangsta, hood

bad-mouth, put down,slag off, slam, slate

buy it, croak, kick thebucket, pop yourclogs, snuff it

lashed, legless,plastered, smashed,tight, wrecked

crib, gaff, pad

big up

teeny, titchy, weeny

mosey, toddle, pootle,trog

Formal

apparel, attire

malefactor

excoriate

expire

inebriated

abode, domicile,dwelling, habitation

laud

exiguous

ambulate,perambulate

Old/literary use

beauteous, comely,fair, pulchritudinous

habiliment, raiment,vestments

knave, rogue

dispraise

decease

besotted

drum

cry up, magnify,panegyrize

minikin

fare

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types of language

US EnglishUS English is of course particularly influential, onaccount of America’s dominance of cinema, televi-sion, popular music, trade, and technology, includ-ing the Internet. Many terms that enter thedictionary from the US quickly become establishedin British English: some examples from the last tenyears or so are geek, nerd, school student , and 24/7 .

Many US equivalents for British terms are familiar:sidewalk for pavement , checkers for draughts,cookie for biscuit , and vest for waistcoat . Other dif-ferences are more subtle. Some words have aslightly different form, e.g. dollhouse (US)/doll’shouse (Brit.), math (US)/maths (Brit.), tidbit (US)/titbit (Brit.), while American constructionsthat are strange to British ears include I just ate,teach school, and a quarter of ten (rather than aquarter to ten).

Canadian EnglishCanadian English is subject to the conflictinginfluences of British and American English. Invocabulary there is a lot of US influence: Canadiansuse billboard, gas, truck, and wrench rather thanhoarding , lorry, petrol, and spanner ; but on theother hand they agree with the British in sayingblinds, braces, porridge, and tap rather than shades,suspenders, oatmeal, and faucet .

Australian and New Zealand EnglishThe vocabularies of Australian and New Zealand

English are very similar. Both have been enrichedby words and concepts from the hundreds of indigenous languages that pre-dated Europeansettlers, only about fifty of which continue as firstlanguages. The line between formal and informalusage is perhaps less sharply drawn inAustralasian English than it is elsewhere: suffixessuch as -o and –ie, giving us expressions such asarvo (afternoon), reffo (refugee), and barbie(barbecue), are freely attached to words even inmore formal contexts.

South African EnglishSince 1994 South Africa has had eleven officiallanguages: English, Afrikaans (descended from

Dutch), Zulu, Xhosa, and other largely regionalAfrican languages. English is the first language of only about 10 per cent of the population, but thesecond language of many others. The English of native Afrikaners has inevitably influenced the‘standard’ English of white South Africans, exam-ples being such informal usages as the affirmativeno, as in ‘How are you?—No, I’m fine’ and the all-

purpose response is it ?, as in She had a baby last week—is it?’

Indian EnglishThe role of English within the complex multilin-gual society of India is far from straightforward:together with Hindi it is used across the country,but it can also be a speaker’s first, second, or thirdlanguage, and its features may depend heavily ontheir ethnicity and caste. The grammar of IndianEnglish has many distinguishing features, of whichperhaps the best-known are the use of the present

continuous tense, as in ‘He is having very much of property’, and the use of isn’t it as a ubiquitousquestion tag: ‘We are meeting tomorrow, isn’t it ?’The first example reflects another characteristic of the language, which is to include intrusive articlessuch as in or of in idiomatic phrases. Verbs are alsoused differently, with speakers often dropping apreposition or object altogether: ‘I insisted immedi-ate payment’ , while double possessives—‘our theseprices’ (instead of the British English ‘these pricesof ours’ )—are commonplace.

West Indian EnglishStandard British English has traditionally beenthe linguistic model for the CommonwealthCaribbean, although recently the import of UStelevision, radio, and tourism has made AmericanEnglish an equally powerful influence. The manyvarieties of Creole, influenced by West Africanlanguages, are also productive. A characteristicusage is that of the objective pronoun whereBritish English would use the subjective or pos-sessive, as in me can come an go as me please or heclear he throat . Jamaican Creole is the most wide-

ly known, and has spread beyond the region, espe-cially to the UK, where it influences the speech of black Britons.

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Electronic text communication takes a number of different forms, chiefly email, posting to onlinechat rooms and newsgroups, and SMS (Short Mes-saging Service) messages between mobile phones.Although all electronic communication shares cer-tain features, each form is developing its own

specific conventions.The vocabulary, syntax, and style of electronic

text communication is much more fluid than thatfound in formal writing, and may also be highlypersonalized. Electronic communication is typi-cally very informal in nature and characterized bymany features more often found in conversationalspeech.

SMS (text messages)Text messages are necessarily the most abbrevi-

ated form of communication; most mobile-phonenetworks restrict users to around 160 charactersper message and the handset does not facilitate thecomposing of lengthy messages. Although manyusers develop their own codes, there are basic prin-ciples that govern the formation of abbreviations:

2 certain words or syllables can be represented byletters or numbers that sound the same buttake up less space. For example, ‘U’ sounds thesame as ‘you’ and ‘C’ sounds the same as ‘see’(e.g. CU = see you), while the number ‘8’ can besubstituted wherever the sound /-ayt/ occurs in

a word (e.g. GR8 = great, L8R = later)

2 words are shortened by simply omitting certainletters, especially vowels (e.g. MSG = message)

2 abbreviations are formed from the initial let-ters of familiar fixed phrases, such as BFN ‘ byefor now’ or TTYL ‘talk to you later’.

These principles, and the abbreviations them-selves, are also found to a lesser extent in conversa-tions in chat rooms and in email. A fuller list of SMS abbreviations is given below.

Chat rooms and emailThe language used in email, chat rooms, and news-groups is not as restricted by space considerationsas text messaging , but short messages are favouredbecause they save disk space, are more likely to beread by ‘browsing’ users, and because compositiontime is limited if users are participating in real-

time conversations. Plain text is favoured, since itensures that a message will be readable on almostany hardware or software configuration, but thismeans that one cannot use italics, bold face, andother presentational effects to indicate tone, atti-tude, significance, etc. Instead, capital letters,

punctuation, and emoticons (arrangements of key-board characters to represent facial expressions)are used to ‘comment’ on one’s text.

Sentences often follow patterns typical of speech, with features including the omission of subjects (e.g. Going back to the missus every Sundayinstead of He’s going back to the missus every Sun-day) and the use of ‘fillers’ such as like and innit .Informality or light-heartedness is also signalledby the user’s choice of spelling, correct forms oftenbeing less favoured than phonetic or semi-phonetic spellings (the shop seems to have bin closed

for a cuppla daze). Other features of spelling andpunctuation include the writing of two or morewords as one (abit , alot ), the disregard of commasand full stops, and the omission of the apostrophe(e.g. dont instead of don’t ).

Some of the more established abbreviations usedin all types of electronic communication are listedbelow:

AFAIK as far as I knowAFK away from the keyboardASL age, sex, location

ATB all the bestB beBAK back at the keyboardBBL be back late(r)BCNU be seeing youBFN bye for nowB4 beforeBRB be right backBTW by the wayC seeCUL8R see you laterF2F face to face

F2T free to talkFWIW for what it’s worthFYI for your informationGAL get a lifeGR8 greatHAND have a nice dayH8 hateHSIK how should I know?HTH hope this helps

Appendix 10

English in Electronic

Communication

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english in electronic communication

IANAL I am not a lawyer, but…(as a disclaimer)

IMHO in my humble opinionIMO in my opinionIOW in other words

JIC just in case JK just kiddingKIT keep in touch

KWIM know what I mean?L8R laterLOL lots of luck/laughing out loudMOB mobileMSG messageMYOB mind your own businessNE anyNE1 anyoneNOYB none of your businessNO1 no oneOTOH on the other handPCM please call me

PLS pleasePPL peopleR are

ROTF(L) rolling on the floor (laughing)SIT stay in touchSOM1 someoneSPK speakTTYL talk to you laterTX thanksU youWAN2 want to

W/ withWKND weekendWU what’s up?X kissXLNT excellentXOXOX hugs and kissesYMMV your mileage may vary (i.e. your

experience may differ)YR your2 to, too2DAY today2MORO tomorrow

2NITE tonight3SUM threesome4 for

EmoticonsEmoticons typically represent a facial expression and are used chiefly to mark the tone of thepreceding sentence or to indicate the writer’s feelings. The following are some of the more

commonly seen:

:-) happy (a ‘smiley’)

:-( unhappy

:-c very unhappy

:-X my lips are sealed

:-Q I don’t understand

;-) winking

X= fingers crossed

:-P sticking one’s tongue out

:-D laughing

:’-( crying

:-/ sceptical

:-| bored, indifferent

:-o surprised

:-* kiss

O:-) angel

:-Y aside comment

:-V shouting

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1. PARTS OF SPEECHIn this section the traditional names are used forparts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pro-noun, conjunction, and preposition). Two otherterms are sometimes used in describing grammar.

One is modifier , which means any word thatmodifies the meaning of another word (usually anoun). It is broader in scope than ‘adjective’ andincludes, for example, table in table lamp as well asbright in a bright lamp or the lamp was bright . Theother is determiner , which means any word suchas a, the, this, those, and every which you putbefore a noun to show how you are using the noun(as in a fire, the fire, this fire, those fires, and every

fire).

NounsA noun is a word that names something: a person(woman, boy, Frances), a thing (building , tree), oran idea (birth, happiness). A common noun namesthings generally, whereas a proper noun names aparticular person, place, or thing. Collectivenouns, such as audience, family, generation, gov-ernment , team, are nouns which refer to groups of people or things. They can be treated as singularor plural: see agreement below.

Proper nounsProper nouns are normally spelled with a capital

initial letter and refer to persons or things of which there is only one example ( Asia, Ark Royal,Dickens). The term is sometimes understood morebroadly to include geographical and ethnic desig-nations such as American and Ashanti, whichbehave like common nouns, for example in allow-ing the forms an American and the Ashanti. Somegenuinely proper names can also behave like com-mon nouns in certain uses, for example a finePicasso (= a painting by Picasso), another Callas(= a singer comparable to Callas). In these uses itis usual to retain the capital initial letter.

Verbal nounsA verbal noun (also called a gerund) is a form of averb ending with -ing that acts as a noun, forexample smoking in the phrase no smoking and inthe sentence Smoking annoys people. It should bedistinguished from smoking used as an adjective(a smoking fire) and as the present participle of the verb (The man was smoking).

Because a verbal noun is a part of a verb as wellas being a noun, it keeps some of the characteris-tics of verbs in its grammatical behaviour; forexample the forms They objected to me swearing(non-possessive) and They objected to my swear-ing (possessive) are both established in ordinary

usage, although the second, in which swearing istreated as a full noun, is often preferred in moreformal writing.

VerbsA verb is a word that describes an action (go, sit,put ) or state (be, live) and is normally an essentialelement in a clause or sentence. A verb isclassified as transitive when the action affects aperson or thing called the object (We lit a fire), andas intransitive when there is no object (She

smiled).

Using the correct tenseTense is the location in time of the state or actionexpressed by a verb. English verbs properly haveonly two tenses, the present (I am) and the past (I was). The future is formed with shall or will,other forms of the past are formed with auxiliaryverbs (I have been / I was being ), and the past per-fect is formed with the past tense of have (I hadbeen).

The tense used mostly corresponds to actual

time, apart from conventional uses such as the so-called ‘historic present’, used for dramatic effectin narratives (as in George gets up and walks overto the window), and the future used in politerequests (as in Will that be all for now?).

However, choice of tense (called ‘sequence of tenses’) becomes more complex in reportedspeech. If a simple statement such as I’m afraid Ihaven’t finished is put into indirect speech bymeans of a reporting verb such as said, thought ,etc., the tense of the reported action changes inaccordance with the time perspective of the

speaker: He said he was afraid he hadn’t finished.The tense of the reported verb can stay the same

if the time relative to the speaker is the same asthat relative to the person reported: She likesbeans can be converted either to She said she likedbeans or to She said she likes beans, and I won’t behere tomorrow can be converted either to I said Iwouldn’t be here tomorrow or to I said I won’t behere tomorrow.

Appendix 11

Guide to Good

English

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guide to good english

shall and will With I and we, shall should be used to form thesimple future tense (expressing a prediction of afuture action), while will is used to express anintention to do something:

t I shall be late for work.

tWe will not tolerate this rudeness.

With you, he, she, it , and they, the situation isreversed; simple future action is expressed withwill, while shall expresses an intention or com-mand:

t He will be late for work.

t You shall join us or die!

In speech, these distinctions are often notobserved.

should and would

The situation is similar with should and would.Strictly speaking, should is used with I and we,while would is used with you, he, she, it , and they:

t I should be grateful if you would let me know.

t You didn’t say you would be late.

In practice, however, it is normal to use wouldinstead of should in reported speech and condi-tional clauses, such as I said I would be late.

Active and passiveVerbs can be either active, in which the subject is

the person or thing performing the action (as inFrance beat Brazil in the final), or passive, in whichthe subject undergoes the action (Brazil were beat-en by France). In the passive voice verbs are usual-ly formed with be, and the subject is expressed asan agent introduced by the preposition by.

The passive is also used for impersonal con-structions with it :

It is believed that no action should be taken.

It is felt that your complaint arises from a

misunderstanding.

Other verbs besides be can be used to form so-called ‘semi-passives’ (as in He got changed, Theyseem bothered). Here changed and bothered arebehaving almost more like adjectives.

SubjunctiveThe subjunctive is a special form (or mood) of averb expressing a wish or possibility instead of fact. It has a limited role in English:

It was suggested he wait till the next morning.

Fundamentalist Islam decrees that men and

women be strictly segregated.

In these sentences, the verbs wait (in the first)and be (in the second) are in the subjunctive; theordinary forms (called the indicative) would bewaits and are.

There are other typical uses of the subjunctive:

2 after if (or as if, as though, unless) in hypotheti-cal conditions:

Each was required to undertake that if it were

chosen it would place work here.

2 be or were at the beginning of a clause with thesubject following:

Were I to get drunk, it would help me in the

fight.

All books, be they fiction or non-fiction, should

provide entertainment in some form or other.

2 in certain fixed expressions and phrases, e.g. bethat as it may, come what may, perish thethought, so be it , and others.

ParticiplesThere are two kinds of participle in English: thepresent participle ending with -ing as in We aregoing, and the past participle ending with -d or -edfor many verbs and with -t or -en or some otherform for others, as in Have you decided?, New

houses are being built, and It’s not broken.Participles are often used to introduce subordi-

nate clauses that are attached to other words in asentence, e.g.

Her mother, opening the door quietly, came into

the room.

A stylistic error occurs with so-called ‘unattached’,‘misrelated’, or ‘dangling’ participles, when theparticiple does not refer to the noun to which it isattached, normally the subject of the sentence:

p Recently converted into apartments, I passed

by the house where I grew up.

Certain participles, such as considering, assuming,excepting, given, provided, seeing, speaking (of),etc., have virtually become prepositions or con-

junctions in their own right, and their use in agrammatically free role is now standard:

t Speaking of money, do you mind my asking

what you did with yours?

Adjectives and adverbs

An adjective is a word used to describe a noun,such as sweet, red, or technical. An adverb is typi-cally a word used to modify a verb, adjective, orother adverb, such as gently, lazily, or very.

PositionMost adjectives can be used in two positions:either before the noun they describe, where theyare called ‘attributive’, as in a black cat and agloomy outlook, or after a verb such as be, become,grow, look, or seem, where they are called ‘predica-tive’, as in the cat was black and the prospect looks

gloomy.Some adjectives are nearly always used in the

predicative position and cannot stand before anoun (e.g. afraid), while others are only found inthe attributive position (e.g. main).

Adjectives following a nounIn many fixed standard expressions, adjectivesdenoting status are placed immediately after the

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nouns they describe, e.g. in court martial, heir apparent, poet laureate, president elect, situationsvacant , and the village proper . In other cases, anadjective follows a noun as a matter of sentencestructure rather than peculiarity of expression:

The waiter picked up our dirty glasses in his

fingertips, his eyes impassive.

Position of adverbs

Adverbs normally come between the subject andits verb, or between an auxiliary verb and a mainverb:

She dutifully observes all its quaint rules.

Roosevelt’s financial policy was roundly

criticized in 1933.

But for emphasis, or when the adverb belongsclosely to what follows the main verb, it comesafter the verb and before a following adverbialphrase:

There is little chance that the student will

function effectively after he returns home.

Sentence adverbs

Some adverbs (such as clearly, happily, hopefully,thankfully, unhappily) refer to a whole statement,and form a comment associated more closely withthe speaker or writer than with what is said. In

this role they are called ‘sentence adverbs’.Sentence adverbs often stand at the beginning of the sentence:

Clearly, we will have to think again.

Sentence adverbs are well established in English,although the use of thankfully and (in particular)hopefully can arouse controversy:

s Hopefully the road should be finished.

Although objection to such use is artificial, beaware that some people may take exception to

these words, especially in written or formal con-texts.

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word such as I, we, they, me, you,them, etc., and other forms such as the possessivehers and theirs and the reflexive myself and them-selves. They are used to refer to (and take theplace of) a noun or noun phrase that has alreadybeen mentioned or is known, especially in order toavoid repetition, as in the sentence When she saw

her husband again, she wanted to hit him.

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are the type formed with -self ,e.g. myself, herself , and ourselves, used in sen-tences in which the subject of the verb and theobject are the same person or thing, as in Weenjoyed ourselves and Make yourself at home.

ConjunctionsA conjunction is a word such as and, because, but,

for, if, or , and when, used to connect words, phras-es, clauses, and sentences. On the use of and andbut at the beginning of a sentence, see SENTENCESbelow.

PrepositionsA preposition is a word such as after, in, to, andwith, which usually stands before a noun or pro-noun and establishes the way it relates to whathas gone before (The man on the platform, Theycame after dinner, and What did you do it for?).

It is sometimes stated that a preposition shouldalways precede the word it governs and should notend a sentence. However, there are cases when itis either impossible or not natural to organize thesentence in a way that avoids a final preposition:

2 in relative clauses and questions featuringverbs with linked adverbs or prepositions:

What did Marion think she was up to?

They must be convinced of the commitment

they are taking on.

2 in passive constructions:

The dress had not even been paid for.

2 in short sentences including an infinitive withto or a verbal noun:

It was my dancing he objected to.

2. INFLECTIONInflection is the process by which words (princi-pally nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs)change their form, especially their ending, inaccordance with their grammatical role in a sen-tence.

VerbsVerbs normally add -s or -es to form third-personpresent-tense forms (changes, wants), -ed to formpast tenses and past participles (changed, wanted),and -ing to form present participles (changing ,wanting ). However, some verbs form tenses bychanging their stem (throw, threw, thrown), andothers are completely irregular (have, had, had;go, went , gone).

Verbs drop a final silent -e when the suffixbegins with a vowel (as in shave, shaving ). But afinal -e is usually retained to preserve the softsound of the g in twingeing and whingeing . It is

also retained where it is needed to avoid confu-sion with similar words, for example in dyeing (from dye) as distinct from dying (from die).

NounsEnglish nouns normally form their plurals byadding -s, or -es if the singular form ends in -s, -x, -z, -sh, or soft -ch (as in church but not loch).

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Nouns ending in -y form plurals with -ies (policy,policies), unless the ending is -ey, in which case theplural form is normally -eys (valley, valleys).

Nouns ending in -f and -feNouns ending in - f and - fe form plurals sometimeswith - fs (handkerchief, handkerchiefs; oaf, oafs;proof, proofs; roof, roofs), sometimes -ves (calf,calves; half, halves; knife, knives; shelf, shelves) andoccasionally both - fes and -ves (dwarf, dwarfs ordwarves; hoof, hoofs or hooves).

Nouns ending in -oPlurals of nouns ending in -o cause difficulty inEnglish because there are few convenient rulesfor choosing between -os (as in ratios) and -oes (asin heroes).

As a guideline, the following typically form plu-rals with -os:

2 words in which a vowel (usually i or e ) pre-cedes the final -o (trios, videos).

2 words that are shortenings of other words(demos, hippos).

2 words introduced from foreign languages(boleros, placebos).

Names of animals and plants normally form plu-rals with -oes (buffaloes, tomatoes).

Adjectives and adverbs:

comparatives and superlatives

AdjectivesAn adjective has three forms: a positive (hot,splendid), a comparative (hotter, more splendid),and a superlative (hottest, most splendid).Adjectives that form comparatives and superla-tives using -er and -est in preference to (or as wellas) more and most are:

2 words of one syllable (e.g. fast, hard, rich, wise).

2 words of two syllables ending in -y and -ly (e.g.angry, early, happy, holy, likely, lively) and corre-sponding un- forms when these exist (e.g.unhappy, unlikely). Words ending in -y changethe y to i (e.g. angrier, earliest ).

2 words of two syllables ending in -le (e.g. able,humble, noble, simple), -ow (e.g. mellow, narrow,shallow), and some ending in -er (e.g. clever,tender ).

2 some words of two syllables pronounced withthe stress on the second syllable (e.g. polite,profound, but not antique, bizarre, and others).

2 other words of two syllables that do not belongto any classifiable group (e.g. common, cruel,pleasant, quiet ).

Words of one syllable ending in a single conso-nant double the consonant when it is preceded bya single vowel (glad, gladder, gladdest; hot, hotter,hottest ) but not when it is preceded by more thanone vowel (clean, cleaner, cleanest; loud, louder,

loudest ). Words of two syllables ending in -l dou-ble the l (e.g. cruel, crueller, cruellest ).

Adjectives of three or more syllables use formswith more and most (more beautiful, most interest-ing , etc.).

AdverbsAdverbs that take -er and -est in preference to (oras well as) more and most are:

2 adverbs that are not formed with -ly but areidentical in form to corresponding adjectives(e.g. runs faster, hits hardest, hold it tighter ).

2 some independent adverbs (e.g. often andsoon).

Adverbs ending in -ly formed from adjectives (e.g.richly, softly, wisely) generally do not have -er and-est forms but appear as more softly, most wisely,etc.

3. SENTENCESA sentence is a group of words that makes com-plete sense, contains a main verb, and begins witha capital letter and ends with a full stop (or theequivalent such as a question mark or an exclama-tion mark).There are three basic kinds of sentence:

2 a simple sentence normally contains one state-ment: the train should be here soon.

2 a compound sentence contains more than onestatement, normally joined by a conjunctionsuch as and or but : I have looked at the evidenceand I have to say it is not sufficient.

2 a complex sentence contains a main clause andone or more subordinate clauses, such as a con-ditional clause beginning with if or a relativeclause introduced by which or who: The storywould make headlines if it ever became public.

Relative clauses: using wordslike who and whenA relative clause is one connected to a main clauseby a relative pronoun or adjective such as who orwhom, which, whose, or that , or by a relativeadverb such as when and where. (These words,apart from that , are collectively called wh- words,and a wh- word means any of these.) Most prob-lems with this kind of clause are to do with thechoice between that and a wh- word, principallywhich, who, or whom. For much of the time that is

interchangeable with any of these words, and it isthe more usual choice in everyday writing andconversation.

There are two types of relative clause, called‘restrictive’ and ‘non-restrictive’. A restrictiveclause gives essential information about a noun ornoun phrase that comes before (She held out thehand that was hurt). A non-restrictive clause givesextra information that could be left out without

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affecting the structure or meaning of the sentence(She held out her hand, which I clasped in both ofmine). A restrictive clause can be introduced bythat , which, who, or whose and is not normally pre-ceded by a comma, whereas a non-restrictiveclause is normally introduced by which, who, orwhose (and not usually that ), and is preceded by acomma.

Sometimes that is more idiomatic than which,for example when the construction is based on animpersonal it or an indefinite pronoun such asanything :

There is something that I forgot to mention.

Is there anything that you want?

That is also more usual when which already occursearlier in the sentence in another role, for exam-ple as an interrogative word:

Which is the one that you want?

Beginning sentences with and

and but It is not wrong to begin a sentence with a con-

junction such as and or but . The practice is com-mon in literature and can be effective. It is alsoused for other rhetorical purposes, especially todenote surprise (And are you really going?) andsometimes just to introduce an improvised after-thought (I’m going to swim. And don’t you dare

watch).

Negatives and double negativesA repeated negative of the type He never did noharm to no one is incorrect. However, a doublenegative is acceptable when it is used with inten-tional cancelling effect as a figure of speech, as inIt has not gone unnoticed.

Double negatives also occur, especially inspeech, in uses of the type You can’t not go (= youcannot consider not going, i.e. you have to go), in

which not go is effectively a single idea expressedin a verb phrase.

4. AGREEMENTAgreement is the process of making words fit thecontext of sentences, for example ensuring thatthe singular form of a verb accompanies a singularsubject. For most of the time we apply the rules of agreement instinctively, but problems can arise insentences involving certain phrases and combina-

tions.

Agreement within phrases

Awkward phrasesSome expressions can cause uncertainty becausethey are grammatically ambiguous or combine

seemingly contradictory roles, for example phras-es such as more than one and either or both:

More than one dealer has shown an interest in

the painting.

The meaning is clearly plural, but the grammarremains singular because one is closer to the verbas well as being the dominant word in its phrase

(we could not say More than one dealer haveshown an interest in the painting).

s The purchaser gets a licence to use either or

both products.

Here there is a problem of agreement with the fol-lowing noun, because either calls for the singularform product whereas both calls for the pluralform products; both wins out because it is closer tothe noun. Usually a better solution is to rephrasethe sentence to avoid the problem altogether:

t The purchaser gets a licence to use either or

both of the products.

Compound subjectsTwo nouns joined by and are normally treated asplural:

Speed and accuracy are top of the list.

But when the two nouns form a phrase that can beregarded as a single unit, they are sometimestreated as singular, even when one of them is plur-al:

Fish and chips is my favourite meal

When a singular noun forming the subject of asentence is followed by an additional elementtagged on by means of a phrase such as as well as,accompanied by, or together with, the followingverb should be singular and not plural, since thesingular noun is by itself the true subject:

The little girl, together with her friend Kerry, was

busy filling her bucket with sand.

Singular and plural nouns

Singular nouns treated as pluralSome nouns are singular in form but are used witha verb that can be either singular or plural, or insome cases only plural. The commonest of theseare the collective nouns which stand for a group orcollection of people or things, such as audience,committee, crew, family, generation, government ,group, jury, team, and many others.

The general rule with words like these is to treatthem as singular when the emphasis is on thegroup as a whole and as plural when the emphasis

is on the individuals that form the group:

A group of four young men in overalls was

standing close to him. (singular)

The jury retired at the end of the day to consider

their verdict. (plural)

Some collective nouns are fully plural:

By and large the police do a good job.

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Plural nouns treated as singularOther nouns are plural in form but are treated assingular, either always or in some meanings. Chief among these are the names of branches of knowl-edge or science, such as acoustics and mathemat-ics, activities such as billiards and gymnastics, anddiseases such as measles:

Acoustics is taught as part of the extendedcourse.

The figures show that measles is on the increase.

Other plural nouns, such as data, media, and agen-da, are now commonly treated as singular.Depending on their meaning, they are eithercountable nouns, which can be used with a or anand have plural forms, e.g. agendas, or massnouns, which do not have a plural form but areused in the singular with words such as this andmuch:

The media has lost interest in the subject.

This data is in a form that can be used by other

institutions.

Some plural words adopted unchanged from otherlanguages, such as spaghetti and graffiti, developsingular meanings:

The furniture had been damaged and graffiti

was daubed on the walls.

Subjects and objectsWhen the subject of the verb be is singular but the

part that follows is plural, the verb should gener-ally agree with its subject, regardless of what fol-lows:

The only traffic is ox carts and bicycles.

When the subject is a singular collective noun, theverb may be in the plural, following the usual pat-tern with such nouns:

Its prey are other small animals.

Indefinite pronounsPronouns such as each, either , neither , and noneare called indefinite pronouns. When used ontheir own like a noun, they can vary between sin-gular and plural. They are treated as singularwhen the emphasis is on the individuals:

Neither the chairman nor the chief executive is

planning any dramatic gestures.

None of them has had enough practical experi-

ence to run the company.

and as plural when the emphasis is on the collec-

tion or group as a whole:Neither his mother nor his father earn much

money now.

None of the staff were aware of the ransom

demand.

Plural pronouns used in the singularThere is often uncertainty about what possessive

word (his, her , etc.) to use when referring to asubject whose gender is not specified. The safestoption is to put his or her :

Every student should hand in his or her assign-

ment by Tuesday.

But this can be awkward, especially when the sen-tence continues for some time with repeated ref-

erences back to the original subject. In cases likethis it is now acceptable to use a plural form of pronoun:

Every student should hand in their assignment

by Tuesday.

Either … or … and neither … nor …A problem arises when one of the alternatives inan either ... or ... or neither ... nor ... construction issingular and the other plural. Here, the normalchoice is to make the verb agree with the one clos-

er to it:

t Either the twins or their mother is responsible

for this.

But often a better solution is to recast the sen-tence to avoid the problem:

t Either the twins are responsible for this or

their mother is.

Personal pronouns

I , we, he, she, and they are subjective pronouns,which act as the subjects of verbs, while me, us,him, her , and them are objective, acting as theobjects of verbs and prepositions:

It’s a tiny bit boring, between you and me.

The boys are coming with Gavin and me.

After the verb be it is more natural and usual touse me, us, him, her , or they (the objective pro-nouns), although what follows be is not an objectbut a complement:

I said it was only me.That’s us sitting on the bench.

The subjective forms (I , we, he, she, or they) arenot wrong but often sound stilted, especially thefirst-person forms I and we:

s I said it was only I.

It is, however, usual to use the subjective formswhen a relative clause (introduced by who or that )follows:

t It was I who did it.

5. PUNCTUATIONThe purpose of punctuation is to make writingclear, by clarifying the structure of continuouswriting and indicating how words relate to eachother.

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Full stopThe principal use of the full stop is to mark theend of a sentence that is a statement:

Bernard went over to the bookcase and took

down an atlas.

This applies to sentences when they are not com-

plete statements or contain ellipsis:London. Implacable November weather.

If an abbreviation with a full stop comes at theend of a sentence, another full stop is not added:

Bring your own pens, pencils, rulers, etc.

CommaThe role of the comma is to give detail to thestructure of sentences and to make their meaningclear by marking off words that either do or do not

belong together. It usually represents the naturalbreaks and pauses that you make in speech, andoperates at phrase level and word level:

At phrase levelYou should use a comma to mark off parts of a sen-tence that are separated by conjunctions (and, but ,yet , etc.). This is especially important when thereis a change or repetition of the subject, or whenthe sentence is a long one:

Mokosh could foretell the future, and she could

change herself into any form she pleased.

Readings are taken at points on a grid marked

out on the ground, and the results are usually

plotted in the form of computer-drawn diagrams.

It is not normally correct to join the clauses of acompound sentence without a conjunction:

p His was the last house, the road ended with

him.

Nor is it correct to separate a subject from its verbwith a single comma:

p Those with the lowest incomes and no other

means, should get the most support.A comma also separates parts of a sentence thatbalance or complement each other, and can intro-duce direct speech, especially in continuation of dialogue:

He was getting better, but not as fast as his

doctor wished.

Then Laura said, ‘Do you mean that?’

An important function of the comma is to preventambiguity or momentary misunderstanding:

Mr Hogg said that he had shot, himself, as a small

boy.

Commas are used in pairs to separate elements ina sentence that are asides or not part of the mainstatement:

All history, of course, is the history of wars.

Commas are also used to separate a relative clausethat is non-restrictive (see relative clausesabove):

The money, which totals more than half a million,

comes from three anonymous donors.

A single comma sometimes follows adverbs,phrases, and subordinate clauses that come at thebeginning of a sentence:

Moreover, they had lied about where they had

been.

When the sun began to sink, she could take theriverside walk to the hotel.

A comma is always needed with however when itmeans ‘by contrast’ or ‘on the other hand’:

However, a good deal of discretion is left in the

hands of area managers.

At word levelA comma is used to separate adjectives having thesame range of reference coming before a noun:

a cold, damp, badly heated roomThe comma is omitted when the adjectives have adifferent range of reference (for example, size andcolour) or when the last adjective has a closer rela-tion to the noun:

his baggy green jacket

a distinguished foreign politician

Commas are used to separate items in a list orsequence:

The visitors were given tea, scones, and cake.

(The final comma before and is regarded by manypeople as unnecessary and left out; this dictionaryalways includes one.)

Leave out the comma between nouns that occurtogether in the same grammatical role in a sen-tence (called apposition):

My friend Judge Peters was not at home.

But use one when the noun is a piece of extrainformation that could be removed from thesentence without any noticeable effect on themeaning:

His father, Humphrey V. Roe, was not so

fortunate.

SemicolonThe main role of the semicolon is to mark a gram-matical separation that is stronger in effect than acomma but less strong than a full stop. Normallythe two parts of a sentence divided by a semicolonbalance each other, rather than leading from oneto the other:

The sky grew bright with sunset; the earth

glowed.

Honey looked up and glared; the man scurried

away.

You can also use a semicolon as a stronger divisionin a sentence that already contains commas:

What has crippled me? Was it my grandmother,

frowning on my childish affection and turning it

to formality and cold courtesy; or my timid,

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fearful mother, in awe of everyone including,

finally, me; or was it my wife’s infidelities, or my

own?

ColonWhereas a semicolon links two balanced state-

ments, a colon leads from the first statement tothe second. Typically it links a general or intro-ductory statement to an example, a cause to aneffect, or a premise to a conclusion.

He was being made to feel more part of the

family: the children kissed him goodnight, like a

third parent.

You also use a colon to introduce a list:

The price includes the following: travel to

London, flight to Venice, hotel accommodation,

and excursions.

ApostropheThe principal role of the apostrophe is to indicatea possessive, as in Tessa’s house and the town’smayor.

Singular nouns form the possessive by adding ’s(the dog’s bark = one dog), and plural nouns end-ing in -s add an apostrophe after the -s (the dogs’barks = more than one dog). When a plural nounends in a letter other than s, the possessive isformed by adding ’s : the children’s games, the

oxen’s hoofs, etc.Beware of an apostrophe wrongly applied to an

ordinary plural, particularly in words ending in -obut also in quite harmless words such as applesand pears (e.g. p pear’s 30p a pound).

Beware also of confusing the possessive whosewith who’s, which is a contraction of who is (e.g.pWho’s turn is it?).

For names ending in -s, the best course is to add’s when you would pronounce the resulting formwith an extra s in speech (e.g. Charles’s, Dickens’s,Thomas’s, The Times’s); and omit ’s otherwise (e.g.

Bridges’ , Connors’ , Herodotus’ ). With Frenchnames ending in (silent) -s or -x, add ’s (e.g.Dumas’s, le Roux’s) and pronounce the modifiedword with a final -z.

An apostrophe should not be used in the pro-nouns hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs.

Be careful to distinguish its from it’s. Its (noapostrophe) is a possessive meaning ‘belonging toit’, whereas it’s (with an apostrophe) is a contrac-tion meaning ‘it is’ or ‘it has’:

Give the cat its dinner.

It’s hard to know where to start.

An apostrophe is not normally used in the pluralof abbreviated forms (e.g. several MPs were stand-ing around), although it is used in the possessive(e.g. the BBC’s decision to go ahead with the broad-cast).

Another important use of the apostrophe is tomark contractions such as I’ll they’ve couldn’t

HyphensIn print a hyphen is half the length of a dash, butin writi

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