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EbookEdition©March2017ISBN:9780008213145Version:2017-03-01

Acknowledgements

Wewouldliketothankthoseauthorsandpublisherswhokindlygavepermissionforcopyrightmaterial tobeused in theCollinsCorpus.Wewouldalso like tothankTimesNewspapersLtdforprovidingvaluabledata.

FOUNDINGEDITOR-IN-CHIEF:JohnSinclairFOR THE PUBLISHER: Maree Airlie, Robin Scrimgeour, Lisa Todd, CeliaWigleyCONTRIBUTORS: Penny Hands, Kate Mohideen, Julie Moore, DamianWilliams

AcknowledgementsThepublisherswouldliketoacknowledgethefollowingfortheirinvaluable

contributiontothethirdedition:

ManagingEditorPennyHands

EditorialConsultantRogerBerry

LingnanUniversity,HongKong

ProjectManager SeniorCorpusResearcherLisaSutherland KateWild

TheGrammarofAcademicEnglish CorpusResearchersUniversityofGlasgowLanguageCentre GeorgeDavidson

DrEstherDaborn KateMohideen

AnneliWilliams ElizabethPotterLouisHarrison ElspethSummers

LauraWedgeworth

TheGrammarofBusinessEnglish AmericanEnglishConsultantSimonClarke OrinHargraves

FoundingEditor-in-ChiefJohnSinclair

Wewouldalsoliketothankthefollowingpeoplefortheircontributionstopreviouseditionsofthetext:

MareeAirlie,MonaBaker,HenriBéjoint,AdrianaBolívar,JaneBradbury,DavidBrazil,DominicBree,NicholasBrownlees,TonyBuckby,Stephen

Bullon,AnnetteCapel,MichelaClari,JaneCullen,JohnCurtin,RichardFay,GwynethFox,RichardFrancis,IriaGarcia,GottfriedGraustein,JohnHall,

M.A.K.Halliday,PatrickHanks,RonHardie,AnthonyHarvey,LornaHeaslip,MichaelHoey,RogerHunt,SueInkster,AndyKennedy,LornaKnight,RameshKrishnamurthy,TimLane,MarcelLemmens,HelenLiebeck,AlisonMacaulay,ElizabethManning,AgnesMolnar,RosamundMoon,SueOgden,CharlesOwen,GeorginaPearce,GeorginaPert,AnnePradeilles,ChristopherPratt,ChristinaRammell,ClareRamsey,RamiroRestrepo,ChristopherRoyal-Dawson,ToňiSanchez,KatyShaw,SueSmith,MarySnell-Hornby,TomStableford,JohnTodd,BobWalker,LauraWedgeworth,HermanWekker,

DouglasWilliamson,JaneWinn,DeborahYuill

AboutCOBUILD

When the first COBUILD dictionary was published in 1987, itrevolutionizeddictionariesfor learners. Itwas thefirstofanewgenerationof language referencematerials thatwerebasedonactualevidenceofhowEnglishwasused,ratherthanlexicographerintuition.

CollinsandtheUniversityofBirmingham,ledbythelinguistJohnSinclair,developedanelectroniccorpusinthe1980s,calledtheCollinsBirminghamUniversity International Language Database (COBUILD). This corpus,which for several yearswas known as theBank of English®, became thelargestcollectionofEnglishdataintheworld.COBUILDdictionaryeditorsusethecorpustoanalysethewaythatpeoplereallyusethelanguage.

The Collins Corpus now contains 4.5 billion words taken from websites,newspapers, magazines and books published around the world, and fromspoken material from radio, TV and everyday conversations. New data isadded to the corpus everymonth, to help COBUILD editors identify newwords,grammaticalstructures,andmeaningsfromthemomenttheyarefirstused.

AllCOBUILD language referencebooks are basedon the informationoureditorsfindintheCollinsCorpus.Becausethecorpusissolarge,oureditorscanlookatlotsofexamplesofhowpeoplereallyusethelanguage.Thedatatellsushowthelanguageisused;thefunctionofdifferentstructures;whichwordsareusedtogether;andhowoftenthesewordsandstructuresareused.

Allof the examples inCOBUILD languagematerials are examplesof realEnglish,takenfromthecorpus.Theexampleshavebeencarefullychosentodemonstrate typical grammatical patterns, typical vocabulary and typicalcontexts.

COBUILDEnglishGrammarisnoexception:Collinseditorsandresearchershavebeenabletousethiswealthofinformationtoestablishauniqueandfulldescription of English grammar, and to track the development of certain

grammaticalstructuresovertime.

The corpus lies at the heart of COBUILD, and you can be confident thatCOBUILDwillshowyouwhatyouneedtoknowtobeabletocommunicateeasilyandaccuratelyinEnglish.

IfyouwouldliketolearnmoreaboutCOBUILDandtheCollinsCorpus,gotowww.collinselt.comandclickon'COBUILDReference'.

Contents

CoverTitlePageCopyrightAcknowledgementsAboutCobuildIntroductionHowtousethisGrammarGlossaryofgrammaticalterms

Chapter1 ReferringtopeopleandthingsNouns

•Countablenouns•Uncountablenouns•Singularnouns•Pluralnouns•Collectivenouns•Propernouns•Nounsthatarerarelyusedalone•Adjectivesusedasnouns•Nounsreferringtomalesorfemales•-ingnouns•Compoundnouns

Pronouns•Personalpronouns•Possessivepronouns•Reflexivepronouns•Genericpronouns•Demonstrativepronouns•Indefinitepronouns•Reciprocalpronouns•Relativepronouns•Interrogativepronouns

Determiners•Definitedeterminers:the•Definitedeterminers:this,that,theseandthose

•Possessivedeterminers:my,your,their,etc.•Thepossessiveform:apostrophes(’s)•Indefinitedeterminers:all,some,manyetc.•Indefinitedeterminers:aandan•Otherindefinitedeterminers

Chapter2 GivinginformationaboutpeopleandthingsAdjectives

•Qualitativeadjectives•Classifyingadjectives•Colouradjectives•Showingstrongfeelings•Postdeterminers•Adjectivesthatareonlyusedinfrontofanoun•Adjectivesthatalwaysfollowalinkingverb•Positionofadjectivesinnounphrases•-ingadjectives•-edadjectives•Compoundadjectives

ComparativesSuperlativesSayingthingsaresimilarTalkingaboutdifferentamountsofaqualitySayingthingsaredifferentNounmodifiersTalkingaboutamountsofthingsNumbers

•Cardinalnumbers•Ordinalnumbers•Fractions•Measurements•Age

ApproximateamountsandmeasurementsExpandingthenounphrase

•withprepositionalphrases•withadjectives•Nounsfollowedbyto-infinitive,-edparticiple,or-ingparticiple

Chapter3 TypesofverbIntransitiveverbsTransitiveverbsReflexiveverbsDelexicalverbs:verbswithlittlemeaningVerbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject

VerbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphraseChangingyourfocusbychangingthesubjectReciprocalverbsVerbsthatcanhavetwoobjectsPhrasalverbsCompoundverbsLinkingverbs

•Adjectivesafterlinkingverbs•Nounsafterlinkingverbs•Otherverbswithfollowingadjectives

DescribingtheobjectofaverbUsingaprepositionalphraseafteralinkingverbUsingtwomainverbstogether

Chapter4 Expressingtime:tensesandtimeadverbialsThepresent

•Thepresentsimple•Thepresentprogressive•Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepresent

Thepast•Thepastsimple•Thepastprogressive•Thepresentperfect•Thepastperfect•Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepast

Expressingfuturetime•Indicatingthefutureusingwill•Otherwaysoftalkingaboutthefuture•Timeadverbialswithreferencetothefuture

OtherusesofverbformsUsingtimeadverbialstoindicatepast,present,orfutureYet,still,already,etc.TimeadverbialsandprepositionalphrasesNon-specifictimesExpressingfrequencyandduration

Chapter5 Modals,negatives,andwaysofformingsentencesMakingstatements:thedeclarativeformAskingquestions:theinterrogativeform

•Yes/no-questions•Indirectquestions•Questiontags

•Wh-questionsTheimperativeOtherusesofthedeclarative,theinterrogative,andtheimperativeFormingnegativestatements

BroadnegativesUsingmodals

•Specialfeaturesofmodals•Usesofmodals•Expressionsusedinsteadofmodals•Semi-modals

Chapter6 ExpressingmannerandplaceAdverbs

•Typesofadverb•Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbs•Adverbsofmanner•Adverbsofdegree•Adverbsofplace•Destinationsanddirections

Prepositions•Positionofprepositionalphrases•Afterverbsindicatingmovement•Showingposition•Showingdirection•Otherusesofprepositionalphrases•Prepositionsusedwithverbs•Prepositionalphrasesafternounsandadjectives•Extendedmeaningsofprepositions

Otherwaysofgivinginformationaboutplace

Chapter7 ReportingwhatpeoplesayorthinkUsingreportingverbsReportingsomeone’sactualwords:directspeechReportinginyourownwords:reportedspeech

•Reportingstatementsandthoughts•Reportingquestions•Reportingorders,requests,advice,andintentions•Reportinguncertainthings•Timereferenceinreportedspeech

UsingreportingverbstoperformanactionAvoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinkingReferringtothespeakerandhearerOtherwaysofindicatingwhatissaidOtherwaysofusingreportedclauses

Chapter8 CombiningmessagesClausesandconjunctions

•Timeclauses•Conditionalclauses•Purposeclauses•Reasonclauses•Resultclauses•Concessiveclauses•Placeclauses•Clausesofmanner•Relativeclauses

Nominalthat-clausesNon-finiteclausesLinkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether

Chapter9 ChangingthefocusinasentenceThepassiveSplitsentencesTakingthefocusoffthesubject:usingimpersonalitIntroducingsomethingnew:thereassubjectFocusingusingadverbialsEmphasizingPuttingsomethingfirstIntroducingyourstatementFocusingonthespeaker’sattitudeExclamationsAddressingpeople

Chapter10 MakingatextholdtogetherReferringbackReferringforwardShowingconnectionsbetweensentences:sentenceconnectorsLinkingpartsofaconversationtogetherLeavingwordsout

ReferencesectionThegrammarofbusinessEnglishThegrammarofacademicEnglish

IndexAboutthePublisher

Introduction

This grammar is suitable for anyone who is interested in the Englishlanguageandhowitworksineverydaycurrentcontexts.Ithasbeenwrittenmainlyforadvanced-levelstudentsandtheirteachers,butanyseriouslearnerwillfinditavaluablereferencetool.

The information in this book is taken from a long and careful study ofpresent-dayEnglishinvolvingtheanalysisoftheCollinsCorpus–acorpusofmanymillionsofwordsofspeechandwriting.

AfunctionalapproachMostpeoplewhostudyandusealanguageareinterestedinhowtheycandothings with the language – how they can make meanings, get attention,influence people, and learn about the world. They are interested in thegrammaticalstructureofthelanguageasawayofgettingthingsdone.

Agrammarthatputstogetherthepatternsofthelanguageandthethingsyoucandowiththemiscalledafunctionalgrammar.

This is a functional grammar; that is to say, it is based on the importantrelationbetweenstructureandfunction.

Eachchapterisbuiltaroundamajorfunctionoflanguage,suchasdescribingpeopleandthings,andreportingwhatsomeonesaid.Eachofthesefunctionsis regularly expressed in English by particular structures. For example,describing people and things is usually expressed by adjectives, andreportingwhatpeoplesayorthinktypicallyinvolvesareportingverbsuchassay, followed by a clause beginning with that or a clause with quotationmarks(‘’)aroundit.

Thisgrammarfollowsupeachmajorstatement(oftencalledaruleinothergrammars)withadetaileddescriptionoftheusessurroundingit–including

anyexceptions.Thescopeoftheoriginalfunctionmaythenbeextended.Forexample,thebasic,centralfunctionofreportingverbs(chapter7)istostatewhatsomeonehassaid.

Hesaidhewouldbebacksoon.

Itcaneasilybeextendedtoincludewhatsomeonehaswritten.

Hismotherwrotethathehadfinallyarrivedhome.

Thenitcanbewidenedtoincludethoughtsandfeelings;thesedonotneedtobeexpressedinwords,butthereportingstructureisveryconvenient.

Theboysthoughthewasdead.

From this we can see the reporting clause as a more general way ofintroducinganotherclause.

ExamplesAlltheexamplesinthisbookaretakenfromtheCollinsCorpus.

Asever,thecorpusliesattheheartofeachgrammarpointdescribed,helpingcompilerstomakeconfidentandaccuratedecisionsaboutdifferentstructuresand usage. Examples themselves remain close to the corpus, with minorchanges made so that they are more accessible to the learner. They arecarefullychosensoas to illustrate typicalpatternsandcollocations in real-lifesituations.

GroupsofwordsthatbehaveinthesamewayAs well as providing a wealth of illustrative examples, this book givesfurtherinformationaboutthegrammarofalargenumberofspecificwords.The actualwords and phrases that are regularly used in each structure aregiveninaseriesoflists.Inthisway,thelearnercangetagoodideaofhowlarge or small a grammatical class is, and howmanywords a certain ruleappliesto.

Whereverthereisgoodreasontodoso,thewordsandphrasesaregroupedtogether in a list in a meaningful arrangement. So, for example, at 1.21,separate groups are set out in a single list, including animals, fish, words

ending in -craft, and foreignwords ending in -s. These all share the samefeature, i.e. that they can be either singular or plural nouns without anychangeinform–moose,salmon,aircraft,corps.Fromapurelygrammaticalpointofview,theycouldallgoinasinglealphabeticallist;howeverfromateaching and learning point of view, it is helpful to have them furtherclassifiedaccordingtotheirmeaning.

‘Becreative’CertainareasofEnglishgrammarareveryflexibleandproductive.Somearewell known, such as the fact that almost any noun in English canmodifyanothernoun.Forexample,thenounsteamcanbeusedin,amongothers,thefollowingcombinations:steambath,steamroom,steamengine,steamiron,steampower,andsteamtrain.

With this inmind, several ‘Be creative’ features are included to encouragelearnerstousetheirimagination,andtobemoreconfidentaboutexpressingthemselves.Insuchcases,ratherthangivingadefiniterule,weprefertogiveguidancesothattheusercanmakeindividualchoiceswithnoseriousriskoferror.By describing the language in thisway,we give plenty of scope forcreativityandinnovation.

AccessibilityWhenusingagrammar, it canbedifficult to find the information thatyouwant.Thisisoftenthebiggestsingleproblemforusersofgrammars,andagoodreasonwhygrammarsareoftenunpopularwithlearners.Thisgrammarmakesaspecialefforttosupporttheuser.

Wehaveaimedtousethemostup-to-dateandcommonlyusedgrammaticalterminologythroughout.Technicaltermshavebeenusedonlywherethereisnoobviousalternative.Aglossaryoftermsisprovidedandtheyarealsoalllistedintheindex.

There is a contents list at the beginning of the book, and there is anindividualcontents listat thebeginningofeachchapter.Usingtheseor theindex,theuserwillbeabletofindthesectionorparagraphwhereafunctionisassociatedwithastructure.

Throughout the book there are paragraph headings that show the topic ofalmosteveryparagraph,andtherearefrequentadditionalheadingsforeachsection of a chapter. At the top of each page, there is another heading toguidetheuser.

NewdevelopmentsinlanguageThe continued development of the corpus enables us to keep up with theever-changingnatureof language.AtCOBUILD,wecontinually trackandresearchthedevelopmentofgrammaticalfeatures,suchas:(i) the use of the progressivewith so-called stative verbs (e.g. I’m loving

everyminuteofit)(ii) theuseofmuch in affirmativeunmodified statements (e.g.Therewas

muchdebate)(iii) thespreadofgenericpronouns(e.g.Yougetsomepeoplewhoarevery

difficult)(iv) theuseoflikeinreportingstructures(e.g.AndIwaslike,‘wow!’)(v) theuseofall-purposequestiontagsinsomevarietiesofspokeninformal

English(e.g.innit)

Theresultsareoftenfascinatingandsurprising,andenableustoensurethateachneweditionoftheGrammargivesyouaclearportrayalofrealEnglishasitiswrittenandspokentoday.

ThegrammarofbusinessandacademicEnglishAn extension of our functional approach has been to focus on two maincontextsinwhichEnglishisusedasalinguafrancathroughouttheworld–businessandacademicEnglish.

As a result, two supplementary sections identify the principal areas ofgrammarthatlearnersneedtomasteriftheywishtocommunicateeffectivelyinbusinessandacademiccontexts.

The sectionon thegrammarofbusinessEnglish looksat typical structuresused in such contexts as sharing information, negotiating, and givingpresentations.TheacademicEnglishsectioncoverssuchareasasexplaining

results, reviewing research, and reporting findings. Extensive cross-referencingallows theuser to referback to themain text,wherestructuresarediscussedingreaterdetail.

We hope that you will enjoy learning about English grammar from afunctionalperspective–fromexploringthewealthofreal-worldexamplesofcurrent language, tounderstandinghowcertain structureswork inbusinessand academic contexts. We hope, too, that as a result, you will gain theconfidence to use English creatively and effectively in a wide range ofeverydaysituations.

GettingthemostoutofCOBUILDEnglishGrammarWouldyouliketodiscovermoreaboutthewealthofinformationCOBUILDEnglishGrammarhastooffer,andexplorethesubjectofgrammarfurther?Ifso,gotowww.collinselt.com/cobuildenglishgrammar,whereyouwillfindarangeofblogposts,writtenbyexpertsinthefield,thatencouragefocusedthinkinganddiscussionwithyourpeersonavarietyoftopics,forexample:

questioningtraditionallyacceptedgrammar'rules'establishingthedifferencebetweennonstandardusageanderrorsthinkingaboutwhysomepeopleavoidusingtheword'tense'totalkaboutperfectandprogressiveforms.

Tohelpyouexamineeachtopicinturningreaterdetail,eachblogposthasalinktoacorrespondingworksheet.You'llfindalltheseandmoreonourblogatwww.collinselt.com/cobuildenglishgrammar.

HowtousethisGrammar

TheCOBUILDEnglishGrammar isdesigned tobeusedboth forquickreferenceandforin-depthstudy.

Organizationofthemaintext ThemaintextoftheGrammarisdividedintotenchapters.Thefirsttwochaptersdealwiththenounphrase,chapters3,4,and5withtheverbphrase.Chapter6dealswithadverbs and prepositions, chapter 7 with reporting, chapter 8 with joining words,phrasesandclauses,andchapters9and10withcontinuoustext.

Eachchapterconsistsofaseriesofmaintopicsandeachtopicisdividedintosections.Paragraphs in the chapter are numbered, so that chapter 1 runs from 1.1 to 1.251,chapter2from2.1to2.302andsoon.

This numbering system makes it easy for the user to refer to different but relatedpoints. There are cross-references throughout the text, either pointing to the mainplacewherea topic isdealtwithor toanotherparagraphwheremore information isgiven.

Most paragraphs also have a heading, saying in a few words what it deals with,especiallywhichgrammaticalstructureisbeingexplained.Someparagraphheadingsdonotshowspecificallywhattheparagraphdealswith,butindicateinformationofadifferent kind.These paragraphs have the headings ‘Be careful’, ‘BeCreative’, and‘UsageNote’.

‘Be Careful’ highlights points where people often have problems with a particulargrammatical featureofEnglish, forexamplebecause it isa featurewhereEnglish isdifferentfrommanyotherlanguages.

‘BeCreative’indicatesthattherulethathasbeenmentionedcanbeappliedinEnglishtoaverylargenumberofwords.Forexample,itisnearlyalwayspossibletomakethe-ingparticipleofaverbintoanadjectivethatisusedinfrontofanoun.Bytakingnoteof these features, you can use the rules that have been presented in a creative andoriginalway,givingyougreaterfreedomtoexpressyourselfinEnglish.‘BeCreative’

featuresareexplainedingreaterdetailintheIntroduction.

‘UsageNote’givesinformationabouttheuseofindividualwordsorsmallgroupsofwords. This information is important but cannot be generalized into a grammaticalrule. The Usage Notes help you to understand points that are important for theunderstandingof particularwords, rather thanpoints that relate to largenumbers ofwords.

The U.S. flag symbol highlights paragraphs containing information about typicalAmericanEnglishusage.

The speech bubble symbol identifies paragraphs describing structures that aremostcommonlyfoundinspokenEnglish.

Most of the grammatical explanations are followed by examples showing how thestructureisused.TheseexamplesarealltakenfromtheCollinsCorpus,andshowhowthe structures are used naturally in speech or writing. The examples therefore giveimportant informationabout the typicaluseofa structure, thewords it is frequentlyusedwith,andthecontextsinwhichitislikelytooccur.

Throughoutthebook,grammaticalexplanationsarefollowedbylistsofthewordsthattypically illustrate that grammatical point. For example, in Chapter 3, the point ismadethatmanyverbscanbeeithertransitiveorintransitivewiththesamemeaning.Thisisfollowedbyalistofverbsthatarefrequentlyusedinthisway.

The lists go beyond the actual examples of use that are given, to other words thatbehaveinsimilarways.Theyshowwhetherthepointbeingmadecanbeappliedtoasmallnumberoralargenumberofwords.Ifthegroupissmall,allmembersofitaregiven.Ifitislarge,thenthemostfrequentlyusedwordsaregiven.

TheselistscanbeusedtohelpyouincreaseyourvocabularyandtocheckthatyouareusingnewlylearnedEnglishwordscorrectly.

AdditionalcontentsInadditiontothemaintext,variousothersectionsareincludedtohelpyoutogetthemostoutofthisGrammar.Theseadditionalsectionsaredescribedbelow.

GlossaryofgrammaticaltermsTheGlossaryexplainsthemeaningofgrammaticalterms.Itcoversthetermsthatareusedinthisgrammar,andalsoincludestermsthatareusedinothergrammars, with a cross-reference to the term used in this book, where

appropriate.Forexample, thisgrammartalksaboutthepresentprogressive,whereassomeothergrammarscall it thepresentcontinuous.Bothof theseterms are mentioned in the Glossary, with the explanation being given atpresentprogressive.

ReferencesectionThissectionatthebackofthebookprovidesaneasy-to-usereferenceguidethatshowshowthefollowinggroupsofwordsareformed:

pluralsofnounsthecomparativeandsuperlativeofadjectives‘-ly’adverbsformedfromadjectivesthecomparativeandsuperlativeofadverbstensesotherverbformspassivesprincipalpartsofirregularverbs

TheReferencesectionalsoincludesothertopics.Forexample,itstartswithapronunciationguide,toremindyouofthesoundsofEnglish.Therearealsolistsofnumbers,andanexplanationofhownumbersareexpressedaloud.

ThegrammarofbusinessandacademicEnglishThesesectionsprovidekeyguidanceintheprincipalareasofgrammarthatlearners need to master for effective communication in business andacademiccontexts.

IndexTheIndexisacomprehensivelistofeverythingdealtwithintheGrammar.Itcovers:

thegrammaticalandfunctionaltopicsdealtwithintheGrammar;individualwordswhich are used as examples of a particular grammaticalpoint;grammaticalterms,boththoseusedinthisbookandthosecommonlyusedinotherbooks.

Glossaryofgrammaticalterms

abstractnounanounusedtodescribeaquality,idea,orexperienceratherthansomething physical or concrete; e.g. joy, size, language. Compare withconcretenoun.

activeusedfordescribingverbphrasessuchasgives,andhasmade,wherethesubject is the person or thing doing the action or responsible for the action.Comparewithpassive.

adjectivalclauseanothernameforrelativeclause.

adjective aword used to tell youmore about a thing, such as its appearance,colour,size,orotherqualities;e.g.…aprettybluedress.

adverbawordthatgivesmoreinformationaboutwhen,how,where,orinwhatcircumstancessomethinghappens;e.g.quickly,now.Thereareseveraldifferentkinds of adverb; adverbs of degree, manner, place, time, duration, andfrequency.Therearealsofocusingadverbs.

adverbial a word or combination of words added to a clause to give moreinformation about time, place, or manner. See also sentence adverbial andsentenceconnector.

adverb of degree an adverb indicating the amount or extent of a feeling orquality;e.g.extremely.

adverb/adverbial of duration an adverb or adverbial indicating how longsomethinglasts;e.g.briefly,foralongtime.

adverb/adverbial of frequency an adverb or adverbial indicating how often

somethinghappens;e.g.often,onceaweek.

adverbofmanneranadverbindicatingthewayinwhichsomethinghappensorisdone;e.g.carefully.

adverb of place an adverb that gives more information about position ordirection;e.g.Movecloser.

adverbparticleanadverbusedaspartofaphrasalverb;e.g.hideout,situp,turnround.

affirmativenotcontaininganegativeword.Alsocalledpositive.

agentanothernameforperformer.

agreementtherelationshipbetweenasubjectanditsverb,orbetweenanumberor determiner and its noun; e.g. I look/she looks…one bell/three bells. Alsocalledconcord.

apostrophesanending(’s)addedtoanountomarkpossession;e.g.…Harriet’sdaughter…theprofessor’shusband…theManagingDirector’ssecretary.

articleseedefinitearticle,indefinitearticle.

aspecttheuseofverbformstoshowwhetheranactioniscontinuing,repeated,orfinished.

attributiveusedfordescribingthepositionofadjectiveswhentheyareusedinfrontofanoun.Comparewithpredicative.

auxiliaryverboneoftheverbsbe,have,anddowhentheyareusedwithamainverb to make verb forms, negatives, questions, and so on. Also calledauxiliary.Modalsarealsoauxiliaryverbs.

bareinfinitiveanothernameforinfinitivewithoutto.

baseform the formofaverb thathasno lettersadded to theendand isnotapastform;e.g.walk,go,have,be.Thebaseformistheformyoulookupinadictionary.

broadnegative one of a small group of adverbs includingbarely and seldomwhichareusedtomakeastatementalmostnegative;e.g.Ibarelyknewher.

cardinalnumberanumberusedforcounting;e.g.one,seven,nineteen.

classifying adjective an adjective used to identify something as being of aparticulartype;e.g.Indian,wooden,mental.Theydonothavecomparativesorsuperlatives.Comparewithqualitativeadjective.

clause a group of words containing a verb. See also main clause andsubordinateclause.

clause of manner a subordinate clause that describes the way in whichsomething is done, usually introducedwithas or like; e.g.She talks likehermotherusedto.

collectivenounanounthatreferstoagroupofpeopleorthings;e.g.committee,team.

colouradjectiveanadjectivereferringtoacolour;e.g.red,blue,scarlet.

commonnounanounusedtorefertoaperson,thing,orsubstance;e.g.sailor,computer,glass.Comparewithpropernoun.

comparativeanadjectiveoradverbwith-eron theendormore in frontof it;e.g.friendlier,moreimportant,morecarefully.

complementanounphraseoradjectivethatcomesafteralinkingverbsuchasbe,andgivesmore informationabout thesubjectorobjectof theclause;e.g.Sheisateacher,Sheistired,Theymadeherchairperson.

complexsentenceasentenceconsistingoftwoormoremainclauseslinkedbyasubordinatingconjunction;e.g.Wewentinsidewhenitstartedtorain.

compound a combination of two or more words functioning as a unit. Forexample, self-centred and free-style are compound adjectives, bus stop andstate of affairs are compound nouns, and dry-clean and roller-skate arecompoundverbs.

compoundsentenceasentenceconsistingof twoormoremainclauses linkedbyacoordinatingconjunction;e.g.Theypickedherupand tookher into thehouse.

concessiveclauseasubordinateclause,usuallyintroducedbyalthoughorwhile,thatcontrastswithamainclause;e.g.AlthoughIlikeher,Ifindherhardtotalkto.

concordanothernameforagreement.

concretenounanounthatrefers tosomethingwecantouchorsee;e.g. table,dress,flower.Comparewithabstractnoun.

conditional clause a subordinate clause usually starting with if. The eventdescribed in the main clause depends on the condition described in thesubordinateclause;e.g.Ifitrains,we’llgotothecinema…Theywouldberichiftheyhadtakenmyadvice.

conjunctionaword linking together twoclauses,phrases,orwords.Therearetwo typesofconjunction–coordinatingconjunctions,which linkpartsofasentence of the same grammatical type (and, but, or), and subordinatingconjunctions,whichbeginsubordinateclauses(although,when).

continuousanothernameforprogressive.

contraction a shortened form inwhichanauxiliaryverbandnot, or a subjectandanauxiliaryverb,arejoinedtogetherandfunctionasoneword;e.g.aren’t,she’s.

coordinate clause a clause that is connected to another clause with acoordinatingconjunctionsuchasandorbut;e.g.Hefellandbrokehisleg.

coordinatingconjunctionawordsuchasand,but,ororwhich joins togethertwoclauses,phrases,orwordsofthesamegrammaticaltype.

copulaanamesometimesusedtorefertotheverbbe.Inthisgrammar,thetermlinkingverbisused.

countable noun a noun that can be singular or plural; e.g. dog/dogs,

lemon/lemons,foot/feet.Alsocalledcountnoun.

declarativeaclauseinthedeclarativeformhasthesubjectfollowedbytheverb.Moststatementsaremadeinthedeclarativeform.Alsocalledindicative.

definingnon-finiteclauseaparticipleclausethatisplacedafteranounphrasetoidentifythepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout;e.g.Thegirlwearing theredhat.

definingrelativeclausearelativeclausethatidentifiesthepersonorthingthatisbeingtalkedabout;e.g.Iwrotedowneverythingthatshesaid.

definitearticlethedeterminer‘the’.

delexicalverbaverb thathasvery littlemeaning in itselfand isusedwithanobjectthatcarriesthemainmeaningofthestructure.Give,have,andtakearecommonlyusedasdelexicalverbs;e.g.Shegaveasmallcry…I’vehadabath.

demonstrative oneof thewords this, that, these, and those used in front of anoun;e.g.…thiswoman…thattree.Theyarealsousedaspronouns;e.g.Thatlooksnice…Thisisfun.

dependentclauseanothernameforsubordinateclause.

definitedetermineroneofagroupsofdeterminersincludingthe,thatandyourwhichyouusewhenthepersonyouarespeakingtounderstandswhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout;e.g.theoldman,myideas.

determineroneofagroupofwords including the,a,some,andmywhichareusedatthebeginningofanounphrase.

directobjectanounphrasereferringtoapersonorthingaffectedbyanaction,in a sentence with an active verb; e.g. She wrote her name…. I shut thewindows.

directspeechspeechreportedinthewordsactuallyspokenbysomeone,withoutanychangesintense,person,andsoon.

ditransitive verb a verb such as give, take, or sell which can have both an

indirectandadirectobject;e.g.Shegavemeakiss.

dynamic verb a verb such as run, give or slice which describes an action.Comparewithstativeverb.

-edadjectiveanadjectivethatendsin-ed,andusuallyhasthesameformasthe-edparticipleofaverb,or is formedbyadding-ed toanoun;e.g.aworriedlook… skilledworkers. Adjectives that do not end in -ed but have the sameformsas irregular -ed participles are also called -ed adjectives; e.g. abrokenbone.

-ed participle a verb form such aswalked orplayed, which is used to makeperfectformsandpassives,orinsomecasesanadjective.Irregularparticiplessuch asgiven andbroken are also called -ed participles because theybehavelikeregular-edparticiples.Alsocalledpastparticiple.

ellipsiswhenyouleaveoutwordsbecausetheyareobviousfromthecontext.

emphasizing adjective an adjective such as complete, utter or total whichstresseshowstronglyyoufeelaboutsomething;e.g.Ifeelacompletefool.

ergative verb a verb that can be either transitive or intransitive in the samemeaning.Tousetheverbintransitively,youusetheobjectofthetransitiveverbasthesubjectoftheintransitiveverb;e.g.Hehadboiledakettle…Thekettlehadboiled.

exclamationawordorsentencespokensuddenlyandloudlyinordertoexpresssurprise,anger,andsoon;e.g.Ohgosh!

finiteafiniteverbisinflectedaccordingtopersonortenseratherthanbeinganinfinitiveoraparticiple.

firstpersonseeperson.

focusing adverb a sentence adverb that indicates the most relevant thinginvolved;e.g.only,mainly,especially.

future theuseofwillorshallwith thebaseformof theverb torefer tofutureevents;e.g.Shewillcometomorrow.

futureprogressivetheuseofwillbeorshallbeandan-ingparticipletorefertofutureevents;e.g.Shewillbegoingsoon.Alsocalledfuturecontinuous.

futureperfecttheuseofwillhaveorshallhaveandan-edparticipletorefertofutureevents;e.g.Ishallhavefinishedtomorrow.

futureperfectprogressive theuseofwillorshallwithhavebeenandan -ingparticipletorefertofutureevents;e.g.Iwillhavebeenwalkingforthreehoursbythen.Alsocalledfutureperfectcontinuous.

gender a grammatical term referring to the difference betweenmasculine andfemininewordssuchasheandshe.

genericpronounoneofagroupofpronounsincludingyouandtheywhichareusedtorefertopeopleingeneral.

gerundanothernamefor-ingnoun.

gradableagradableadjectivecanbeusedwithawordsuchasverytosaythatthepersonorthingreferredtohasmoreorlessofaquality;e.g.veryboring,lesshelpful.

idiomagroupoftwoormorewordswithameaningthatcannotbeunderstoodbytakingthemeaningofeachindividualword;e.g.tokickthebucket,torunwild.

if-clauseaconditionalclause;oraclauseusedtoreportayes/no-question.

imperative aclause in the imperativehas thebase formof theverbwithoutasubject,e.g.Comehere…Taketwotabletseveryfourhours…Enjoyyourself.

impersonalitit isanimpersonalsubjectwhenitisusedtointroduceafact,orwhenitisusedinasplitsentence;e.g.It’sraining…Itwasyouwhoasked.

indefinitearticlethedeterminersaandan.

indefinite determiner one of a group of determiners including a,many andseveralwhichyouuse to refer to someoneor somethingofaparticular type,without saying which person or thing you mean; e.g. an old man, several

suggestions.

indefinite place adverb one of a group of adverbs including anywhere andsomewherewhichareusedtoindicatepositionorlocationinageneralorvagueway.

indefinitepronounoneofagroupofpronounsincludingsomeoneandanythingwhichareusedtorefertoapersonorthinginageneralway.

indicativeanothernamefordeclarative.

indirectobject a secondobject usedwith a transitiveverb to indicatewhoorwhatbenefitsfromanaction,orgetssomethingasaresultofit;e.g.Shegavemearose.

indirectquestionawayofaskingaquestion thatmakes it soundmorepolite;e.g.Canyoutellmewherethebankis?insteadofWhereisthebank?

indirectspeechanothernameforreportedspeech.

infinitivethebaseformofaverb.Itisoftenusedwithtoinfrontofit;e.g.(to)take,(to)see,(to)bring.

infinitive without to the infinitive form without to in front of it, used withmodalsandcertainotherverbs;e.g.Youmustgo…Letmethink.

inflection the variation in the form of a word to show differences in tense,number,case,anddegree.

-ing adjective an adjective that has the same form as the -ing participle of averb;e.g.…asmilingface…awinningstreak.

-ingparticipleaverbformendingin-ingthatisusedtomakeverbforms,andasanadjective.Alsocalledthepresentparticiple.

-ingnoun a noun that has the same formas the -ing participle of a verb; e.g.Swimmingisgoodforyou.

interjectionanothernameforexclamation.

interrogativeadverboneoftheadverbshow,when,where,andwhywhentheyareusedtoaskquestions.

interrogativeaclauseintheinterrogativeformhaspartoralloftheverbphraseinfrontofthesubject.Mostquestionsareaskedintheinterrogativeform.

interrogativepronounoneofthepronounswho,whose,whom,what,andwhichwhentheyareusedtoaskquestions.

intransitiveverbaverb that isused to talkaboutanactionorevent thatonlyinvolves thesubjectandsodoesnothaveanobject;e.g.Shearrived…Iwasyawning.

inversionchangingthewordorderinasentence,especiallychangingtheorderofthesubjectandtheverb.

irregularnotfollowingthenormalrulesforinflection.Anirregularverbhasapast form and/or -ed participle that is formed in a different way from theregularending.

lexicalverbanothernameformainverb.

linkingverbaverbthat links thesubjectandcomplementofaclause;e.g.be,become,seem,appear.Alsosometimescalledcopula.

mainclauseaclausethatisnotdependenton,orisnotpartof,anotherclause.

mainverbanyverbthatisnotanauxiliaryverb.Alsocalledlexicalverb.

massnoun (in this grammar) a noun that is usually anuncountable noun, butthat canbeused as a countablenounwhen it refers toquantities or typesofsomething;e.g.…twosugars…coughmedicines.

measurementnounanounthatreferstoaunitofsize,volume,weight,speed,temperature,etc.;e.g.mile,litre,degree.

modal an auxiliary verb that is usedwith amain verb to indicate a particularattitude, such as possibility, obligation, prediction, or deduction; e.g. can,could,may,might.Alsocalledmodalauxiliaryormodalverb.

modifier a word or group of words that come in front of a noun; e.g. …abeautifulsunnyday……apsychologyconference.

negativeusedfordescribingasentence thatusesaword likenot,never,ornoonetoindicatetheabsenceoroppositeofsomething,ortosaythatsomethingis not the case; e.g. I don’t know you… I’ll never forget. The opposite isaffirmative.

negative word a word such as never and not which expresses a negativemeaning.

nominalrelativeclauseasubordinateclausethatfunctionsasanounandoftenbeginswithwhatorwhatever;e.g.Whathesaidwastrue.

nominal that-clause a subordinate clause that functions as a noun and beginswiththat;e.g.Heshowedthatitwastrue.

non-definingrelativeclausearelativeclausethatgivesmoreinformationaboutsomeone or something, but that is not needed to identify them; e.g. That’sMary,whowasatuniversitywithme.Comparewithdefiningrelativeclause.

non-finitethenon-finiteformsofaverbaretheinfinitiveandparticipleforms;e.g.totake,taking,taken.

nounawordthatreferstopeople,things,andabstractideassuchasfeelingsandqualities;e.g.woman,Harry,guilt.

nounphraseagroupofwordsthatactsasthesubject,complement,orobjectofaclause,orastheobjectofapreposition.

nounmodifieranounusedinfrontofanothernoun,asifitwereanadjective;e.g.…acardoor…asteelworks.

number theway inwhichdifferences between singular andplural are shown;e.g. flower/flowers, that/those. See also cardinal number and ordinalnumber.

object a noun phrase that refers to a person or thing, other than the subject,whichisinvolvedinoraffectedbytheactionofaverb.Seealsodirectobject

andindirectobject.Prepositionsarealsofollowedbyobjects.

objectcomplement aword that is used todescribe theobjectof a clause andthatoccurswithverbssuchasmakeandfind;e.g.Itmademe tired…I foundherasleep.

ordinalnumberanumberthatisusedtoindicatewheresomethingcomesinanorderorsequence;e.g.first,fifth,tenth,hundredth.

participleaverbformusedformakingdifferenttenses.See-edparticipleand-ingparticipleformoredetails.

partitiveawordthatgives informationabout theamountofaparticular thing;e.g.pint,loaf,portion.

passive verb forms suchaswasgiven,were taken, hadbeenmade, where thesubject is the person or thing that is affected by the action. Compare withactive.

past form the form of a verb, often ending in -ed, that is used for the pastsimple.

pastparticipleanothernamefor-edparticiple.

pastperfecttheuseofhadwithan-edparticipletorefertopastevents;e.g.Shehadfinished.

pastperfectprogressivetheuseofhadbeenwithan-ingparticipletorefertopast events; e.g. He had been waiting for hours. Also called past perfectcontinuous.

pastprogressivetheuseofwasorwerewithan-ingparticiple,usuallytoreferto past events; e.g. Theywereworrying about it yesterday. Also calledpastcontinuous.

pastsimpletheuseofthepastformofaverbtorefertopastevents;e.g.Theywaited…Itfellover.

pasttenseatenseusedtodescribeactionsoreventsthattookplaceinthepast.

Seetenseformoredetails.

perfectformaverbformwithhaveandan-edparticiple;e.g.Ihavemethim…Wehadwon.

performative verb a verb that states explicitly what action the speaker isperformingwhenheorsheusesit;e.g.apologize,resign,christen.

performerthepersonorthingthatisresponsiblefortheactionexpressedbytheverb;e.g.Markphoned…Ourdinnerwaseatenbythedog.

person a termused to refer to the threeclassesofpeoplewhoare involved insomething that is said. They are the first person (the person speaking orwriting),thesecondperson(thepersonbeingaddressed),andthethirdperson(thepeopleorthingsthatarebeingtalkedabout).

personalpronounoneofagroupofpronouns includingI,you,andmewhichareusedtoreferbacktothepeopleorthingsyouaretalkingabout.

phrasalverbacombinationofaverbandanadverband/orapreposition,whichhaveasinglemeaning;e.g.backdown,handover,lookafter,lookforwardto.

phraseasetofwords that is smaller thanaclause,and that isbasedaroundaparticularwordclass:forexample,averbphraseisbasedaroundamainverb,andcanalsocontainauxiliaryverbs.Seealsonounphrase,verbphraseandprepositionalphrase.Phraseisalsosometimesusedtorefertoanygroupofwords.

plural the form used to refer to more than one person or thing; e.g. dogs,women.

pluralnounanounthatisonlyusedinthepluralform;e.g.trousers,scissors,vermin.

possessiveastructureusedtoshowpossession;e.g.your,Jerry’s,mine.

possessive determiner a determiner such asmy, your, and their. Also calledpossessiveadjective.

possessivepronounoneofthewordsmine,yours,hers,his,ours,andtheirs.

postdeterminerasmallgroupofadjectivesusedafteradeterminerandinfrontofotheradjectives;e.g.certain,remaining.

predeterminer aword thatcomes in frontofadeterminer;e.g.all theboys…doublethetrouble…suchamess.

predicative used for describing the position of adjectiveswhen they are usedafteralinkingverbsuchas‘be’.Comparewithattributive.

preposition aword such asby,with or from, which is usually followed by anounphraseoran-ingform.

prepositionalphraseastructureconsistingofaprepositionanditsobject;e.g.onthetable,bythesea.

presentparticipleanothernamefor-ingparticiple.

presentprogressivetheuseofthepresentsimpleof‘be’withan-ingparticipleto refer to present events; e.g. Things are improving. Also called presentcontinuous.

presentperfect theuseof thepresentsimpleofhavewithan -edparticiple torefer to past events that exist in the present; e.g. She has loved him for tenyears.

present perfect progressive the use ofhave been andhas been with an -ingparticiple to refer to past events that exist in the present; e.g.We have beensittinghereforhours.Alsocalledpresentperfectcontinuous.

presentsimpletheuseofthebaseformorthesformofaverb,usuallytorefertopresentevents;e.g.Ilikebananas…Mysisterhatesthem.

present tense a tense used to describe events taking place in the present, orsituationsthatexistinthepresent.

progressive a verb form that contains a form of the verb ‘be’ and an -ingparticiple; e.g. Shewas laughing… They had been playing badminton. Also

calledcontinuous.

pronounawordusedinsteadofanoun,whenyoudonotwanttonamesomeoneorsomethingdirectly;e.g.it,you,none.

propernounanounthatreferstoaparticularperson,place,orinstitution;e.g.Nigel,Edinburgh,Christmas.Comparewithcommonnoun.

purposeclause a subordinate clause, usually introduced by in order to, or sothat;e.g.Icamehereinordertoaskyououttodinner.

qualifieranyword,phrase,orclausethatcomesafteranounphrase,andgivesextrainformationtoexpanditsmeaning;e.g.…abookwithabluecover…theshoponthecorner.

qualitative adjective an adjective that is used to indicate a quality, and isgradable;e.g.funny,intelligent,small.Comparewithclassifyingadjective.

quantityexpressionaphraseendinginofthatallowsyoutorefertoaquantityofsomethingwithoutbeingpreciseabouttheexactamount;e.g.someof,alotof,alittlebitof.

questionastructurethattypicallyhastheverbinfrontofthesubjectandthatisusedtoasksomeoneaboutsomething;e.g.Haveyouanymoney?Alsocalledinterrogative.

questiontagastructureorwordthatisusedattheendofastatementinordertoformaquestion.

reasonclauseasubordinateclause,usuallyintroducedbybecause,since,oras;e.g.Sinceyou’rehere,we’llstart.

reciprocalpronounthepronounseachotherandoneanother,usedtoshowthattwoormorepeopledoorfeelthesamething;e.g.Theylovedeachother.

reciprocalverb a verb that describes an action that involves people affectingeachotherinthesamewaywiththesameaction;e.g.Theymetinthestreet…Hemetheryesterday.

reflexive pronoun a pronoun ending in -self, such as myself or themselves,whichisusedastheobjectofaverbwhenthepersonaffectedbyanactionisthesameasthepersondoingit.

reflexiveverbaverbthatistypicallyusedwithareflexivepronoun;e.g.enjoyyourself;prideyourselfon.

relativeclauseasubordinateclausethatgivesmoreinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingmentionedinthemainclause.Seealsodefiningrelativeclauseandnon-definingrelativeclause.

relativepronounawh-wordsuchaswhoorwhich,usedtointroducearelativeclause;e.g.…thegirlwhowascarryingthebag.

reportedclause the part of a reporting structure that describeswhat someonehassaid;e.g.ShesaidthatIcouldn’tseeher.

reportedquestionaquestion that is reportedusingareportingstructureratherthantheexactwordsusedbythespeaker.

reportedspeech speech that is reportedusinga reportingstructure rather thantheexactwordsusedbythespeaker.Alsocalledindirectspeech.

reporting clause a clause that contains a reporting verb, which is used tointroducewhatsomeonehassaid;e.g.TheyaskedifIcouldcome.

reportingverbaverbthatdescribeswhatpeoplesayorthink;e.g.suggest,say,wonder.

reportingstructurea structure that reportswhatsomeonehassaidbyusingareportedclauseratherthanrepeatingtheirexactwords;e.g.Shetoldmeshe’dbelate.

resultclauseasubordinateclauseintroducedbysothatwhichgivestheresultofsomething; e.g. The house was severely damaged, so that it is nowuninhabitable.

rhetoricalquestionaquestionthatyouuseinordertomakeacommentratherthantoobtaininformation;e.g.Oh,isn’titsilly?

secondpersonseeperson.

semi-modaltheverbsdare,need,andusedtowhichbehaveratherlikemodals.

sentence agroupofwords that express a statement,question,or command.Asentenceusuallyhasaverbandasubject,andmayconsistofoneclause,ortwoormoreclauses.Asentenceinwritinghasacapitalletteratthebeginningandafull-stop,questionmark,orexclamationmarkattheend.

sentenceadverbialanadverbialthatappliestothewholeclause,ratherthantopartofit;e.g.Wepossiblyhavetowaitandsee.Seealsosentenceconnector.

sentence connector a sentence adverbial used to introduce a comment orreinforcewhatissaid;e.g.moreover,besides.

sformthebaseformofaverbwithsontheend,usedinthepresentsimple.

simplesentenceasentencethatcontainsonlyoneclause.

singular the formused to refer toor talk aboutonepersonor thing; e.g.dog,woman.Comparewithplural.

singularnounanountypicallyusedinthesingularform;e.g.sun,business.

splitinfinitivetheplacingofawordbetweentoandthebaseformofaverb;e.g.…toboldlygowherenomanhasgonebefore.

splitsentenceasentenceinwhichemphasisisgiventoeitherthesubjectortheobjectbyusingastructurebeginningwithit,what,orall;e.g.It’sahammerweneed…Whatweneedisahammer.

stative verb a verb that describes a state; e.g. be, live, know. Compare withdynamicverb.

subjectanounphrasethatusuallycomesbeforeaverb,andagreeswiththeverbin person and number. In active sentences, the subject usually refers to thepersonorthingwhodoestheactionexpressedbytheverb;e.g.Weweregoingshopping.

subjunctiveaverbformthatisusedinsomelanguagestoexpressattitudessuchas wishing, hoping, and doubting. The subjunctive is not very common inEnglish,andisusedmainlyinconditionalclausessuchasIfIwereyou….

submodifyingadverbanadverbthatisusedinfrontofanadjectiveoranotheradverbinordertostrengthenorweakenitsmeaning;e.g.…very interesting…quitequickly.

subordinateclauseaclause thatbeginswithasubordinatingconjunctionsuchasbecauseorwhileandwhichmustbeusedwithamainclause.

subordinatingconjunctionaconjunctionthatbeginsasubordinateclause.

substitutionthespecialuseofpronounsandotherwordstoreplacepartorallofaclause;e.g.‘Areyougoingtotheparty?’–‘Ihopeso’.

superlativeanadjectiveoradverbwith-estontheendormostinfrontofit;e.g.thinnest,quickest,mostwisely.

tense the verb form that shows whether you are referring to the past or thepresent.

that-clause a clause startingwith ‘that’ which is usedmainlywhen reportingwhatsomeonehassaid;e.g.Shesaidthatshe’dwashupforme.Thatcanbeomittedwhentheclauseisusedafterareportingverb.

thirdpersonseeperson.

timeadverbialanadverbialthatgivesmoreinformationaboutwhensomethinghappens;e.g.Isawheryesterday.

time clause a subordinate clause that indicates the time of an event; e.g. I’llphoneyouwhenIgetback.

title awordusedbefore aperson’sname to show their positionor status; e.g.Mrs,Lord,Queen.

to-infinitivethebaseformofaverbprecededbyto;e.g.togo,tohave,tojump.

transitiveverbaverbusedtotalkaboutanactionoreventthatinvolvesmorethanonepersonorthing,andsoisfollowedbyanobject;e.g.She’swastinghermoney.

uncountablenounanounthatreferstoageneralkindofthingratherthantoanindividual item,andsohasonlyoneform;e.g.money, furniture, intelligence.Alsocalleduncountnoun.

verb a word usedwith a subject to saywhat someone or something does, orwhathappenstothem;e.g.sing,spill,die.

verb phrase amain verb, or amain verb preceded by one ormore auxiliaryverbs,whichcombineswithasubjecttosaywhatsomeoneorsomethingdoes,orwhathappenstothem;e.g.I’llshowthem…She’sbeensick.

vocativeawordusedwhenspeakingtosomeone,justasif itweretheirname;e.g.darling,madam.

wh-clauseaclausestartingwithawh-word.

whether-clause a clause used to report a yes/no-question; e.g. I asked herwhethershe’dseenhim.

wh-questionaquestionthatexpectsananswergivingaparticularperson,place,thing,amount,andsoon,ratherthanjustyesorno.

wh-wordoneofagroupofwordsstartingwithwh-,suchaswhat,whenorwho,which are used in wh-questions.How is also called a wh-word because itbehavesliketheotherwh-words.

yes/no-question aquestion thatcanbeansweredsimplywitheitheryes orno;e.g.Wouldyoulikesomemoretea?

Chapter1Referring to people and things: nouns,pronouns,anddeterminers

1.1–12 Introductiontothenounphrase

1.13–92 Identifyingpeopleandthings:nouns1.15–22 Thingsthatcanbecounted:countablenouns1.23–33 Thingsnotusuallycounted:uncountablenouns1.34–40 Whenthereisonlyoneofsomething:singularnouns1.41–46 Referringtomorethanonething:pluralnouns1.47–51 Referringtogroups:collectivenouns1.52–58 Referringtopeopleandthingsbyname:propernouns1.59–65 Nounsthatarerarelyusedalone1.66–72 Adjectivesusedasnouns:thepoor,theimpossible1.73–76 Nounsreferringtomalesorfemales1.77–82 Referringtoactivitiesandprocesses:-ingnouns1.83–92 Compoundnouns:carpark,mother-in-law,breakdown

1.93–161 Talking about people and thingswithout naming them:pronouns

1.95–106 Talkingaboutpeopleandthings:personalpronouns1.107–109 Talkingaboutpossession:possessivepronouns1.110–118 Referringbacktothesubject:reflexivepronouns1.119–123 Peopleingeneral:genericpronouns1.124–127 Referringtoaparticularpersonorthing:this,that,theseandthose1.128–141 Referring topeopleand things inanon-specificway:someone,anyone, everyone,

etc.1.142–145 Showingthatpeopledothesamething:eachotherandoneanother1.146–150 Joiningclausestogether:relativepronouns1.151–153 Askingquestions:interrogativepronouns1.154–161 Otherpronouns

1.162–251 Definiteandindefinitedeterminers1.163–183 Usingthedefinitedeterminerthe1.184–193 Definitedeterminers:usingthis,that,these,andthose1.194–210 Possessivedeterminers:my,your,their,etc.1.211–222 Thepossessiveform:apostrophes(’s)1.223–235 Indefinitedeterminers:all,some,many,etc.1.236–251 Otherindefinitedeterminers

1 Referring to people and things: nouns,pronouns,anddeterminers

Introductiontothenounphrase1.1 Atitssimplest, languageisusedtotalkaboutpeopleandthings.People

do this by using words in a variety of ways, for example to makestatements, to ask questions, and to give orders. Thewords chosen arearranged into groups, either around a noun or around a verb. They arecallednounphrasesandverbphrases.Nounphrasestelluswhichpeopleorthingsarebeingtalkedabout.Verbphrasestelluswhatisbeingsaidaboutthem,forexamplewhattheyaredoing.Chapters1and2ofthisgrammardealwithnounphrases.Forinformationaboutverbphrases,seeChapter3.

position

1.2 A noun phrase can be the subject orobject of a verb, it can follow alinkingverb,oritcanbetheobjectofapreposition.Babiescrywhentheyarehungry.Icouldn’tfeelangeragainsthim.Theywereteachers.Letusworktogetherinpeace.

commonnounsandpropernouns

1.3 You use a noun phrase to talk about someone or something by namingthem.You do this by using a general name, called anoun orcommonnoun,orbyusingaspecificname,calledapropernoun.

Propernounsaremainlyusedforpeople,places,andevents.Marylikesstrawberries.Iwent toDrexelUniversityand then Iwent toPittsburgh towork for apsychiatrist.WeflewtoGenevawithBritishAirways.Seeparagraphs1.52to1.58formoreinformationaboutpropernouns.

determinerswithcommonnouns

1.4 Ifyouuseacommonnoun,youaresaying that thepersonor thingyouaretalkingaboutcanbeputinasetwithothersthataresimilarinsomeway.Ifyoujustwanttosaythat thepersonorthingis inthatset,youuseanindefinitedeterminerwiththecommonnoun.Imetagirlwhowasastudentthere.Haveyougotanycommenttomakeaboutthat?Therearesomediseasesthatareclearlyinherited.Ifyouwanttoshowwhichmemberofasetyouaretalkingabout,youuseadefinitedeterminerwithacommonnoun.Iputmyarmroundhershoulders.…thedestructionoftheircity.Shecameintoseemethismorning.Seeparagraphs1.162 to1.251formore informationaboutdeterminers,andparagraphs1.13to1.92formoreinformationaboutnouns.

personalanddemonstrativepronouns

1.5 Youmaydecidenot toname thepersonor thingand touse apronounratherthanapropernounorcommonnoun.Youusuallydothisbecausethepersonorthinghasalreadybeennamed,soyou refer to thembyusingapersonalpronoun or ademonstrativepronoun.Maxwillbelieveus,won’the?‘CouldIspeaktoSue,please?’–‘I’msorry,shedoesn’tworkherenow.’Somepeoplehaveservantstocookforthem.

Thisledtowidespreadcriticism.See paragraphs 1.95 to 1.106 for more information about personalpronouns, and paragraphs 1.124 to 1.127 for more information aboutdemonstrativepronouns.

indefinitepronouns

1.6 You may decide not to name the person or thing at all, for examplebecause you do not want to, you think it is not important, you do notknow,oryouwanttobevagueormysteriouswhiletellingastory.Insuchcases you use an indefinite pronoun, which does not refer to anyparticularpersonorthing.Ihadtosaysomething.Inthiscountrynobodytrustsanyone.A moment later, his heart seemed to stop as he sensed the suddenmovementofsomeonebehindhim.See paragraphs 1.128 to 1.141 for more information about indefinitepronouns.

addingextrainformation

1.7 Ifyouwant togivemore informationabout thepersonor thingyouaretalkingabout, rather than justgiving theirgeneralorspecificname,youcanuseamodifiersuchasanadjective,oryoucanaddextrainformationintheformofaphraseoraclause,forexample.

modifiers

1.8 Most adjectives are used as modifiers. Nouns are also often used asmodifiers.…abigcity.…blueink.Heopenedthecardoor.…theoilindustry.Seeparagraphs2.2 to2.168 formore information aboutadjectives,andparagraphs2.169to2.174formoreinformationaboutnounmodifiers.

addinginformationafterthenoun

1.9 Youcanaddaprepositionalphrase,arelativeclause,anadverbofplaceortime,orato-infinitiveafterthenoun.…agirlinadarkgreydress.…themanwhoemployedme.…theroomupstairs.…thedesiretokill.Adjectivesandparticiplesarealsosometimesusedafterthenoun,usuallyincombinationwithotherwords.…theMinisterresponsiblefornationalsecurity.…thethreecardslyingonthetable.Seeparagraphs2.272to2.302formoredetailsabout information that isaddedafterthenoun.

1.10 Inparticular,prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithof are very common,becausetheycanexpressmanydifferentkindsofrelationshipbetweenthetwonounphrases.…strongfeelingsofjealousy.…apictureofahouse.…therebuildingoftheoldhospital.…thedaughterofthevillagecobbler.…problemsofvaryingcomplexity.…thearrivalofthepolice.For more information about the use of of in the noun phrase seeparagraphs2.277to2.283.

linkingnounphrasesandlinkingwordswithinthem

1.11 Ifyouwant toreferseparately tomore thanonepersonor thing,oryouwanttodescribetheminmorethanoneway,youlinknounphrasesusingtheconjunctionsand,or,orbut.Sometimesyouuseacommainsteadofand,orjustputonewordnexttoanother.…atableandchair.…hisobligationswithregardtoAmanda,RobertandMatthew.…somefruitorcheeseafterwards.

…herlongblackskirt.See paragraphs 8.171 to 8.201 for more information about the use ofconjunctionstolinknounphrasesandwordswithinnounphrases.

numbersandquantityexpressions

1.12 Ifyouwanttosayhowmanythingsyouaretalkingabout,orhowmuchofsomethingthereis,youusenumbersandquantityexpressions.LastyearIworkedsevendaysaweekfourteenhoursaday.Shedrinkslotsofcoffee.Numbers are dealt with in paragraphs 2.208 to 2.239, and quantityexpressionsaredealtwithin2.175to2.193.

Identifyingpeopleandthings:nouns1.13 Anounisusedtoidentifyapersonorthing.Inthischaptersixmaintypes

ofnounaredescribed.Theyareclassifiedaccordingtowhethertheyhavea plural form, whether they need a determiner in front of them, andwhethertheyoccurwithasingularverborapluralverbwhentheyarethesubjectoftheverb.Thesixtypesare:

classificaton example comments paragraphcountablenouns abirdbirds have plural need

determiner1.15to1.22

uncountablenouns happinessequipment no plural usually nodeterminer

1.23to1.33

singularnouns themoonaday nopluralneeddeterminer

1.34to1.40

pluralnouns clothesscissors nosingular 1.41to1.46collectivenouns thepublicthestaff either singular or

pluralverb1.47to1.51

propernouns Mary London TheUnitedNations

start with capitalletter

1.52to1.58

Many nouns have a number of different meanings, and so can be, forexample, a countable noun for one meaning, an uncountable noun for

another,andasingularnounforanother.There are a few other groups of nounswith special features. These aredealtwithinparagraphs1.59to1.92.

capitalletters

1.14 Mostnounsdonotbeginwithacapitalletter,unlesstheyareusedtostartasentence.However,thefollowingtypesofnounarealwaysspelledwithacapitalletter:propernounsornames

…mysisterElizabeth.IlovereadingShakespeare.I’llbeintheofficeonMonday.Ithinkhe’sgonetoLondon.For more information on proper nouns, see paragraphs 1.52 to 1.58.Proper nouns that are time expressions are dealtwith inChapter4, andthosethatareplacenamesinChapter6.nounsthatidentifypeopleofaparticularnationality,orlanguages

CanyouthinkofsometypicalproblemsexperiencedbyGermanslearningEnglish?nounsthatarethenameofaparticularproduct

HedrivesaPorsche.PutabitofSellotapeacrossit.

Thingsthatcanbecounted:countablenouns1.15 Manynounshavetwoforms,thesingularform,whichisusedtoreferto

onepersonorthing,andthepluralform,whichisusedtorefertomorethanonepersonorthing.Thesenouns refer topeopleor things that canbe counted.You canputnumbersinfrontofthem.…book…books.…day…days.…threebrothers.…tenminutes.

These nouns make up the largest group of nouns in English. They arecalledcountablenouns.

noun–verbagreement

1.16 Whenyouuse thesingularformofacountablenounas thesubjectofaverb, you use a singular verb. When you use the plural form of acountablenounasthesubject,youuseapluralverb.Adoglikestoeatfarmoremeatthanahumanbeing.Biggerdogscostmore.

useofdeterminers

1.17 Countablenounshaveadeterminerinfrontofthemwhentheyareusedinthesingular.Hegotintothecarandstartedthemotor.Theyleftthehousetogoforawalkafterlunch.Whenyouusethepluralformofacountablenountotalkaboutsomethingingeneral,youdonotuseadeterminer.Theyallliveinbighouses.Mostclassroomshavecomputers.However, if you are specifying a particular instance of something, youneedtouseadeterminer.Thehousesinourstreetareallidentical.Ourcomputerscangiveyoualltherelevantdetails.

listofcountablenouns

1.18 Hereisalistofsomecommoncountablenouns:

accidentaccountactoraddressadultanimal

answerapartmentarticleartistbabybagballbankbattlebeachbedbellbillbirdboatbookbottleboxboybridgebrotherbusbushcampcaptaincarcardcasecastlecatchairchapterchestchildcigarettecity

classclubcoatcollegecomputercornercountrycrowdcupdaughterdaydeskdoctordogdoordreamdressdriverearedgeeffecteggelectionengineeyefacefactoryfarmfatherfieldfilmfingerfootfriendgamegarden

gategirlgroupgunhallhandhandlehatheadhearthillhorsehospitalhotelhourhousehusbandideaislandissuejobjourneyjudgekeykingkitchenladylakelibrarylinelistmachinemagazinemanmealmeeting

membermessagemethodminutemistakemodelmonthmotormouthnationnecknewspaperofficepageparkpartypathpictureplanplaneplantproblemproductprogrammeprojectringriverroadroomschemeschoolshipshirtshockshopsister

smilesonspotstarstationstorestreamstreetstudenttabletaskteachertentthoughttourtownvalleyvillagewalkwallweekwindowwomanyardyear

Note thatmany of these nouns have somemeanings inwhich they areuncountable nouns, but they are countable nouns in their commonestmeanings.

singularandpluralforms

1.19 For most countable nouns the plural form has -s at the end, whichdistinguishesitfromthesingularform.…bed…beds.…car…cars.

Some countable nouns have other differences between the singular andpluralforms.…bus…buses.…lady…ladies.…calf…calves.…man…men.…mouse…mice.For full information about the plural forms of countable nouns, see theReferencesection.

sameformforsingularandplural

1.20 Somecountablenounshavethesameformforbothsingularandplural.…asheep.…ninesheep.Manyof thesenouns refer to animalsor fish;others aremorevaried inmeaning:

bisondeerelkgreenflygrousemoosereindeersheep~codfishgoldfishhalibutmulletsalmonshellfishtrout

whitebait~aircrafthovercraftspacecraft~crossroadsdicefruitgallowsgrapefruitinsigniamewsoffspringseriesspecies~bourgeoischassiscorpspatoisprécisrendezvous

singularformwithpluralmeaning

1.21 Thenamesofmanyanimalsandbirdshavetwoforms,onesingularandone plural. However, when you are referring to them in the context ofhuntingorwhenyouaresayingthattherearelargenumbersofthem,itisquitecommontousetheformwithout-s,eventhoughyouarereferringtoseveralanimalsorbirds.Wewentupnorthtohuntdeer.Notethatthepluralformoftheverbisusedwhenseveralanimalsorbirdsarethesubjectofthesentence,evenifyouusetheformwithout-s.Zebraareamoredifficultprey.

Similarly, when you are referring to a large number of trees or plantsgrowingtogether,youcanusethesingularformoftheirname.Whenyouare referring to a small number or to individual trees or plants, youusuallyusetheformwith-s.…therowsofwillowandcypresswhichlinedthecreek.…thepoplarsandwillowsalongthePeshawarRoad.

BECREATIVE

1.22 Althoughsomenamesofanimals,birds, trees,andplantsarecommonlyusedinthesingularformwithpluralmeaning,infactallsuchnamescanbeusedinthisway.

Thingsnotusuallycounted:uncountablenouns1.23 Some nouns refer to general things such as qualities, substances,

processes, and topics rather than to individual items or events. Thesenounshaveonlyoneform,arenotusedwithnumbers,andarenotusuallyusedwiththedeterminersthe,a,oran.…aboyorgirlwithintelligence.Makesureeveryonehasenoughfoodanddrink.…newtechniquesinindustryandagriculture.I talked with people about religion, death, marriage, money, andhappiness.Thesenounsarecalleduncountablenouns.

noun–verbagreement

1.24 Whenyouuse anuncountablenounas the subject of averb, youuse asingularformoftheverb.Lovemakesyoudostrangethings.Theybelievedthatpovertywasathreattoworldpeace.Electricityispotentiallydangerous.

listofuncountablenouns

1.25 Hereisalistofsomecommonuncountablenouns:

absenceaccessageagricultureangeratmospherebeautybehaviourcancercapacitychildhoodchinacomfortconcernconfidencecouragedeathdemocracydepressiondesigndutyeartheducationelectricityenergyenvironmentequipmentevilexistenceexperiencefailurefaithfashionfearfinancefire

fleshfoodfreedomfungroundgrowthhappinesshealthhelphistoryiceindependenceindustryinsuranceintelligencejoyjusticelabourlonelinessloveluckmagicmarriagemercymusicnaturepaperpatiencepeacephilosophypleasurepolicypovertypowerprideprotection

purityrainrealityreliefreligionrespectricesafetysaltsandsecuritysilencesleepstrengthsnowspitestatusstuffteachingtechnologytimetradetrainingtransporttraveltrusttruthviolencewastewaterwealthweatherwelfarewindworkworth

youth

BECAREFUL

1.26 There are some words that are uncountable nouns in English, but thatrefertothingsthatareconsideredcountableinotherlanguages.Hereisalistofthemostcommonuncountablenounsofthistype:

advicebaggagefurniturehairhomeworkinformationknowledgeluggagemachinerymoneynewsprogressresearchspaghettitraffic

quantifying:somerice,abowlofrice

1.27 Although uncountable nouns refer to things that cannot be counted andare not usedwith numbers, you oftenwant to talk about an amount ofsomethingthatisexpressedbyanuncountablenoun.Sometimes,youcandothisbyputtinganindefinitedeterminersuchasall,enough,little,orsomeinfrontofthenoun.Doyouhaveenoughmoney?There’ssomechocolatecakeoverthere.For more information on indefinite determiners that can be used with

uncountablenouns,seeparagraph1.225.Youcanalsoputaquantityexpressioninfrontofthenoun.Forexample,whenyourefertowateryoucansaydropsofwater,acupofwater,fourgallonsofwater,andsoon.Theuseof quantity expressionswithuncountable nouns is explained inparagraphs2.194to2.207.

massnouns

1.28 When you are sure that your reader or hearer will understand that aquantity of something is being referred to, you do not need to use aquantityexpression.Forexample,inarestaurantyoucanaskforthreecupsofcoffee,butyoucanalsoaskfor threecoffeesbecause thepersonyouare talking towillknow that youmean three cups of coffee. In this way, the uncountablenouncoffeehasbecomecountable.Nounsusedinthiswayarecalledmassnouns.

1.29 Mass nouns are often used to refer to quantities of a particular kind offoodordrink.Wespenttwohourstalkingovercoffeeandbiscuitsinherstudy.Westoppedforacoffeeatasmallcafé.

1.30 Similarly,someuncountablenounscanbemassnounswhentheyrefertotypesofsomething.Forexample,cheese isusuallyanuncountablenounbutyoucantalkaboutalargerangeofcheeses.…plentifulcheapbeer.…profitsfromlow-alcoholbeers.Wewerenotallowedtobuywineorspiritsatlunchtime.Wesellawidevarietyofwinesandliqueurs.Massnounsreferringtodifferenttypesofasubstancearemainlyusedintechnical contexts. For example steel is nearly always an uncountablenoun, but in contexts where it is important to distinguish betweendifferentkindsofsteelitcanbeamassnoun.…importsofEuropeansteel.…theuseofsmallamountsofnitrogeninmakingcertainsteels.

listofmassnouns

1.31 Thefollowingisalistoffrequentlyusedmassnouns:

adhesivebeerbrandybreadcakecheeseclaretclothcoalcoffeecognaccokecottoncurrydeodorantdetergentdisinfectantdyefabricfertilizerfuelfurginglueinkinsecticideironjamjellyjuicelagerliqueur

lotionmaterialmeatmedicinemetalmilkoilointmentorepaintperfumepesticideplasticpoisonpreservativeribbonsaladsaucesherrysoapsoilsoupsteelsugarteavodkawhiskywinewoodwoolyarnyoghurt

nounsthatareuncountableandcountable

1.32 Therearealsosomeothernounsthatcanbeuncountablenounswhenthey

refer to a thing in general, and countable nouns when they refer to aparticularinstanceofit.Somenounsarecommonlybothuncountablenounsandcountablenouns.Forexample,victoryreferstotheideaofwinningingeneralbutavictoryreferstoaparticularoccasionwhensomeonewins.Heworkedlongandhardandfinallyledhisteamtovictory.…hisvictoryintheAustralianGrandPrix.Manyparentswerealarmed to find themselves inopenconflictwith thechurch.Hundredsofpeoplehavediedinethnicconflicts.Someuncountablenounsarerarelyornevercountablenouns;thatis,theydonotoccurinapluralform,orwithanumber.…acollectionoffinefurniture.WefoundAlanweepingwithreliefandjoy.Hesavedmoneybyrefusingtohaveatelephone.

uncountablenounsendingin-s

1.33 Some nouns that end in -s and look as if they are plural are in factuncountablenouns.Thismeansthatwhentheyarethesubjectofaverb,theverbisinthesingular.These nouns refer mainly to subjects of study, activities, games, anddiseases.Physicsisfun.Politicsplaysalargepartinvillagelife.Economicsistheoldestofthesocialsciences.Dartsisaverycompetitivesport.Measlesisinmostcasesarelativelyharmlessdisease.Herearethreelistsofuncountablenounsendingin-s.Thesenounsrefertosubjectsofstudyandactivities:

acousticsaerobicsaerodynamics

aeronauticsathleticsclassicseconomicselectronicsgeneticsgymnasticslinguisticslogisticsmathematicsmechanicsobstetricsphysicspoliticsstatisticsthermodynamics

Note that some of these nouns are occasionally used as plural nouns,especially when you are talking about a particular person’s work oractivities.Hispoliticsareclearlyright-wing.Thesenounsrefertogames:

billiardsbowlscardsdartsdraughtsskittlestiddlywinks

Thesenounsrefertodiseases:

diabetes

measlesmumpsrabiesricketsshingles

Whenthereisonlyoneofsomething:singularnouns1.34 There are certain things in the world that are unique. There are other

thingsthatyoualmostalwayswanttotalkaboutoneatatime.Thismeansthat there are some nouns, ormore often somemeanings of nouns, forwhichonlyasingularformisused.Whenanounisusedwithsuchameaning, it iscalledasingularnoun.Singularnouns are alwaysusedwith adeterminer, because theybehavelikethesingularformofacountablenoun.

noun-verbagreement

1.35 Whenyouuseasingularnounasthesubjectofaverb,youuseasingularformoftheverb.Thesunwasshining.Theatmosphereisveryrelaxed.

thingsthatareunique

1.36 Some singular nouns refer to one specific thing and therefore are usedwiththe.Someofthesenouns,infact,refertosomethingofwhichthereisonlyoneintheworld.Therewerehugecracksintheground.Themoonhadnotyetreachedmywindow.Burningtanksthrewgreatspiralsofsmokeintotheair.He’salwaysthinkingaboutthepastandworryingaboutthefuture.

usingthecontext

1.37 Other singular nouns can be used to refer to one thing onlywhen it isobviousfromthecontextwhatyouare referring to.Forexample, ifyou

are inLeeds and say Iworkat theuniversity, youwill almost certainlymeanLeedsUniversity.However, in the followingexamples it isnot clear exactlywhoorwhatthesingularnounrefersto,becausethereisnotenoughcontext.Inmanycountriesthemarketissmallnumerically.Theircompanylooksgoodonlybecausethecompetitionlooksbad.You’veallmissedthepoint.Unlessitismadeclearwhichgoodsorproductsarebeingtalkedabout,itis not possible for the reader or listener to be sure which group ofpotentialbuyersthemarketrefersto.Similarlyitisnotpossibletoknowexactlywhichcompanyorgroupofcompaniesthecompetitionrefersto.In the lastexample, thespeaker ispresumablygoing tostatewhatheorshethinksthepointis.

usedinverb+objectidioms

1.38 Therearesomeactivitiesthatyoudonotusuallydomorethanonceatatime.Thenounsthatrefertothemareusuallytheobjectofaverb,andareusedwiththedeterminera.Inthisstructuretheverbhasverylittlemeaningandthenouncarriesmostofthemeaningofthewholestructure.Formoreinformationabouttheseverb+objectidioms,seeparagraphs3.32to3.45.Iwentandhadawash.Brunogaveitatry.Somesingularnounsareusedsoregularlywithaparticularverbthattheyhavebecomefixedphrasesandareidiomatic.I’dlikeverymuchforyoutohaveavoiceinthedecision.Isn’tittimewemadeamove?

singularnounstructures

1.39 Therearetwospecialkindsofstructureinwhichasingularnounisused.Asingularnoun issometimesusedwith thedetermineraaftera linkingverb.Seeparagraphs3.126 to3.181formore informationabout linkingverbs.

Decision-makingisanart.Thequickestwaywasbyusingthecar.Itwasariskbuthedecidedithadtobetaken.TheywerebeginningtofindGriffiths’visitsratherastrain.Asingularnounissometimesusedwiththedeterminerthe,followedbyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithof.Comedyistheartofmakingpeoplelaugh.Old machines will be replaced by newer ones to reduce the risk ofbreakdown.Hecollapsedunderthestrainofaheavyworkload.This group includes nouns usedmetaphorically; see paragraph 1.64 formoredetails.Somesingularnounsarealwaysusedtorefertooneparticularqualityorthing,butarerarelyusedalone;thatis,theyneedtobespecifiedinsomewaybytheuseofsupportingmaterial.Theycanbeusedwithanumberofdifferentdeterminers.Therewasanoteofsatisfactioninhisvoice.Bessiecoveredthelastfiftyyardsatatremendouspace.Simonallowedhispacetoslacken.She was simply incapable of behaving in a rational and consideredmanner.…theirmannerofrearingtheiryoung.Nouns that are rarely used alone without supporting material arediscussedindetailinparagraphs1.59to1.65.

USAGENOTE

1.40 Somenounsareusedinthesingularwithaparticularmeaningonlyinanidiomatic phrase.They have the appearance of singular nouns, but theyarenotusedasfreelyassingularnouns.Whathappensdownthereisnoneofmybusiness.It’sapityIcan’tgettohim.

Referringtomorethanonething:pluralnouns1.41 Therearesomethingsthatareconsideredtobepluralratherthansingular,

sosomenounshaveonlyapluralform.Forexample,youbuygoods,butnotagood.Thesenounsarecalledpluralnouns.Othernounshaveonlyapluralformwhentheyareusedwithaparticularmeaning. For example, an official meeting between American andRussianleadersisusuallyreferredtoastalksratherthanasatalk.Inthesemeanings,thesenounsarealsocalledpluralnouns.UnionleadersmetthecompanyforwagetalksonOctober9.Itisinadvisabletosellgoodsonasaleorreturnbasis.Takecareofyourclothes.Theweatherconditionswerethesame.Allproceedsaregoingtocharity.Employeescanhavemealsonthepremises.Notethatsomepluralnounsdonotendin-s:forexampleclergy,police,poultry,andvermin.

noun–verbagreement

1.42 Whenyouuseapluralnounasthesubjectofaverb,youuseapluralformoftheverb.Expensesforattendingmeetingsaresometimesclaimed.Thefoundationswereshaking.Refreshmentswereonsaleinthecafé.Attemptsweremadewhereresourceswereavailable.

usewithmodifiers

1.43 You do not usually use numbers in front of plural nouns. You can,however, use some indefinite determiners such as some ormany. Formore informationabout the indefinitedeterminers thatcanbeusedwithpluralnouns,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph1.223.Some plural nouns usually have a definite determiner in front of them,because they are specific; somenever have a determiner at all, becausethey are very general; and some are rarely used alone without extrainformationintheformofaphraseoraclause,forexample,becausetheyneedsupportingmaterial.The lists in the following two paragraphs contain some common plural

nounsthatarefrequentlyusedinoneoftheseways.Manyofthemhaveothermeaningsinwhichtheyarecountablenouns.

withorwithoutdeterminers

1.44 Somepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwiththe.Thingsaremuchworsewhentherainscome.The authorities are concerned that the cocaine may be part of aninternationaldrugracket.Thecoach tourofGranCanariawasawonderfullyrelaxingway toseethesights.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthataremostcommonlyusedwiththe:

authoritiesfoundationsfruitsheavensmainsoddspicturesracesrainssightswaterswilds

Somepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwithapossessivedeterminersuchasmyorhis.Itoffendedherfeelings.MytravelsuptheDalmationcoastbeganinDubrovnik.Thisonlyaddedtohistroubles.Here is a list of plural nouns that are most commonly used with apossessivedeterminer:

activitiesattentionsfeelingslikesmovementsreactionstermstravelstroubleswants

Somepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwithoutadeterminer.Therewereoneortwocaseswherepeoplereturnedgoods.Thereisonlyoneapplicant,whichsimplifiesmatters.Theytreateduslikevermin.Here is a list of plural nouns that are most commonly used without adeterminer:

airsappearanceseventsexpensesfiguresgoodsmattersrefreshmentsrichessolidstalksvermin

Somepluralnounscanbeusedbothwithorwithoutdeterminers.Thehousewasraidedbypolice.Wecalledthepolice.

Aluxuryhotelwastobeusedasheadquarters.Thecityhasbeenhisheadquartersforfiveyears.We didn’t want it to dampen spirits which were required to remainpositive.Thelastfewmilesreallyliftedourspirits.Here is a list of plural nouns that can be used with or without adeterminer:

armsbasicsbrainsclergycostsdirectionsessentialsgreensgroundshandcuffsheadquartersinterestslooksmeansmoralspapersparticularspeoplepolicepoultrypremisesproceedsratesresourcesspecificsspiritssupplies

talksthankstrackstroopsvalues

modifiersandotherformsofextrainformation

1.45 Somepluralnounsarerarelyusedalonewithoutamodifier,orsomeotherformofextrainformation,becausetheyneedsupportingmaterial.Hedoesn’ttoleratebadmanners.Ourcountry’scoastaldefencesneedimproving.…thehiddenpressuresofdirectgovernmentfunding.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthatarerarelyusedalonewithoutamodifierorsomeotherextrainformation:

affairsconditionsdefencesdemandsdetailseffectsforceshopeslinesmannersmaterialsmatterspressuresproportionsquartersrelationsremainssandsservices

thoughtswasteswayswordsworkswritings

typicalmeanings:clothesandtools

1.46 Twospecialgroupsofnounsareusuallyplural:nounsreferringtoclothesandsomeotherthingsthatpeoplewear,andnounsreferringtotoolsandsomeotherthingsthatpeopleuse.Thisisbecausesomeclothesandtools,suchastrousersandscissors,aremadeupoftwosimilarparts.Sheworebrowntrousersandagreensweater.Hetookoffhisglasses.…usingthepliersfromthetoolbox.When youwant to refer to these items in general, or to an unspecifiednumberofthem,youusethepluralformwithnodeterminer.Neverpokescissorsintoalightbulbsocket.Themanwaswatchingthetrainthroughbinoculars.Here isa listofsomepluralnouns that refer toclothesandother thingsthatpeoplewear:

bracesbriefscordsdungareesglassesjeansjodhpursknickersleggingsoveralls

pantiespantspyjamasshortsslacksspecsspectaclessunglassestightstrouserstrunksunderpants

Hereisalistofpluralnounsthatrefertotoolsandotherthingsthatpeopleuse:

binocularsclipperscompassesdividersnutcrackerspincerspliersscalesscissorssecateursshearstongstweezers

Whenyouwanttorefertoasinglepieceofclothingorasingletool,youusesomeorapairofinfrontofthenoun.Yourefertomorethanoneitembyusinganumberoraquantityexpressionwithpairsof.Igotsomescissorsoutofthekitchendrawer.

Iwentouttobuyapairofscissors.Hewaswearingapairofoldgreytrousers.Lizahasthreepairsofjeans.You can also use a pair of when you are talking about things such asgloves,shoes,andsocksthattypicallyoccurintwos.…apairofnewgloves.Apossessivedeterminersuchasmycanbeusedinsteadofa.…hisfavouritepairofshoes.Whenyouuseapairofwithanouninthepluralform,theverbissingularifitisinthesameclause.Iftheverbisinafollowingrelativeclause,itisusuallyplural.Itislikelythatanewpairofshoesbringsmorehappinesstoachildthananewcarbringstoagrown-up.Ialwayswearapairof longpantsunderneath,ora pair of pyjamas isjustasgood.Heputonapairofbrownshoes,whichwerewaitingthereforhim.Heworeapairofearphones,whichwerepluggedintoaradio.Youuseapluralpronounafterapairof.Shewenttothewardrobe,choseapairofshoes,putthemonandleanedbackinthechair.HebroughtoutapairofdarkglassesandhandedthemtoWalker.

Referringtogroups:collectivenouns1.47 SomenounsinEnglishrefertoagroupofpeopleorthings.Thesenouns

are called collective nouns. They have only one form, but manycollectivenounshaveothermeaningsinwhichtheyarecountablenounswithtwoforms.

singularorpluralverb

1.48 Whenyouuseacollectivenoun,youcanuseeitherasingularverborapluralverbafterit.Youchooseasingularverbifyouthinkofthegroupasasingleunit,andapluralverbifyouthinkofthegroupasanumberofindividuals.

Ourlittlegroupiscompleteagain.Asecondgrouparethoseparentswhofeelthatweweretooharsh.Ourfamilyisn’tpooranymore.Myfamilyareallperfectlynormal.Theenemywasmovingslowlytotheeast.Theenemywerevisiblycracking.His argumentswere confined to bookswhich thepublicwasunlikely toread.Thepublicweredeceivedbythenewspapers.

In American English, it is more usual to use a singular verb unless thesentencecontainsanelement thatclearlyrefers tomorethanonepersonorthing.Thenamesofmanyorganizationsarecollectivenouns,andcanbeusedwithasingularorapluralverb.TheBBCissendinghimtoTuscanyforthesummer.TheBBCareplanningtousethenewsatellitenextmonth.Englandwasleading18-0athalf-time.EnglandareseekingalternativesfortheirBteam.

AmericanEnglishusesasingularverbforthese.GEreportsitssecond-quarterfinancialresultsonJuly16.NewEnglandisgoingtosignhimtoalong-termcontract.If you want to refer back to a collective noun, you choose a singularpronoun or determiner if the previous verb is singular, and a pluralpronounordeterminerifthepreviousverbisplural.The government has said it wouldwish to do this only if therewas noalternative.Thegovernmenthavemadeuptheirmindsthatthey’regoingtowin.

USAGENOTE

1.49 Note that the words bacteria, data, andmedia are now often used ascollective nouns, that is with either a singular or a plural verb and nochange in form. Some careful speakers think they should only be usedwith apluralverbbecause theyhave the rare singular formsbacterium,datum,andmediumandarethereforecountablenouns.

MedievalArabicdatashowthatthelengthofthedayhasbeenincreasingmoreslowlythanexpected.Ourlatestdatashowsmorefirmsarehopingtoexpandinthenearfuture.

BECAREFUL

1.50 Althoughyoucanuseapluralverbafteracollectivenoun,thesenounsdonot behave like the plural forms of countable nouns. For example, youcannotusenumbers infrontof them.YoucannotsayThreeenemywerekilled.YouhavetosayThreeoftheenemywerekilled.

listofcollectivenouns

1.51 Hereisalistofcommoncollectivenouns:

aristocracyarmyaudiencebacteriabroodcastcommitteecommunitycompanycouncilcrewdataenemyfamilyflockganggovernmentgroupherdjurymedianavy

nobilityoppositionpanelpressproletariatpublicstaffteam

Some collective nouns are also partitives (nouns that are used to talkabout a quantity of something). For example, you talk about a flock ofsheep and a herd of cattle. See paragraph 2.198 for more informationaboutthese.

Referringtopeopleandthingsbyname:propernouns1.52 Whenyoutalkaboutaparticularperson,youcanusetheirname.Names

areusuallycalledpropernouns.People’s names are spelled with a capital letter, and do not have adeterminerinfrontofthem.…MichaelHall.…Jenny.…Smith.Waysofusingpeople’snameswhenyouarespeakingtothemdirectlyareexplainedinparagraphs9.95to9.99.

1.53 Sometimesaperson’snameisusedtorefertosomethingtheycreate.Youcanrefertoapainting,sculpture,orbookbyaparticularpersonbyusingtheperson’sname likeacountablenoun.Youstill spell itwithacapitalletter.InthosedaysyoucouldbuyaPicassofor£300.IwaslookingattheirMonetsandMatisses.I’mreadinganAgathaChristieatthemoment.Youcanrefertomusiccomposedorperformedbyaparticularpersonbyusingtheperson’snamelikeanuncountablenoun.IremembereditwhilewewerelisteningtotheMozart.

…insteadofplayingChopinandStravinskyallthetime.

relationshipnouns

1.54 Nounsthatrefertorelationshipsbetweenthepeopleinafamily,suchasmother,dad,aunt,andgrandpa, canalsobeused likenames to addresspeopleorrefertothem.Theyarethenspelledwithacapitalletter.I’msureMumwillbepleased.

titles

1.55 Wordsthatshowsomeone’ssocialstatusorjobarecalledtitles.Theyarespelledwithacapitalletter.Youuseatitleinfrontofaperson’sname,usuallytheirsurnameortheirfullname,whenyouaretalkingabouttheminafairlyformalwayorareshowingrespecttothem.…DoctorBarker.…LordCurzon.…CaptainJackLangtry.…MrsFord.Hereisalistofthemostcommontitlesthatareusedbeforenames:

AdmiralArchbishopBaronBaronessBishopBrotherCaptainCardinalColonelCongressmanConstableCorporalDame

DoctorEmperorFatherGeneralGovernorImamInspectorJusticeKingLadyLieutenantLordMajorMissMrMrsMsNursePoliceConstablePopePresidentPrincePrincessPrivateProfessorQueenRabbiRepresentativeSaintSenatorSergeantSirSister

Afewtitles,suchasKing,Queen,Prince,Princess,Sir,andLady,canbe

followedjustbytheperson’sfirstname.…QueenElizabeth.…PrinceCharles’eldestson.SirMichaelhasmadeitveryclearindeed.Ways of using titles when you are speaking to people directly areexplainedinparagraphs9.97and9.98.

titlesusedwithoutnames

1.56 Determiners, other modifiers, and phrases with of are sometimes usedwithtitles,andtheperson’snameisomitted.…HerMajestytheQueenandtheDukeofEdinburgh.…theArchbishopofCanterbury.…thePresidentoftheUnitedStates.…theBishopofBirmingham.

titlesusedascountablenouns

1.57 Mostwordsthataretitlescanalsobecountablenouns,usuallywithoutacapitalletter.…lawyers,scholars,poets,presidentsandsoon.…aforeignprince.Maybehe’llbeaPrimeMinisteroneday.

otherpropernouns

1.58 Thenamesoforganizations, institutions,ships,magazines,books,plays,paintings,andotherunique thingsarealsopropernounsandarespelledwithcapitalletters.…BritishBroadcastingCorporation…BirminghamUniversity.Theyaresometimesusedwiththeoranotherdeterminer.…theUnitedNations…theLabourParty…theUniversityofBirmingham…theQueenMary…theGuardian…theWallStreetJournal…theBritishBroadcastingCorporation.Thedeterminerisnotspelledwithacapitalletter,exceptinthenamesof

books,plays,andpaintings.…TheGrapesofWrath…AMidsummerNight’sDream.Sometimeexpressionsarepropernouns,andaredealtwithinChapter4.

Nounsthatarerarelyusedalone1.59 Therearesomenounsthatarerarelyusedalone.Theyneedextramaterial

such as an adjective or a following phrase, because themeaning of thenoun would not be clear without it. Some of these nouns have manymeanings;othershaveverylittlemeaningontheirown.For example, you cannot usually refer to someone as the head withoutsayingwhichorganizationtheyareheadof.Similarly,youcannotsaythattherewasanoteinsomeone’svoicewithoutdescribingitas,forexample,atriumphantnoteoranoteoftriumph.Thesenounsareusedontheirownonlyifitisobviousfromthecontextwhat ismeant.Forexample, ifyouhave justmentionedamountainandyousaythetop,itisclearthatyoumeanthetopofthatmountain.

usedwithmodifiers

1.60 Amodifier isanadjectiveoranounthat isaddedtoanouninorder togivemoreinformationaboutit.…herwideexperienceofpoliticalaffairs.Idetectedanapologeticnoteintheagent’svoice.HedidnothaveBritishcitizenship.Checkthewaterlevel.Formoreinformationonmodifiers,seeChapter2.

extrainformationafterthenoun

1.61 Extra information after the noun is usually in the form of a phrasebeginningwithof.…atthetopofthehill.Therehesawforhimselftheextentofthedanger.Ever since the rise of industrialism, education has concentrated on

producingworkers.…ahighlevelofinterest.Formoreinformation,seeparagraphs2.272to2.302.

alwaysusedwithmodifiers

1.62 Somenounsarealwaysusedwithamodifier.Forexample,youwouldnotsaythatsomeoneisaneaterbecauseallpeopleeat,butyoumaywanttosaythatheorsheisameateateroramessyeater.Similarly,ifyouuserange,youhavetorefertoaparticularpricerangeoragerange.Ifyouuseweartomeanclothing,youhavetosaywhatsortofclothing,forexamplesportswearoreveningwear.Timwasasloweater.…theotherendoftheagerange.Thecompanyhasplanstoexpanditscasualwear.

alwaysusedwithpossessives

1.63 Somenounsarealmostalwaysusedwithapossessive,thatisapossessivedeterminer,’s,oraprepositionalphrasebeginningwithof,becauseyouhave to showwhoorwhat the thingyou are talking about relates to orbelongsto.Thecompanyhasgrownrapidlysinceitsformationtenyearsago.Advance warning of the approach of enemies was of the greatestimportance.…theportraitofamaninhisprime.

metaphoricaluses

1.64 Nouns that are beingusedmetaphorically (=whenone thing is used todescribeanotherthing)oftenhaveamodifierorsomeotherformofextrainformation,oftenintheformofaphrasebeginningwithof,toshowwhatisreallybeingreferredto.…themazeofpolitics.Hehasbeenprepared to sacrifice thiscompanyon thealtarofhisownpoliticalambitions.Hehasworkedoutaschemeforaneconomiclifelinebypurchasingland.

Lloyd’sofLondonistheheartoftheworld’sinsuranceindustry.…thoseonthelowerrungsoftheprofessionalladder.

listofnounsthatarerarelyusedalone

1.65 Many nouns have some meanings that need a modifier or some otherformofextrainformation,andothermeaningsthatdonot.Hereisalistofthesenouns:

affairapproachareabackbandbasebottomboundarybranchcasecentrecircumstancescitizenshipclassconditioncrisisculturedepthdevelopmentdiscoveryeateredgeeditionelementendenterpriseepidemic

experienceextentfeelingfieldformationfringegroundgrowthheadheightimpressioninceptionkindlengthlevellimitlinemattermovementnaturenoteperiodpointpositionpowerprimerangerateregimerelicrepertoireriserolescalesidesort

stagestatusstructurestuffstylesystemtexturetheorythoughttimetonetoptransfertypeversionviewwavewaywearwingworld

Adjectivesusedasnouns:thepoor,theimpossible1.66 When you want to talk about groups of people who share the same

characteristicorquality,youcanusethe+adjective.Forexample,insteadofsayingpoorpeople,youcansaythepoor.…thehelpthat’sgiventotheblind.Noeffortismadetocaterfortheneedsoftheelderly.…thetaskofrescuingtheinjured.…menandwomenwhowouldjointhesadranksoftheunemployed.Workingwiththeyoungisstimulatingandfullofsurprises.…providingcareforthesick,theaged,theworklessandthepoor.Notethatyouneveradd-stotheadjective,eventhoughitalwaysreferstomorethanoneperson.

BECREATIVE

1.67 Although some adjectives are commonly used in this way, in fact it ispossibletousealmostanyadjectiveinthisway.

noun–verbagreement

1.68 Whentheadjectivebeingusedasanounisthesubjectofaverb,youuseapluralformoftheverb.Therichhavebenefitedmuchmorethanthepoor.

beingmorespecific

1.69 If you want to talk about a more specific group of people, you put asubmodifyingadverb(=anadverbthatyouputinfrontofanadjectivetogive more information about it) or another adjective in front of theheadword. For more information about submodifying adverbs, seeparagraphs2.140to2.168.In this anecdote, Ray shows his affection for the very old and the veryyoung.…thehighlyeducated.…theurbanpoor.Ifyoumentiontwogroups,yousometimesomitthe.…astudythatcomparedthedietsofrichandpoorinseveralnations.…tohelpbreakdownthebarriersbetweenyoungandold.Withafewwordssuchasunemployedanddead,youcansayhowmanypeopleyouarereferringtobyputtinganumberinfrontofthem.Weestimatethereareaboutthreehundreddead.

qualities

1.70 When you want to refer to the quality of something rather than to thethingitself,youcanusetheappropriateadjectivewiththe.Don’tyouthinkthatyou’rewantingtheimpossible?Heisstillexploringthelimitsofthepossible.…amixofthetraditionalandthemodern.

colours

1.71 Allcolouradjectivescanalsobeusedasnouns.…patchesofblue.…brilliantpaintingsinredsandgreensandblues.Clothing of a particular colour can be referred to simply by using thecolouradjective.Themenworegrey.…thefatladyinblack.

USAGENOTE

1.72 Nationality adjectives that end in -ch, -sh, -se, or -ss can be used in asimilarway,unlessthereisaseparatenounforthepeople.Forexample,FrenchpeoplearereferredtoastheFrenchbutPolishpeoplearereferredtoasPolesorthePoles.For many years the Japanese have dominated the market for Chineseporcelain.Britons are the biggest consumers of chocolate after the Swiss and theIrish.

Nounsreferringtomalesorfemales1.73 English nouns are not masculine, feminine, or neuter in the way that

nouns in some other languages are. For example, most names of jobs,suchasteacher,doctor,andwriter,areusedforbothmenandwomen.Butsomenounsreferonlytomalesandothersonlytofemales.Forexample,somenounsindicatingpeople’sfamilyrelationships,suchasfather,brother,andson,andsomenounsindicatingpeople’sjobs,suchaswaiterandpoliceman,areusedonlytorefertomales.In the same way mother, sister, daughter, waitress, actress, andsportswomanareusedonlytorefertofemales.

-essand-woman

1.74 Words that refer to women often end in -ess, for example actress,waitress,andhostess.Anotherendingis-woman,asinpolicewomanand

sportswoman.…hiswifeSusannah,aformerairstewardess.Apolicewomandraggedmeoutofthecrowd.StephBurtonwasnamedsportswomanoftheyear.

-manand-person

1.75 Wordsendingin-manareeitherusedtoreferonlytomenortobothmenandwomen.Forexample,apostmanisaman,butaspokesmancanbeamanorawoman.Somepeoplenowusewordsendingin-person,suchaschairpersonandspokesperson, instead of words ending in -man, in order to avoidappearingtoreferspecificallytoaman.

USAGENOTE

1.76 Mostnamesofanimalsareusedtorefertobothmaleandfemaleanimals,forexamplecat,elephant,horse,monkey,andsheep.In some cases there are different words that refer specifically to maleanimalsor femaleanimals, forexampleamalehorse isastallionandafemalehorseisamare.Inothercasesthegeneralnamefortheanimalisalsothespecificwordformales or females:dog also refersmore specifically tomale dogs, duckalsorefersmorespecificallytofemaleducks.Manyof thesespecificwordsare rarelyused,orusedmainlybypeoplewhohaveaspecialinterestinanimals,suchasfarmersorvets.Here is a list of some common specific words for male and femaleanimals:

stallionmare~bullcow~

cockhen~dogbitch~drakeduck~foxvixen~gandergoose~lionlioness~ramewe~buckhindstagdoe~tigertigress~boarsow

Referringtoactivitiesandprocesses:-ingnouns1.77 Whenyouwant to talkaboutanaction,activity,orprocess inageneral

way,youcanuseanounthathasthesameformasthe-ingparticipleofa

verb.

These nouns are called different things in different grammars: gerunds,verbalnouns,or-ingforms.Inthisgrammartheyarereferredtoas-ingnouns.It is sometimes difficult to distinguish an -ing noun from an -ingparticiple, and it is usually not necessary to do so.However, there aretimeswhen it is clearly anoun, for examplewhen it is the subject of averb,theobjectofaverb,ortheobjectofapreposition.Swimmingisagreatsport.Theemphasiswasonteachingratherthanlearning.Theclosingofsomanymillsleftthousandsunemployed.Somepeoplehaveneverdoneanypublicspeaking.Thespellingof-ingnounsisexplainedintheReferencesection.Theuseof-ingadjectivesisexplainedinparagraphs2.63to2.76.

uncountablenouns

1.78 Because -ingnouns refer toactivities inageneralway, theyareusuallyuncountablenouns;thatis,theyhaveonlyoneform,cannotbeusedwithnumbers,anddonotusuallyhaveadeterminerinfrontofthem.Formoreinformationonuncountablenouns,seeparagraphs1.23to1.33.

1.79 Youoftenusean-ingnounbecauseitistheonlynounformavailableforcertain verbs, such as eat, hear, go, come, and bless. Other verbs haverelatednouns that arenot -ing nouns: for example see and sight, arriveandarrival,departanddeparture.Eatingisanimportantpartofacruiseholiday.…lossofhearinginoneear.Only6percentofchildrenreceiveanyfurthertrainingwhen they leaveschool.

usedwithadjectives

1.80 Ifyouwanttodescribetheactionexpressedbythenoun,youuseoneormoreadjectivesornounsinfrontofit.Heservedajailsentenceforrecklessdriving.

Thepoliceneedbettertrainingindealingwiththementallyill.Hecalledforanationalcampaignagainstunder-agedrinking.

1.81 A few -ing nouns, mostly words for sporting or leisure activities, aremuchmore common than their related verbs. In some cases there is noverb,although it isalwayspossible to inventone.Forexample,youaremore likely to say We went caravanning round France than WecaravannedroundFrance.Hereisalistofthecommonestofthesenouns:

anglingboatingbowlingcanoeingcaravanningelectioneeringhang-glidingmountaineeringparaglidingshopliftingshoppingsightseeingskateboardingsnorkellingsnowboardingsurfingweightliftingwindow-shoppingwindsurfingyachting

Althoughthesewordsarenotalwaysassociatedwithaverb,mostofthemcanbeusedas-ingparticiples.Ispenttheafternoonwindow-shoppingwithGrandma.

countablenouns

1.82 Some -ing nouns that are related to verbs are countable nouns. Theygenerally refer to the result of an action or process, or to an individualinstanceofit.Sometimestheirmeaningisnotcloselyrelatedtothatoftheverb.Hereisalistofthecommonestofthesenouns:

beginningbeingbuildingdrawingfeelingfindinghearingmeaningmeetingofferingpaintingsayingsettingshowingsittingsufferingturningwarning

Formoreinformationoncountablenouns,seeparagraphs1.15to1.22.

Compoundnouns:carpark,mother-in-law,breakdown1.83 Asingle noun is often not enough to refer clearly to a personor thing.

Whenthisisthecase,acompoundnouncanbeused.Acompoundnounis a fixed expression that is made from more than one word, and thatbehavesasanoun.SomepeoplewriteoutanewaddressbookeveryJanuary.

Howwouldoneactuallychooseasmallpersonalcomputer?Wheredidyouhidethecanopener?…aprivateswimmingpool.Onceitisclearwhatyouarereferringto,itissometimespossibletousejust thesecondwordofa two-wordcompoundnoun.Forexample,aftermentioningaswimmingpool,youcanjustrefertothepool.Mostcompoundnounsconsistoftwowords,butsomeconsistofthreeormorewords.…avaseoflilyofthevalley.

twowords,onewordorahyphen?

1.84 Some compound nouns are written with hyphens instead of spacesbetweenthewords.I’mlookingforwardtoalie-intomorrow.He’sverygoodatproblem-solving.Judy’sbrother-in-lawlivedwithhisfamily.Somecompoundnouns,especiallyveryfrequentones,arewrittenasoneword.…patternedwallpaper.Theycopiedquestionsfromtheblackboard.Insomecases,youcanchoosewhethertowriteacompoundnounwithorwithout a hyphen, or with or without a space. For example, both air-conditioner andairconditioner are possible, and bothpostbox andpostboxarepossible.Afewcompoundnounsthatconsistofmorethantwowordsarewrittenpartlywithhyphensandpartlywithspaces,forexampleback-seatdriverandbring-and-buysale.…childrenfromone-parentfamilies.…aParent-TeacherAssociation.

listsofcompoundnouns

1.85 Compound nouns may be countable, uncountable, singular, or plural.Hereisalistofsomecommoncountablecompoundnouns:

addressbookairconditionerairraidalarmclockassemblylinebaby-sitterback-seatdriverbankaccountbirdofpreybooktokenblooddonorbride-to-bebring-and-buysalebrother-in-lawburglaralarmbusstopcanopenercarparkcompactdisccontactlenscreditcarddiningroomdrawingpindrivinglicenceestateagentfairytalefather-in-lawfilmstarfireenginefork-lifttruckfryingpanguidedmissilehealthcentreheartattackhighschool

humanbeingletterboxlilyofthevalleymother-in-lawmusicalinstrumentnervousbreakdownnewsbulletinoldhandone-parentfamilypackageholidayParent-TeacherAssociationparkingmeterpen-friendpersonalcomputerpolarbearpolicestationpostofficerollingpinsister-in-lawsleepingbagswimmingpoolT-shirtteabagtelephonenumbertraveller’schequewashingmachineX-rayyouthhostelzebracrossing

1.86 Hereisalistofsomecommonuncountablecompoundnouns:

airconditioningair-trafficcontrol

barbedwirebirthcontrolbloodpressurebubblebathcapitalpunishmentcentralheatingchewinggumcommonsensecottonwooldataprocessingdo-it-yourselfdry-cleaningfamilyplanningfancydressfastfoodfirstaidfoodpoisoningfurthereducationgeneralknowledgehayfeverheartfailurehighereducationhirepurchaseincometaxjunkfoodlawandorderlostpropertymailordermineralwaternailvarnishnaturalhistoryoldagepocketmoneyremotecontrolsciencefictionshowbusiness

showjumping

signlanguagesocialsecuritysocialworksodawaterstainlesssteeltabletennistalcumpowdertoiletpapertracingpaperunemploymentbenefitvalueaddedtaxwashingpowderwashing-upliquidwater-skiingwritingpaper

1.87 Hereisalistofsomecommonsingularcompoundnouns:

ageofconsentarmsracebraindraincontinentaldividecostoflivingdeathpenaltydiplomaticcorpsdresscirclefirebrigadegeneralpublicgenerationgapgreenhouseeffecthardcorehumanracelabourforcelabourmarket

longjumpmothertongueopenairprivatesectorpublicsectorrankandfilesolarsystemsoundbarrierspaceagewelfarestatewomen’smovement

1.88 Hereisalistofsomecommonpluralcompoundnouns:

armedforcesbakedbeanscivilrightscurrentaffairsFrenchfriesgrassrootshighheelshumanrightsindustrialrelationsinvertedcommaslicensinglawsluxurygoodsmodernlanguagesnaturalresourcesracerelationsroadworkssocialservicessocialstudiesswimmingtrunksvocalcordswintersports

yellowpages

compositionofcompoundnouns

1.89 Mostcompoundnounsconsistoftwonouns,oranadjectiveandanoun.Ilistenedwithanticipationtotheradionewsbulletin.…abigdiningroom.Oldageisatimeforreflectionandslowingdown.However,somecompoundnounsarerelatedtophrasalverbs.Thesearesometimeswrittenwithahyphen,andsometimesasoneword.Theyarerarelywrittenasseparatewords.ThePresidentwasdirectlyinvolvedintheWatergatecover-up.Ithinkthere’sbeenamix-up.…abreakdownofdiplomaticrelations.Thesingerismakingacomeback.Hereisalistoffrequentnounsbasedonphrasalverbs.Theyareshowninthislistintheforminwhichtheyaremostfrequentlywritten,eitherwithahyphenorasoneword.

backupbailoutblackoutbreakawaybreakdownbreak-inbreakoutbreak-upbuild-upbuyoutcheck-incheckoutcheck-upcomebackcountdowncover-up

crackdowncutbacksdrawbackfeedbackfollow-upgiveawayhandoutkick-offlead-uplookoutmake-upmeltdownmix-uppasser-byrun-inrunner-uprun-offrun-upsell-outsetbackset-upshow-offslowdowntakeawaytake-offturnoverwarm-up

Formoreinformationaboutphrasalverbs,seeparagraphs3.83to3.116.

USAGENOTE

1.90 Insomecases,themeaningofacompoundnounisnotobviousfromthewordsitconsistsof.Forexample,someone’smothertongue isnotthetongueoftheirmother

butthelanguagetheylearnasachild,andanoldhandisnotahandthatisoldbutapersonwhoisexperiencedatdoingaparticularjob.

Inothercases, thecompoundnounconsistsofwords thatdonotoccurontheirown,forexamplehanky-panky,hodge-podge,andargy-bargy.Thesenouns are usually used in informal conversation rather than formalwriting.Mostofwhathesaidwasaloadofhocus-pocus.Sheisusuallyinvolvedinsomesortofjiggery-pokery.

pluralforms

1.91 Thepluralformsofcompoundnounsvaryaccordingtothetypeofwordsthattheyconsistof.Ifthefinalwordofacompoundnounisacountablenoun,thepluralformofthecountablenounisusedwhenthecompoundnounisplural.Airraidsweretakingplaceeverynight.…healthcentres,banks,postoffices,andpolicestations.Loudvoicescouldbeheardthroughletterboxes.…therefusalofdockerstousefork-lifttrucks.For full information about the plural forms of countable nouns, see theReferencesection.Compoundnounsthataredirectlyrelatedtophrasalverbsusuallyhaveapluralformendingin-s.Nobody seemsdisturbedabout cover-upswhen theyare essential to theconductofawar.Naturally, I think people who drive smarter, faster cars than mine areshow-offs.A few compound nouns are less directly related to phrasal verbs, andconsistofacountablenounandanadverb.Inthesecases,thepluralformofthecountablenounisusedbeforetheadverbwhenthecompoundnounisplural.For example, the plural of runner-up is runners-up, and the plural ofsumming-upissummings-up.Passers-byhelpedthevictim,whowasunconscious.

Compoundnounsthatconsistoftwonounslinkedbytheprepositionsoforin,oranounfollowedby to-be,haveaplural forminwhich thefirstnouninthecompoundisplural.Ilikebirdsofpreyandhawksparticularly.Shewastreatedwithcontemptbyhersisters-in-law.Mostmothers-to-beintheirfortiesoptforthistest.Somecompoundnounshavebeenborrowedfromotherlanguages,mainlyFrenchandLatin,andthereforedonothavenormalEnglishpluralforms.Agentsprovocateursweresenttocausetrouble.Thenouveauxrichesofyoungerstatesarebuildingpalatialmansionsforthemselves.

1.92 Compoundnouns are fixed expressions.However, nouns can alwaysbeused in front of other nouns in order to refer to something in a morespecificway.Fortheuseofnounsasmodifiers,seeparagraphs2.169 to2.174.

Talking about people and things without namingthem:pronouns1.93 Whenyouuselanguage,bothinspeechandwriting,youconstantlyrefer

tothingsyouhavealreadymentionedorareabouttomention.Youcandothisbyrepeatingthenounphrase,butunlessthereisaspecialreasontodoso,youaremorelikelytouseapronouninstead.Pronounsmakestatementslessrepetitive.Johntookthebookandopenedit.Deborahrecognizedtheknifeashers.Shiltonwaspleasedwithhimself.Thisisaverybusyplace.However,ifyouhavementionedtwoormoredifferentthings,youusuallyhavetorepeatthenounphrasetomakeitclearwhichthingyouarenowtalkingabout.Leafletsandscrapsofpaperswerescatteredalloverthefloor.Istartedtopickuptheleaflets.Icouldseealorryandacar.Thelorrystopped.

Forotherwaysoftalkingaboutthingsthathavealreadybeenmentioned,seeparagraphs10.2to10.39.

typesofpronoun

1.94 Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofpronoun:personalpronouns.Seeparagraphs1.95to1.106.possessivepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.107to1.110.reflexivepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.111to1.118.genericpronouns.Seeparagraphs1.119to1.123.demonstrativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.124to1.127.indefinitepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.128to1.141.reciprocalpronouns.Seeparagraphs1.142to1.145.relativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.146to1.150.interrogativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.151to1.153.

There are a few other words that can be used as pronouns. For moreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs1.154to1.161.

Talkingaboutpeopleandthings:personalpronouns1.95 You use personal pronouns to refer to yourself, the people you are

talkingto,orthepeopleorthingsyouaretalkingabout.There are two sets of personal pronouns: subject pronouns and objectpronouns.

subjectpronouns

1.96 Subjectpronounsrefertothesubjectofaclause.Hereisatableofsubjectpronouns:

singular plural1stperson I we2ndperson you3rdperson he

shethey

it

I

1.97 Yourefer toyourselfbyusing thepronoun I. I is alwayswrittenwith acapitalletter.Idon’tknowwhattodo.IthinkImadethewrongdecision.MayIaskwhyStephen’shere?

you

1.98 Yourefertothepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingtoasyou.Notethatthesamewordisusedforthesingularandtheplural.Youmayhavetowaitabit.Wouldyoucomeandhaveadrink?Howdidyougeton?Youisalsousedtorefertopeopleingeneral,ratherthantothepersonyouare talking or writing to. For more information on this, see paragraph1.120.Ifyouwanttomakeitclearthatyouareaddressingmorethanoneperson,you can create a plural form by using you followed by a determiner, anumberoranoun.Formslikethiscanalsobeusedinobjectposition.MygranddadwantsyoubothtocomeroundnextSaturday.Asyouallknow,thisisachallenge.Hereisalistofthemostcommonpluralformsofyou.

youallyouguysyoulotyoutwoyouthreeyouboth

YouguysandyoulotaremorefrequentininformalEnglish.Youlotisnot

commonlyusedinAmericanEnglish.Iloveworkingwithyouguys.Youguysaregreat!Soyoulotwillhavetolookafteryourselves.Notethatpeopleoftenuseyoulotwhentheyarebeingverydirectwithagroupofpeople,asinthelastexampleabove.

SomevarietiesanddialectsofEnglishhavedevelopedparticularformsofpluralyou.InAmericanEnglish,particularlySouthernAmericanEnglish,y’allissometimesused,especiallyinspeech.Whatdidy’alleatforbreakfast?Iwanttothanky’all.In some dialects of British and American English, yous and youse areusedaspluralforms:Iknowwhatsomeofyousmightbethinking.Another plural form is you people. However, this can sound rude, andshouldonlybeused ifyouwant toshowthatyouareangryorannoyedwiththepeopleyouaretalkingto.‘Whycan’tyoupeopleleavemealone?’hesays.‘Ican’tworkwithyoupeople,’Zoesaid.Somepluralformsofyou–youguys,youlot,youtwo,youthreeandy’all–canalsobeusedasvocatives.Formoreinformationonvocatives,seeparagraphs9.95to9.99.Youallandyoubothcannotbeusedasvocatives.‘Listen,youguys,’shesaid.‘I’lltellyoueverythingyouwant.’Comeon,youtwo.Let’sgohome.Bye,y’all!Formoreinformationonyouasanobjectpronoun,seeparagraphs1.104to1.106.

heandshe

1.99 Yourefertoamanoraboyashe,andtoawomanoragirlasshe.Myfatheris78,andhe’sveryhealthyandindependent.BillyKnightwasaboxer,wasn’the?Marycamein.Shewasagood-lookingwoman.‘IsSuethere?’–‘I’msorry,shedoesn’tworkherenow.’

it

1.100 Youuseittorefertoanythingthatisnotmaleorfemale;forexample,anobject,aplace,anorganization,orsomethingabstract.HaveyouseenToyStory?It’sagoodfilmforkids.‘HaveyoubeentoLondon?’–‘Yes,itwasverycrowded.’Howmuchwouldthecompanybeworthifitweresold?Itisnotanideathathasmuchpublicsupport.Itisoftenusedtorefertoananimalwhenitsgenderisnotknownornotconsideredtobeimportant.Somepeoplealsorefertobabiesinthisway.Theypunchedthecrocodileuntilitletgoofher.Ifthesharkisstillarounditwillnotescape.HowWinifredlovedthebaby!AndhowStephaniehatedit!Youalsouse it ingeneralstatements,forexampletorefertoasituation,thetime,thedate,ortheweather.Itisveryquiethere.Itishalfpastthree.ItisJanuary19th.Itisrainyandcold.For more information on the use of it in general statements, seeparagraphs9.31to9.45.Notethatitisalsoanobjectpronoun.Formoreinformationonthis,seeparagraphs1.104to1.106.

USAGENOTE

1.101 Althoughitisusedasapronountorefertosomethingthatisnotmaleorfemale,sheissometimesusedtorefertoships,cars,andcountries.Somepeopledonotlikethisusage.Whentherepairshadbeendoneshewasafineandbeautifulship.

we

1.102 Youusewetorefertoagroupofpeoplethatincludesyourself.Thegroupcanbe:youandthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingto

Whereshallwemeet,Sally?youandthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingtoandoneormoreothers

notthereatthetimeWearen’texactlygossips,youandIandWatson.you and one or more other people, but not including the person or

peopleyouaretalkingtoIdothewashing;hedoesthecooking;wesharethewashing-up.anygroup thatyoufeelyourself tobepartof, suchasaschool,your

localcommunity,orevenmankindasawhole.Formoreinformationonthis,seeparagraph1.122.

they

1.103 Youuse they to refer to a group of things, or to a group of people notincludingyourselforthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingto.Allthegirlsthinkhe’sgreat,don’tthey?Newspapersreachmeonthedayaftertheyarepublished.Wintersherevaryastheydoelsewhere.Theyisalsooftenusedtorefertopeopleingeneral.Formoreinformationonthis,seeparagraph1.123.

objectpronouns

1.104 Object pronouns refer to the same sets of people or things as thecorrespondingsubjectpronouns.Hereisatableofobjectpronouns:

singular plural1stperson me us2ndperson you3rdperson him

herit

them

positioninclause

1.105 Objectpronounsareusedastheobjectofaclause.Thenursewashedmewithcoldwater.Helikesyou;hesaidso.Themanwentuptothecatandstartedstrokingit.Theycanbetheindirectobjectofaclause.Sendusacardsowe’llknowwhereyouare.Amangavehimacar.Youhavetoofferthemsomekindofincentive.Theycanalsobetheobjectofapreposition.Shemusthavefeltintimidatedbyme.Madeleine,Iwanttotalktoyouimmediately.Wewereallsittinginacaféwithhim.

1.106 Objectpronounscanalsobeusedafterlinkingverbs.Forexample,youcansayItwasme,It’sher.However,informalorwrittenEnglish,peoplesometimesuseasubjectpronounafteralinkingverb.Forexample,ItwasI,Itisshe.Formoreinformationonlinkingverbs,seeparagraphs3.126to3.181.

Talkingaboutpossession:possessivepronouns1.107 Whenyouaretalkingaboutpeopleorthings,youoftenwanttosayhow

they are connectedwith each other. There are several differentways inwhich you can do this, but you usually do it by using a possessivepronountoshowthatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorisassociatedwiththem.Hereisatableshowingpossessivepronouns:

singular plural1stperson mine ours2ndperson yours3rdperson his

herstheirs

Notethatitscannotbeusedasapossessivepronoun.

typicaluse

1.108 Youusepossessivepronounswhenyouaretalkingaboutthesametypeofthing that has just beenmentioned but want to show that it belongs tosomeoneelse.For example, in the sentence Jane showed them her passport, thenRichard showed them his, his refers to a passport and shows that itbelongstoRichard.Possessive pronouns are often used to contrast two things of the sametypethatbelongtoorareassociatedwithdifferentpeople.Forexample,Sarah’shouseismuchbiggerthanours.HerparentswereinMalaya,andsoweremine.Hesmiledatherandlaidhishandonhers.Isthatcoffeeyoursormine?Mymarkswerehigherthanhis.Fredputhisprofitsinthebank,whileJuliaspenthersonacar.That’sthedifferencebetweenhisideasandours.Itwashisfault,nottheirs.

usedwithof

1.109 Possessivepronounsareusedwithoftoaddinformationtoanounphrase.Thisstructuresuggeststhatyouaretalkingaboutoneofagroupofthings.Forexample, ifyousaya friendofmineyouare talkingaboutoneofanumberoffriendswhereasifyousaymyfriendyouaretalkingaboutonefriendinparticular.Hewasanoldfriendofmine.Astudentofyourshasjustbeentoseeme.DavidLodge?I’vejustreadanovelofhis.Itwashintedtohimbysomefriendsofhers.Theroomwasnotafavouriteoftheirs.

1.110 For other ways of showing that something belongs to someone or isconnectedwiththem,seeparagraphs1.211to1.221.

Referringbacktothesubject:reflexivepronouns1.111 Whenyouwanttoshowthattheobjectortheindirectobjectofaverbis

the samepersonor thingas the subjectof theverb,youuseareflexive

pronoun.Some verbs are very frequently used with reflexive pronouns. Forinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs3.26to3.31.Hereisatableofreflexivepronouns:

singular plural1stperson myself ourselves2ndperson yourself yourselves3rdperson himselfherselfitself themselves

BECAREFUL

1.112 Unlikepersonalpronounsandpossessivepronouns, thereare two formsof the reflexive pronoun used for the second person. You use yourselfwhen you are talking to one person. You use yourselves when you aretalkingtomorethanoneperson,orreferringtoagroupthatincludesthepersonyouaretalkingto.

usedasobject

1.113 Youuseareflexivepronountomake itclear that theobjectofaverb isthesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverb,ortoemphasizethis.Forexample,JohnkilledhimselfmeansthatJohndidthekilling,andhewasalsothepersonwhowaskilled.Heforcedhimselftoremainabsolutelystill.Shestretchedherselfoutonthesofa.I’msurehistoryrepeatsitself.Weallshookhandsandintroducedourselves.Theboysformedthemselvesintoaline.Hereisthequestionyouhavetoaskyourselves.You also use reflexive pronouns to showor emphasize that the indirectobjectofaverbisthesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverb.Forexample,inthesentenceAnnpouredherselfadrink,Anndidthepouringandshewasalsothepersonwhothedrinkwasfor.Here’sthemoney,youcangoandbuyyourselfawatch.

BECAREFUL

1.114 Reflexivepronounsarenotusuallyusedwithactionsthatpeoplenormallydo to themselves, such aswashing, dressing, or shaving.SoyoudonotusuallysayHeshaveshimselfeverymorning.Youcan,however, sometimesuse reflexivepronounswith theseactionsfor emphasis, or to talk about a surprising event, such as a child doingsomethingthattheywerenotpreviouslyabletodo.

usedasobjectsofprepositions

1.115 Ifthesubjectofaclauseandtheobjectofaprepositionrefertothesameperson,andtheclausedoesnothaveadirectobject,youuseareflexivepronounafterthepreposition.Iwasthoroughlyashamedofmyself.Barbarastaredatherselfinthemirror.Wethinkofourselvesasmembersofthelocalcommunity.Theycan’tcookforthemselves.However, if the clause does have a direct object, you usually use apersonalpronounafterthepreposition.Iwilltakeithomewithme.Theyputthebookbetweenthemonthekitchentable.Ishiveredanddrewtherugaroundme.MrsBixbywentout,slammingthedoorbehindher.Note that if the clause has a direct object and it is not obvious that thesubjectof the clause and theobjectof thepreposition refer to the sameperson, you use a reflexive pronoun. For example, The ManagingDirectorgavethebiggestpayrisetohimself.

usedforemphasisorcontrast

1.116 Especiallyinspeech,peoplesometimesusereflexivepronounsratherthanpersonal pronouns as the object of a preposition, in order to emphasizethem.…peoplelikemyselfwhoarepoliticallyactive.…thefollowingconversationbetweenmyselfandafifteen-year-oldgirl.

ThecirclespreadtoincludehimselfandFerdinand.PeoplelikeyourselfstillfindnewthingstosayaboutShakespeare.Thereisalwayssomeoneworseoffthanyourself.With the exception of a few Algerians and ourselves, everyone spokeSpanish.

1.117 Youcanusereflexivepronounsinadditiontonounsorpersonalpronouns.Youusuallydothisinordertomakeitclearortoemphasizewhoorwhatyouarereferringto.

ImyselfsometimessaythingsIdon’tmean.Sallyherselfcameback.You also use a reflexive pronoun to compare or contrast one person orthingwithanother.Hisfriendlookedasmiserableashefelthimself.ItisnotDesMoinesImiss,butIowaitself.Thereflexivepronounfollowsthenounorpronounthatitrelatesto.ItishotinLondon;butImyselfcanworkbetterwhenit’shot.Thetownitselfwassosmallthatitdidn’thaveapriest.Thelaneranrightuptothewooditself.Itcanalsobeplacedattheendoftheclause.Iamnotaparticularlypunctualpersonmyself.You’llprobablyunderstandbetterwhenyouareagrandparentyourself.ItisrareforGovernmentstotaketheinitiativethemselves.

1.118 You use a reflexive pronoun to emphasize that someone did somethingwithout any help or interference from anyone else. In this use, thereflexivepronounisnormallyplacedattheendoftheclause.Shehadprintedthecardherself.I’lltakeitdowntothepolicestationmyself.Didyoumaketheseyourself?

Peopleingeneral:genericpronouns1.119 When youwant to talk about people in general, you can use ageneric

pronoun.Hereisalistofpronounsthatcanbeusedasgenericpronouns:

Subject: you one we theyObject: you one us themPossessive: yours - ours theirsReflexive: yourself oneself ourselves themselves

you,yoursandyourself

1.120 You is sometimes used to make statements about people in general, or

aboutaperson ina situation thatyouare imagining.You is used in thisway inboth subjectandobjectposition.Thepossessive formyours andthereflexiveformyourselfcanalsobeusedasgenericpronouns.Tobeagooddoctoryouneedtohavegoodcommunicationskills.Champagnecangiveyouaheadache.Once you’ve bought a physical book, you own it: you can lend it topeople,donateit,and,well,it’syours.Whenyoulivealoneyouhavetoforceyourselftogooutmore.IninformalEnglish,youcanuseyougetoryouhave tomakeageneralstatementaboutsomethingthatexistsintheworld.Yougetsomeoldpeoplewhoareverydifficult.Anytime you have over eight inches of snow, driving becomesproblematic.

oneandoneself

1.121 Informalwriting,oneissometimesusedinsteadofyou.Onecanbeusedinsubjectorobjectposition.Thereflexiveformoneselfisalsoused,butthereisnopossessivepronounformofone.GoingroundItaly,oneisstruckbythenumberofoperahousesthereare.This scene makes one realize how deeply this community has beenafflicted.Ifoneputsoneselfup forpublicoffice, then it is inappropriate thatoneshouldbehavebadly.

we,us,oursandourselves

1.122 Youcanrefertoageneralgroupthatincludesyourselfasweor,inobjectposition, us. This group can be all of mankind, or it can be a smallergroupsuchasanationoracommunity.Thepossessiveformoursandthereflexiveformourselvescanalsobeusedinthisway.Weallneedmoney.Thissurveygivesusinsightintoourattitudesandbehaviourasanation.Nootherlanguagehaseveradvancedasfar,asfast,asours.We need a change of government; just ridding ourselves of the primeministerisn’tenough.

they,them,theirsandthemselves

1.123 Youcanusetheytorefertopeopleingeneral.Isn’tthatwhattheycalllove?Theycanalsorefertoagroupofpeoplewhoseidentitydoesnotneedtobestated.Forexample, in thesentenceThey’vegivenJohnanotherpayriseitisclearthattheyreferstoJohn’semployers.‘Don’t worry’, I said to Mother, ‘they are moving you from this wardsoon.’Youcanalsouse they in subjectposition, or them in object position, torefer toan individualwhenyoudonotknow,ordonotwant tospecify,whethertheindividualismaleorfemale.Thepossessiveformtheirsandthe reflexive form themselves can also be used in thisway. This use isverycommonafter:the indefinite pronouns anyone, anybody, someone and somebody.

Theseareexplainedinparagraphs1.128to1.141.singular nouns such as person, parent and teacher, which do not

specifywhetherthepersonismaleorfemaleIfanyonewantstobeachildminder,theymustattendacourse.IfIthinksomeoneishavingproblems,Iwillspendhourstalkingtothem.Aperson’sbodyfatdetermineshowlongtheycanwithstandcoldwater.Notethatthepluralformoftheverbisalwaysusedafterthey,evenwhenitreferstoonlyoneperson.Youcanalsousethey,them,theirsandthemselvestoreferto:the indefinite pronouns everyone, everybody, no one and nobody.

Theseareexplainedinparagraphs1.128to1.141.nounphraseswiththedeterminerseach,everyandany

Inthesecases,althoughthepronounsornounphrasesaregrammaticallysingular,theyrefertogroupsofpeople.IneveravoidmyobligationsandIexpecteveryoneelsetomeettheirs.Eachparentwassentanindividualletterinformingthemofthesituation.Wewanteveryplayertopushthemselvestogetintotheteam.Anotherway is to usehe or she instead of they, him or her instead of

them,himselforherself insteadof themselvesandhisorhers insteadoftheirs.ThisisoftenusedinformalorwrittenEnglish.WouldayoungpersonbeabletogetajobinEurope?Thatwoulddependonwhichcountryheorshewantedtogoto.Thestudentshouldfeelthattheessaybelongstohimorher.Some people use he and him in general statements or after indefinitepronouns,butmanypeopleobjecttothisusebecauseitsuggeststhatthepersonbeingreferredtoismale.

Referring to a particular person or thing: this, that, these andthose1.124 When this, that, these, and those are used as pronouns, they are called

demonstrativepronouns.Theyareusedasthesubjectortheobjectofaclause,ortheobjectofapreposition.Demonstrativepronounsarerarelyusedastheindirectobjectofaclause,because the indirect object is usually a person, and demonstrativepronounsnormallyrefertothings.

thisandthat

1.125 Thisandthatareusuallyusedaspronounsonlywhentheyrefertothings.You use them instead of a singular countable noun or an uncountablenoun.This refers tosomething that isclose toyou inplaceor time,andthatreferstosomethingthatismoredistantinplaceortime.Thisisalistoftherules.Thisisthemostimportantpartofthejob.Thebiggestproblemwastheaccent.Thatwasdifficultforme.Thatlooksinteresting.

1.126 This and that are used as pronouns to refer to a person when you areidentifyingsomeoneoraskingwhotheyare.Who’sthis?Hestoppedandlookedataphotographthatstoodonthedressingtable.Isthisyourwife?WasthatPatrickonthephone?Whenyouareintroducingpeople,youcansayThisisMaryorThisisMr

andMrs Baker. Note that you use this even when you are introducingmorethanoneperson.

theseandthose

1.127 These and those can be used as pronouns instead of a plural countablenoun.Theyaremostoftenused to refer to things, although theycanbeusedtorefertopeople.Thesereferstoanumberofpeopleandthingsthatareclosetoyouinplaceortime,andthosereferstoanumberofpeopleandthingsthataremoredistantinplaceortime.‘Ibroughtyouthese.’Adamheldoutabagofgrapes.VitamintabletsusuallycontainvitaminsA,C,andD.Theseareavailablefromanychildhealthclinic.Thesearenoordinarystudents.It may be impossible for them to pay essential bills, such as those forheating.Thoseareeasyquestionstoanswer.There are a lot of people who are seeking employment, and a greatnumberofthosearemarriedwomen.This, that, these, and those can alsobedefinitedeterminers. Formoreinformation,seeparagraphs1.184to1.193.SeealsoReferringbackandReferringforwardinChapter10.

Referring to people and things in a non-specific way: someone,anyone,everyone,etc.1.128 Whenyouwanttorefertopeopleorthingsbutyoudonotknowexactly

whoorwhat theyare,or their identity isnot important, youcanuse anindefinitepronounsuchassomeone,anyone,oreveryone.Anindefinitepronounshowsonlywhetheryouaretalkingaboutpeopleoraboutthings,ratherthanreferringtoaspecificpersonorthing.Iwasthereforoveranhourbeforeanybodycame.Jackwaswaitingforsomething.Hereisalistofindefinitepronouns:

anybody

anyoneanythingeverybodyeveryoneeverythingnobodynoonenothingsomebodysomeonesomething

Notethatallindefinitepronounsarewrittenasonewordexceptnoone.ItisalwaystwowordsinAmericanEnglish,butinBritishEnglishitcanalsobespelledwithahyphen:no-one.

usedonlywithsingularverbs

1.129 Youalwaysusesingularverbswithindefinitepronouns.Isanyonehere?Everybodyrecognizestheimportanceofeducation.Everythingwasready.Nothingiscertaininthisworld.

referringtothings

1.130 You use the indefinite pronouns ending in -thing to talk about objects,ideas,situations,oractivities.CanIdoanything?Janesaidnothingforamoment.

referringtopeople

1.131 You use the indefinite pronouns ending in -one and -body to refer topeople.IthadtobesomeonelikeDan.

Whydoeseverybodybelieveinthelawofgravity?Note that indefinite pronouns ending in -body are more frequent ininformalEnglish.

usedwithpersonalpronounsandpossessivedeterminers

1.132 Althoughyouusesingularverbswithindefinitepronouns,ifyouwanttorefer back to an indefinite pronoun, you use the plural pronouns they,them,orthemselves,orthepossessivedeterminertheir.Askanyone.They’lltellyou.There’snowayoftellingsomebodywhythey’vefailed.Noonelikedbeingyoungthenastheydonow.Everybody’senjoyingthemselves.Everyoneputtheirpensdown.Seeparagraph1.123formoreinformationabouttheyusedtorefertooneperson.

USAGENOTE

1.133 InmoreformalEnglish,somepeopleprefertousehe,him,his,orhimselfto refer back to an indefinite pronoun, butmanypeople dislike this usebecauseitsuggeststhatthepersonbeingreferredtoismale.Ifsomeoneconsistentlyeatsalotof fattyfoods, it isnotsurprisingifheendsupwithcloggedarteries.Everybodyhashisdream.For other ways of using pronouns when you do not want to specifywhetherthepersonyouaretalkingaboutismaleorfemale,seeparagraph1.123.

’s

1.134 Youadd’s(apostrophes)toanindefinitepronountorefertothingsthatbelongtoorareassociatedwithpeople.Shewasgivenaroominsomeone’sstudio.Thatwasnobody’sbusiness.Iwoulddefendanyone’srights.

Everythinghasbeenarrangedtoeverybody’ssatisfaction.

BECAREFUL

1.135 Youdonotusuallyadd ’s to indefinitepronouns referring to things.So,forexample,youwouldbemorelikelytosaythevalueofsomethingthansomething’svalue.

addinginformation

1.136 When you want to give more information about the person or thingreferredtobyanindefinitepronoun,youcanuseaphraseoraclauseafterit.Anyoneovertheageof18canapply.He would prefer to have somebody who had a background in thehumanities.

1.137 Youcanalsouseadjectives toadd information.Note thatadjectivesareplacedaftertheindefinitepronounratherthaninfrontofit,andthatyoudonotuseadeterminer.Youdonotsayan importantsomeone,yousaysomeoneimportant.Whatwasneededwassomeonepractical.Theyaredoingeverythingpossibletotakecareofyou.Thereisnothingwrongwithbeingpopular.

usedwithelse

1.138 Ifyouhavealreadymentionedapersonorthing,andyouwanttorefertoa different person or thing, or an additional one, you use else after anindefinitepronoun.Somebodyelsewillhavetogooutthere.Shecouldn’tthinkofanythingelse.Everyoneknowswhateveryoneelseisdoing.Hegotthatjobbecausenobodyelsewantedit.Notethatifyouwanttoshowassociationorpossessionwithanindefinitepronounandelse,youaddthe’stoelse.Problemsalwaysbecamesomeoneelse’sfault.

Noonehascontroloveranyoneelse’scareer.

structuresusedwithsome-andevery-

1.139 Just like nouns, indefinite pronouns are used as the subject, object, orindirect object of clauses. They can also be used as the objects ofprepositions. The indefinite pronouns beginning with some- and every-aremostoftenusedinaffirmativeclauses.Everythingwentaccordingtoplan.Iremembersomebodyputtingapillowundermyhead.‘Nowyou’llseesomething,’hesaid.Igaveeveryoneageneroushelping.Iwanttointroduceyoutosomeonewhoishelpingme.Iseverythingallright?Theyaresometimesusedasthesubjectofanegativeclause.Hecouldtellthatsomethingwasn’tright.Notethattheindefinitepronounsbeginningwithsome-cannotbeusedastheobjectofanegativeclause,unlesstheyarefollowedbyaphraseoraclause.Hewasn’tsomeoneIadmiredasawriter.

structuresusedwithany-

1.140 Indefinite pronouns beginning with any- can be used as the object orindirectobjectofaquestionoranegativeclause.Don’tworry–Iwon’ttellanyone.Youstillhaven’ttoldmeanything.Takeagoodlookandtellmeifyouseeanythingdifferent.Ihaven’tgivenanyonetheirpresentsyet.They are often used as the subject of both negative and affirmativequestions. Note that they are not used as the subject of a negativestatement.Youdonotsay,forexample,Anybodycan’tcomein.Doesanybodyagreewithme?Won’tanyonehelpme?Ifanythingunusualhappens,couldyoucallmeonthisnumber?

Note that when you are making an affirmative statement, anyone andanybodyareusedtorefertopeopleingeneralandnottoonlyoneperson.Anybodywhowantstocancomeinandbuyacarfromme.

structuresusedwithno-

1.141 Indefinite pronouns beginning with no- are always used with theaffirmativeformofaverb,andtheymaketheclausenegative.Formoreinformationonnegativestatements,seeparagraphs5.49to5.93.Nobodysaidaword.Therewasnothingyoucoulddo,nothingatall.Shewastoseenoone,tospeaktonobody,notevenherownchildren.Notethattheyaresometimesusedinquestions.Whenthisisthecase,theanswertothequestionisusuallyexpectedtobeno.‘IstherenothingIcando?’–‘Notathing’.‘Istherenobodyelse?’–‘NotthatIknowof’.

Showing that people do the same thing: each other and oneanother1.142 Each other and one another are called reciprocal pronouns. They are

usedtosaythatpeopledothesamething,feelthesameway,orhavethesamerelationship.Forexample, ifyourbrotherhatesyoursisterandyoursisterhatesyourbrother,youcansayMybrotherandsisterhateeachotherorTheyhateoneanother.Reciprocalpronounsarenotusedasthesubjectofaclause.Youusethemastheobjectorindirectobjectofaverb.Wehelpeachotheralot.YouandIunderstandeachother.Wesupportoneanotherthroughgoodtimesandbad.Theysenteachothergiftsfromtimetotime.Youalsousethemastheobjectofapreposition.TerryandMarkwerejealousofeachother.Thetwolightsweremovingtowardsoneanother.

Theydidn’tdaretolookatoneanother.Someverbsareverycommonlyusedwithreciprocalpronouns.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs3.68to3.72.

1.143 Note that there is very little difference between each other and oneanother.Theyarebothusedto talkabout twoormorepeopleor things,although somepeople prefer the use ofeachotherwhen there are onlytwopeopleorthings,andoneanotherwhentherearemorethantwo.

eachassubject

1.144 InformalwrittenEnglish,youcanalsouseeachasthesubjectofaclauseandtheotheras theobjectofaclauseorpreposition.So,amoreformalwayofsayingTheylookedateachotherisEachlookedattheother.Notethateachisalwaysfollowedbyasingularverb.Eachaccusestheotheroflying.Eachisunwillingtolearnfromtheexperienceoftheothers.Eachisalsoadeterminer.Formoreinformationaboutthis,seeparagraph1.243.

’s

1.145 You add ’s (apostrophe s) to each other, one another, and the other toformpossessives.Ihopethatyouallenjoyeachother’scompany.Apesspendagreatdealoftimegroomingoneanother’sfur.Themales fight fiercely,each trying toseize theother’s longneck in itsbeak.

Joiningclausestogether:relativepronouns1.146 Whenasentenceconsistsofamainclausefollowedbyarelativeclause

introducedbywho,whom,which,orthat,thesewordsarecalledrelativepronouns.Relativepronounsdo two thingsat thesame time.Likeotherpronouns,theyrefertosomeoneorsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Atthesametimetheyjoinclausestogether.

Formoreinformationaboutrelativeclauses,seeparagraphs8.83to8.116.

whoandwhom

1.147 Whoandwhomalwaysrefertopeople.Whocanbethesubjectofarelativeclause.…mathematicianswhoareconcernedwithverydifficultproblems.In the past,whomwas normally used as the object of a relative clause.Nowadays,who is more often used, although some careful speakers ofEnglishthinkthatitismorecorrecttousewhom.…amanwhoImetrecently.He’sthemanwhoIsawlastnight.…twogirlswhomImetinEdinburgh.Who issometimesusedastheobjectofaprepositionwhentheobject isseparatedfromthepreposition.Somecarefulspeakersthinkthatitismorecorrecttousewhom.That’sthemanwhoIgaveitto.…thosewhomwecannottalkto.Whomisalmostalwaysusedwhentheobjectcomesimmediatelyafterthepreposition.…LordScarman,amanforwhomIhaveimmenserespect.

which

1.148 Whichalwaysreferstothings.Itcanbeusedasthesubjectorobjectofarelativeclause,or as theobjectof apreposition.Which is oftenused inBritishEnglishtointroducerelativeclausesthatrefertothings.…aregionwhichwasthreatenedbygrowingpoverty.…twohorseswhichheowned.…thehouseinwhichIwasborn.Notethatwhichcannotbeusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.

that

1.149 Thatreferstoeitherpeopleorthings.Itisusedasthesubjectortheobject

of a relative clause or the object of a preposition. That is generallypreferred inAmericanEnglish to introduce relative clauses that refer tothingsortocombinationsofpeopleandthings.…thegamesthatpoliticiansplay.He’stheboythatsangthesololastnight.Itwasthefirstbedthatshehadeversleptin.Thatcannotbeusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.

whose

1.150 Whose showswho orwhat something belongs to or is connectedwith.Notethatitcannotbeusedbyitself,butmustcomeinfrontofanoun.…thethousandswhoseliveshavebeendamaged.TherewasachaptherewhosenameI’veforgotten.…predictionswhoseaccuracywillhavetobeconfirmed.…sharks,whosebrainsareminute.Notethatwhoseisnotrestrictedtopeople.

Askingquestions:interrogativepronouns1.151 Onewayofaskingquestionsisbyusinganinterrogativepronoun.

Theinterrogativepronounsarewho,whose,whom,what,andwhich.Theyare used as the subject or object of a clause, or as the object of apreposition.Whoseandwhicharealsodeterminers.Otherwords,suchaswhere,when,why,andhow,arealsousedtoaskquestions.Interrogativepronounsarenotusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.Whowasatthedoor?‘There’sacaroutside.’–‘Whoseisit?’Whomdoyousupport?Whatareyoudoing?Whichisbest,gasorelectric?Formoreinformationaboutstructuresinwhichinterrogativepronounsareused,seeparagraphs5.10to5.36.

1.152 Interrogativepronounsrefertotheinformationyouareaskingfor.Who,whose,andwhom are usedwhenyou think that the answer to the

questionwillbeaperson.‘Helosthiswife.’–‘Who?Terry?’Helookedatthecat.Whoseisit?Haveyoueverseenitbefore?‘Towhom, if Imay ask, are you engaged to bemarried?’ – ‘ToDanielOrton.’Whichandwhatareusedwhenyouthinkthattheanswertothequestionwillbesomethingotherthanaperson.Istherereallyadifference?Whichdoyouprefer?‘Whatdidhewant?’–‘Maurice’saddress.’

reportedquestions

1.153 Interrogativepronounsarealsousedtointroducereportedquestions.Iaskedherwhoshehadbeentalkingto.HewonderedwhatDaintrywoulddonow.Formore informationaboutreportedquestions, seeparagraphs7.32 to7.38.

Otherpronouns1.154 Manyotherwordscanbepronouns,providedthatitisclearwhatisbeing

talkedabout,becauseitisthenunnecessarytorepeatthenoun.For example, most indefinite determiners can also be pronouns. Formore information about indefinite determiners, see paragraphs 1.223 to1.250.Hereisalistofindefinitedeterminersthatarealsopronouns:

allanotherany both eacheitherenoughfew

fewerlesslittlemanymoremostmuchneitherseveralsome

Like all nounphrases, they canbe used as the subject, direct object, orindirectobjectofaclause,ortheobjectofapreposition.Bothwereofferedjobsimmediately.Children?Idon’tthinkshehasany.Isawonegirlwhisperingtoanother.

1.155 Although a, an, every, and no are indefinite determiners, they cannotstandaloneaspronouns.Toreferbacktoanounphrasethatincludesthedetermineraoran,youcanusethepronounone.Similarly,youuseeachtoreferbacktoanounphrase that includesevery,andnone to referback toanounphrase thatincludesno.Notethatanotherandothersarepronouns,butothercannotbeapronoun.

all,both,andeachforemphasis

1.156 All,both,andeachcanbeusedinadditiontonounsorpersonalpronounsforemphasis,inasimilarwaytotheuseofreflexivepronounsdescribedinparagraphs1.116to1.118.Thebrothersallagreedthatsomethingmorewasneeded.Helovedthemboth.FordandDuncaneachhadtheirchances.Theycomeafteranauxiliaryverb,amodal,orbe.Theywerebothstillworkingattheiruniversities.

Thelettershaveallbeensigned.Theolderchildrencanalldothesamethingstogether.Eachcanalsocomeattheendoftheclause.Threeotherswerefined£200each.

numbers

1.157 Numberscanalsobepronouns.Forexample,theanswertothequestionHow many children do you have? is usually Three rather than Threechildren.‘Howmanypeoplearethere?’–‘Forty-five.’Oftheotherwomen,twoaredancers.Theyboughteightcompaniesandsoldofffive.Formoreinformationonnumbers,seeparagraphs2.213to2.231.

otherpronouns

1.158 Thenumberone is a special case. Like other numbers, it is sometimesusedtorefertooneofagroupofthings.Oneisalsousedtoreferbacktoanounphrasewiththedeterminera.CouldIhaveabiggerone,please?Itcanalsobeusedforemphasisafteranotherdeterminer.Therearesystemsofcommunicationrightthroughtheanimalworld;eachoneisdistinctive.One can be used as a personal pronoun. This use is explained inparagraph1.121.

1.159 Notethattheoneandtheonescanbeusedtorefertoanounalone,ratherthantothewholeofthenounphrase.Theyarenearlyalwaysusedwithamodifiersuchasanadjective,orsomeformofinformationafterthenoun,suchasaprepositionalphrase.‘Whichpoem?–‘Theonetheyweretalkingaboutyesterday.’Therearethreebedrooms.Mineistheoneattheback.Hegavethebestseatstotheoneswhoarrivedfirst.

1.160 You use the other, the others, others, or another to refer to different

membersofagroupofthingsorpeople.Somewritersaregreaterthanothers.Onerunnerwaswayaheadofalltheothers.

1.161 If youwant to say something about amember of a group of people orthingsyoucanuseone.Youcanthenrefertotherestofthegroupastheothers.The bells are carefully installed so that disconnecting onewill have noeffectontheothers.Theyhadthreelittledaughters,oneababy,theotherstwinsoftwelve.Youusetheoneandtheothertorefertoeachofapairofthings.Thesamefactorspushwagesandpricesuptogether,theonereinforcingtheother.If you do notwish to specify exactlywhich of a group you are talkingabout,yourefertooneorotherofthem.Itmaybethatoneorotherofthemhadfearsfortheirhealth.

Definiteandindefinitedeterminers1.162 InEnglish,therearetwomainwaysinwhichyoucanuseanounphrase.

Youcanuseittorefertosomeoneorsomething,knowingthatthepersonyou are speaking to understandswhich person or thing you are talkingabout.Themanbegantoruntowardstheboy.Youngpeopledon’tliketheseoperas.Thankyouverymuchforyourcomments.…avisittotheHousesofParliament.Alternatively,youcanuseanounphrasetorefertosomeoneorsomethingofaparticulartype,withoutsayingwhichpersonorthingyoumean.Therewasamaninthelift.IwishI’dboughtanumbrella.Anydoctorwouldsayshedidn’tknowwhatshewasdoing.Inorder todistinguishbetween these twowaysofusing anounphrase,youuseaspecialclassofwordscalleddeterminers.Therearetwotypes

ofdeterminer,definitedeterminersandindefinitedeterminers.Youputthematthebeginningofanounphrase.

Usingthedefinitedeterminerthe1.163 The is themost commondefinite determiner; it is sometimes called the

definitearticle.This, that, these, and those are often called demonstratives ordemonstrativeadjectives.Formoreinformationonthese,seeparagraphs1.184to1.193.My,your,his,her,its,ourandtheirarepossessivedeterminers.Theyarealsosometimescalledpossessiveadjectivesorjustpossessives.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs1.194to1.210.Hereisthelistofdefinitedeterminers:

the~this thatthesethose~myyourhisheritsourtheir

Note that in English you cannot usemore than one definite determinerbeforeanoun.

1.164 Becausethe is themostcommondefinitedeterminer,youcanput the infrontofanycommonnoun.Shedroppedthecanintothegrass.

Thegirlswerenotinthehouse.Intheseexamples, theuseof thecanmeansthatacanhasalreadybeenmentioned;thegrassisdefinitebecauseithasalreadybeenstatedthatsheis outside, and the presence of grass may also have been stated or ispresumed;thegirls,likethecan,musthavebeenmentionedbefore;andthehousemeanstheonewherethegirlswerestayingatthetime.

pronouncingthe

1.165 The always has the same spelling, but it has three differentpronunciations:/ðə/whenthefollowingwordbeginswithaconsonantsound

…thedictionary…thefirstact…thebigbox./ði/whenthefollowingwordbeginswithavowelsound

…theexhibition…theeffect…theimpression./ðiː/whenitisemphasized

Youdon’tmeantheErnestHemingway?Seeparagraph1.181formoreinformationaboutemphaticusesofthe.

thewithanoun

1.166 Youcanuse anounphrase consisting just of the and a nounwhenyouknowthatthepersonyouaretalkingorwritingtowillunderstandwhichperson,thing,orgroupyouarereferringto.TheexpeditionsailedoutintothePacific.…themostobnoxiousboyintheschool.Hestoppedthecarinfrontofthebakery.

nounsreferringtoonethingonly

1.167 Some nouns are used with the because they refer to only one person,thing,orgroup.Someof theseare specificnamesorpropernouns, forexample titles suchas thePope,unique things suchas theEiffelTower,andplacenamessuchastheAtlantic.…aconcertattendedbytheQueen.

WewentoncamelridestothePyramids.Seeparagraphs1.52to1.58formoreinformationaboutpropernouns.Somearesingularnouns,thatistheyrefertosomethingofwhichthereisonlyoneintheworld,suchastheground,orthemoon.Thesunbegantoturnred.InAprilandMaythewindblowssteadily.Seeparagraphs1.34to1.40formoreinformationaboutsingularnouns.

specificplacesandorganizations

1.168 Othernounsareused to talkabout justoneperson, thing,orgroup inaparticularplaceororganization,sothatifyouaretalkingaboutthatplaceororganizationor talking tosomeone in it,youcanuse just theand thenoun.Forexample,ifthereisonlyonestationinatown,thepeoplewholiveinthetownwilltalkaboutthestation.Similarly,peoplelivinginBritaintalkto each other about the economy, meaning the British economy, andpeopleworkingfor thesameorganizationmight talkabout theboss, theunion,orthecanteenwithoutneedingtospecifytheorganization.Thechurchhasbeenbrokeninto.There’sawindcomingofftheriver.Wehadtogetridofthedirector.Themayorisaforty-eight-year-oldformerlabourer.WhatisthePresidentdoingaboutallthis?

generalizingaboutpeopleandthings

1.169 Normally, if youwant to talk generally about all people or things of aparticulartype,youusethepluralformofanounwithoutadeterminer.However, there are some countable nouns that are used in the singularwiththetorefertosomethingmoregeneral.For example, you can use the theatre or the stage to talk about allentertainmentperformed in theatres.Similarly, thescreen refers to filmsingeneral,andthelawreferstothesystemoflawsinacountry.Forhim,thestagewasjustawayofearningaliving.

Hewasashandsomeinreallifeashewasonthescreen.Theydonothesitatetobreakthelaw.Somenouns that normally refer to an individual thingorperson canbeusedinthesingularwiththetorefergenerallytoasystemorserviceinaparticular place. For example, you can use the bus to talk about a busserviceandthephonetotalkaboutatelephonesystem.Howlongdoesittakeonthetrain?Werangfortheambulance.Nouns referring tomusical instrumentscanbeused in the singularwiththewhenyouaretalkingaboutsomeoneplaying,orbeingabletoplay,aparticularkindofinstrument.Youplaytheoboe,Isee,saidSimon.Iwasplayingthepianowhenhephoned.

usingadjectivesasnouns

1.170 Whenyouwant to talkgenerally aboutgroupsofpeoplewho share thesamecharacteristicorquality,youoftenchooseanadjectiveprecededbythe.Thisprojectisallaboutgivingemploymenttotheunemployed.Seeparagraphs1.66to1.72formoreinformationaboutusingadjectivesasnouns.

formalgeneralizations

1.171 Nounsreferringtoplantsandanimalscanbeusedinthesingularwiththewhenyouaremakingastatementabouteverymemberofaspecies.Forexample,ifyousayTheswifthaslong,narrowwings,youmeanthatallswiftshavelong,narrowwings.Theprimrosecangrowabundantlyonchalkbanks.Australiaisthehomeofthekangaroo.Similarly,anounreferringtoapartofthehumanbodycanbeusedwiththetorefertothatpartofanyone’sbody.Thesearteriessupplytheheartwithblood.…thearteriessupplyingthekidneys.

The is sometimes used with other nouns in the singular to make astatementaboutallthemembersofagroup.Thearticlefocusesonhowtoprotectthetherapistratherthanonhowtocurethepatient.These uses are fairly formal.They are not common in ordinary speech.Usually, if you want to make a statement about all the things of aparticularkind,youuse theplural formofanounwithoutadeterminer.Seeparagraph1.227formoreinformationaboutthis.

USAGENOTE

1.172 Manycommontimeexpressionsconsistofjusttheandanoun.Wewastedalotofmoneyinthepast.ThetrainleavesCardiffatfourintheafternoon.…thechangeswhicharetakingplaceatthemoment.SeeChapter4formoreinformationabouttimeexpressions.

referringback

1.173 In each of the paragraphs above showing uses of the and a noun, it ispossibletounderstandwhoorwhatisbeingreferredtobecausethenounphraseiscommonlyacceptedasreferringtooneparticularperson,thing,orgroup.However,youcanusethewithanynoun,ifitisobviouswhoorwhatyouarereferringtofromwhathasalreadybeensaidorwritten.Theusualwayofreferringbacktoanounistouseapronoun,butifthesecondreferencedoesnotcomeimmediatelyafterthefirstone,orifitisnotimmediatelyobviouswhichnounisbeingreferredto,youshouldusethe,andthenounagain.Forexample,ifyouhavealreadymentionedthatyou were in a train, and then continued to tell a story, you can sayafterwardsThetrainsuddenlystopped.

1.174 Youcanalsouse the andanounwhenyouare referring to someoneorsomethingcloselyconnectedwithsomethingyouhavejustmentioned.Forexample,youdonotusuallysayWetriedtogetintotheroom,butthedooroftheroomwaslocked.YousayWetriedtogetintotheroom,but

thedoorwas locked,because it isobviouswhichdooryouare referringto.Shestoppedandlitamatch.Thewindalmostblewouttheflame.

thewithlongernounphrases

1.175 Although there aremany situationswhere you use just the and a noun,there are other occasions when you need to add something else to thenoun in order to make it clear which person, thing, or group you arereferringto.

addingadjectives

1.176 Sometimesyoucanshowwhoorwhatyouarereferringtobyputtinganadjectivebetweentheandthenoun.Thisisthemainbedroom.Somebodyoughttohavedoneitlongago,remarkedthefatman.Sometimesyouneedtousemorethanoneadjective.Afterthecrossroadslookoutforthelargewhitebuilding.Formoreinformationaboutadjectives,seeparagraphs2.2to2.168.

adjectives:expanding

1.177 Whenyouuseanadjectivebetweentheandanoun,youdonotalwaysdoitinordertomakeclearwhoorwhatisbeingreferredto.Forexample,youmightwant toadd further informationaboutsomeoneor something that you have alreadymentioned. So, if you first refer tosomeoneasawomaninasentencesuchasAwomancameintotheroom,you might later want to refer to her as the unfortunate woman or thesmilingwoman.ThisisaverycommonuseinwrittenEnglish,especiallyinstories,butitisnotoftenusedinconversation.Theastonishedwaiterwasnowwatchingfromtheotherendoftheroom.Thepoorwomanhadwitnessedterribleviolence.Thelossofpressurecausedthespeedingcartogointoaskid.

addingclausesorphrases

1.178 Anotherwayof showingwhoorwhatyouare referring to isbyaddingextrainformationaftertheandanoun,forexampleaprepositionalphrase,a relativeclause, a to-infinitive, anadverbofplaceor time,or aphraseintroducedbyaparticiple.Soyoumightrefertoparticularpeopleatapartybyusingnounphrasessuchasthegirlintheyellowdress,thewomanwhospilledherdrink,orthemansmokingacigar.ThecarsinthedrivewayswereallFerrarisandPorsches.ThebookthatIrecommendnowcostsovertwentypounds.Thethingtoaimforisanofficeofyourown.Whomadethebedintheroomupstairs?Itdependsonthepersonbeinginterviewed.Formoreinformationaboutthistypeofextrainformationthatisaddedtoanoun,seeparagraphs2.272to2.302.

thewithuncountablenouns

1.179 Youdonotnormallyusethewithuncountablenounsbecausetheyreferto something in a general way. However, the is necessary if theuncountablenounisfollowedbyextrainformationsuchasaclauseoraphrasethatrelatesittoaparticularperson,thing,orgroup.For example, you cannot say I am interested in education of youngchildren. You have to say I am interested in the education of youngchildren.Babiesneedthecomfortoftheirmother’sarms.EventhehonestyofInspectorButlerwasindoubt.I’venoideaaboutthegeographyofScotland.Formore information about uncountable nouns, see paragraphs 1.23 to1.33.

superlatives

1.180 Theisalsousedwithsuperlativeadjectives.I’mnotthebestcookintheworld.

Theywenttothemostexpensiverestaurantintown.See paragraphs 2.112 to 2.122 for more information about superlativeadjectives.

emphasizingthe

1.181 Theisoftenusedinfrontofanountoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethingisthebestofitskind.NewZealandisnowtheplacetovisit.You can also use the in front of a person’s name to show that you arereferringtothemostfamouspersonwiththatname.YouactuallymettheGeorgeHarrison?When you use the in either of these ways, you emphasize it andpronounceit/ðiː/.

thewithindefinitedeterminers

1.182 Thecanbeusedinfrontofsomeindefinitedeterminers,usuallytogiveanindicationofamountorquantity.Theseindefinitedeterminersare:

fewlittlemanyother

…pleasuresknownonlytothefew.…acoupundertheleadershipoftheselectfew.Hewasoneofthefewwhoknewwheretofindme.Wehavedonethelittlethatisinourpower.You use the with other to refer to the second of two things,when youhavejustmentionedoneofthem.Themensatatoneendofthetableandthewomenattheother.Formoreinformationaboutindefinitedeterminers,seeparagraphs1.223

to1.250.

thewithnumbers

1.183 Theisusedwithoneandones.I’mgoingtohavethegreenone.TheshopwasdifferentfromtheonesIremembered.…apairofthoseoldglasses,theoneswiththosefunnysquarelenses.Theisalsousedwithothernumbers.Itisamistaketoconfusethetwo.Whyisshesodifferentfromtheothertwo?Seeparagraphs2.208to2.239formoreinformationaboutnumbers.

Definitedeterminers:usingthis,that,these,andthose1.184 Youusethedefinitedeterminersthis,that,these,andthosetotalkabout

peopleorthingsinadefiniteway.Youusethisandthesetotalkaboutpeopleandthingsthatareclosetoyouin place or time. When you talk about people or things that are moredistantinplaceortime,youusethatandthose.Youputthisandthat infrontofsingularnouns,uncountablenouns,andthesingularpronounone.Youputtheseandthoseinfrontofpluralnounsandthepluralpronounones.This, that, these, and those are often called demonstratives ordemonstrativeadjectives.

thisandthese

1.185 This and these are used to talk about people or things that are veryobviousinthesituationthatyouarein.Forexample, ifyouareinsideahouse,youcanrefertoitas thishouse. Ifyouareholdingsomekeys inyourhand,youcanrefertothemasthesekeys.Ifyouareataparty,youcanrefertoitasthisparty.Ihavelivedinthishousemyentirelife.Iamgoingtowalkupthesestepstowardsyou.I’llcomeassoonasthesemenhavefinishedtheirwork.

Ilikethisuniversity.Good evening. In this programme we are going to look at the way inwhichBritishmusichasdevelopedinrecentyears.When it isclearwhoorwhatyouare referring to,youcanuse this andtheseaspronouns.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.124to1.127.

1.186 This and these are also used in many expressions that refer to currentperiodsof time, forexample thismonth, thisweek,and thesedays.ThisuseisexplainedinChapter4.

thatandthose

1.187 Youusethatandthosewhenyouaretalkingaboutthingsorpeoplethatyoucanseebutthatarenotclosetoyou.Howmuchisitforthatbigbox?CanIhaveoneofthosebrochures?Canyoumovethosebooksoffthere?

1.188 Whenitisclearwhoorwhatyouaretalkingabout,youcanusethatandthoseaspronouns.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.124to1.127.Couldyoujustholdthat?Pleasedon’ttakethose.

USAGENOTE

1.189 Youcanshowthatyouarereferringtothesamepersonorthingyouhavejustmentionedbyusingthis,that,these,orthoseinfrontofanoun.Forexample,ifyouhavejustmentionedagirl,youcanrefertoherasthisgirlor that girl the second time you mention her. Normally, you use apronountorefertosomeoneorsomethingyouhavejustmentioned,butsometimesyoucannotdothisbecauseitmightnotbeclearwhoorwhatthepronounrefersto.Studentsandstaffsuggestbooksforthelibrary,andnormallywe’requitehappytogetthosebooks.Their house is in a valley. The people in that valley speak about thepeopleinthenextvalleyasforeigners.Theyhadalotofdiamonds,andtheyaskedherifshecouldpossiblygetthesediamondstoBritain.

The use of this, that, those, etc. to refer again to something that hasalreadybeenmentionedisfullyexplainedinparagraphs10.7to10.10.

1.190 IninformalEnglish,youcanalsousethatandthoseinfrontofanountotalkaboutpeopleorthingsthatarealreadyknowntothepersonyouarespeakingorwritingto.ThatidiotAntoniohasgoneandlockedourcabindoor.Havetheyfoundthosemissingchildrenyet?Doyourememberthatfunnylittleapartment?

1.191 Youcanusethatinfrontofanounwhenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthathasjusthappened.Iknewthatmeetingwouldbedifficult.Thatisusedasapronountotalkaboutsomethingthathasjusthappened.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.124to1.127.

usingthoseinsteadofthe

1.192 Inmore formal English, those can be used instead of the in front of apluralnounwhenthepluralnounisfollowedbyarelativeclause.Inthisuse,therelativeclausespecifiesexactlywhichgroupofpeopleorthingsarebeingreferredto.…thoseworkerswhoareemployedinlargeenterprises.The parents are not afraid to be firm about those matters that seemimportanttothem.

informaluseofthisandthese

1.193 In informalspokenEnglish,peoplesometimesuse thisand these infrontofnounsevenwhentheyarementioningsomeoneorsomethingforthefirsttime.Andthen thiswomancameup tomeandshesaid, IbelieveyouhaveagoddaughtercalledCeliaRavenscroft.Atschoolwehadtoweartheseawfulwhitecottonhats.

Possessivedeterminers:my,your,their,etc.1.194 You often want to show that a thing belongs to someone or that it is

connectedinsomewaywithsomeone.Onewayofdoing this is touse aword likemy,your, and their, whichtells youwho something belongs to.Thesewords are calledpossessivedeterminers.Areyourchildrenbilingual?Irememberhisnamenow.Theywouldbewelcometouseourlibrary.I’dbeenwaitingalongtimetoparkmycar.

tableofpossessivedeterminers

1.195 There are seven possessive determiners in English, and each one isassociatedwithaparticularpersonalpronoun:

singular plural1stperson my our2ndperson your3rdperson his

herits

their

Personalpronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.95to1.106.

BECAREFUL

1.196 Youdonotspellthepossessiveitswithanapostrophe.It’s isshortfor itis.

position

1.197 Possessivedeterminers,likeotherdeterminers,comeafteranywordslikeall or some of (called predeterminers), and before any numbers oradjectives.…allhisletters.…theirnextmessage.…mylittlefinger.…ourtwolifeboats.Seeparagraph1.251formoreinformationaboutpredeterminers.

BECAREFUL

1.198 In English, you do not usemore than one definite determiner before anoun.Therefore,possessivedeterminersmustbeusedontheirown.YoucannotsayI tookoff themyshoes.Youhavetochoosewhether tosayItookoffmyshoes,orItookofftheshoes.

agreementwithnoun

1.199 Youchoosewhichpossessivedeterminertouseaccordingtotheidentityofthepersonorthingthatownssomething.Forexample,ifyouwanttoidentifysomethingasbelongingtoorrelatingtoaparticularwoman,youalwaysuseher.Thefollowingnoundoesnotaffectthechoice.Itookoffmyshoes.Herhusbandremainedstanding.Hehadhishandsinhispockets.Shehadtogiveupherjob.Thegrouphelditsfirstmeetinglastweek.Thecreaturelifteditshead.…thetwodarkmen,glassesintheirhands,waitingsilently.…thecarcompaniesandtheirworkers.

useofown

1.200 Whenyouwant to drawattention to the fact that somethingbelongsorrelatestoaparticularpersonorthing,youcanusethewordownafterthepossessivedeterminer.Ihelpedhimtosomemorewaterbutleftmyownglassuntouched.Residentsareallowedtobringtheirownfurniturewiththemiftheywishtodoso.Makeyourowndecisions.Ihearditwithmyownears.Shefeltinchargeofherownaffairs.Ifyouuseanumberoradjectiveinthisstructure,youputthenumberoradjectiveafterown.…theirownthreechildren.Theplayersprovidedtheirownwhiteshorts.

usesofpossessives

1.201 Possessive determiners do not always show that what follows them isactuallypossessed(orowned)bysomeone.Sometimestheyjustshowthatwhatfollowsisconnectedorassociatedwithsomeoneinsomeway.Theythenturnedtheirattentiontootherthings.…thevitalityofourmusicandourculture.Insummer,hayfeverinterferedwithallheractivities.It’shisbrotherwhohastheworkshop.

1.202 Youcanuseapossessivedeterminer in frontofanoun that refers toanaction,inordertoshowwhoorwhatisdoingtheaction.…notlongafterourarrival.…hiscriticismoftheGovernment.…theirfightforsurvival.I’mwaitingforyourexplanation.Mostoftheirclaimswereworthy.Inthelastexample,theirclaimsreferstotheclaimsthattheyhavemade.

1.203 Youcanalsouseapossessivedeterminertosaywhoorwhatisaffectedbyanaction.Myappointmentasthefirstwomanchairmansymbolizeschange.…theredistributionofwealth,ratherthanitscreation.Theyexpressedtheirhorroratherdismissal.Inthelastexample,herdismissalreferstothefactthatshewasdismissedbysomeoneorbyacompany.In the first of the following examples,hissupportersmeans the peoplewhosupporthim.…Birchandhissupporters.Shereturnedtheringtoitsowner.

USAGENOTE

1.204 Sometimes in English the determiner the is used where there is anobvious possessive meaning. In these cases the possession is alreadymade clear by a preceding noun or pronoun. The following paragraphsexplain the situations in which you use the rather than a possessive

determiner.1.205 Whenyourefertoaspecificpartofsomeone’sbody,younormallyusea

possessivedeterminer.Shehassomethingonherfeetandabaginherhand.Nancysuddenlytookmyarm.Thechildrenworenothingontheirfeet.Shethankedhimshylyandpattedhisarm.Iopenedthecupboardandtheyfellonmyhead.Heshookhishead.However,whenyouaredescribinganactionthatsomeonedoestoapartofsomeoneelse’sbody,youoftenusethedefinitearticle(the),especiallywhenthebodypartistheobjectofaprepositionandwhentheobjectoftheverb is apronoun.For example, if you sayShehitmeon thehead,head is theobjectof theprepositiononandme is theobjectof theverbhit.Ipattedhimonthehead.Hetookherbythearmandbegandrawingheraway.Youusethedefinitearticlebecausetheownerofthebodyparthasalreadybeenidentified,andyoudonotneedtorepeatthisinformation.Similarly,iftheobjectoftheverbisareflexivepronounsuchasmyself,yourself, and so on, you use the definite article. This is because thereflexivepronounalreadyreferstoyouortothepersonwhoisdoingtheaction,soyoudonotneedtorepeatthisinformationbyusingapossessivedeterminer.Iaccidentallyhitmyselfontheheadwiththebrushhandle.Wecanpatourselvesonthebackforbringingupourchildren.Usesofreflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.111to1.118.

1.206 Ifyouwanttodescribesomethingthatyoudotoyourselforthatsomeoneelsedoestothemselves,younormallyuseapossessivedeterminer.Shewasbrushingherhair.‘I’mgoingtobrushmyteeth,’hesaid.Shegrittedherteethandcarriedon.Hewalkedintothekitchenandshookhishead.

BECAREFUL

1.207 You usually use possessive determiners when you refer to people oranimals.Youdonotusuallyusethemtorefertothingsthatarenotalive.Itis,forexample,moreusualtosaythedoororthedooroftheroomthanitsdoor.

genericuse

1.208 Possessive determiners are sometimes used to talk about things thatbelong to or are associatedwith people in general, in a similarway togeneric pronouns. For more information on generic pronouns, seeparagraphs1.119to1.123.Yourcanbeusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthatbelongstoorisassociatedwithpeople ingeneral,orwithaperson ina situation thatyouareimagining.Caneatingalow-fatdietweakenyourhair?Goingtothegymisgoodforyourgeneralhealth.Part of the process involves discussing your decision with a careercounsellor.InmoreformalEnglish,one’sissometimesusedinsteadofyour.Asatisfyingjobcanbringstructureandmeaningtoone’slife.Ourcanbeusedtotalkaboutallofmankindorsociety.Beingachildisnoteasyinoursociety.Theircanbeusedtorefer toapersonwhenyoudonotknow,ordonotwanttospecify,whetherthatpersonismaleorfemale.The most important asset a person has is their ability to work. Eachwinnerreceivedaplaquewiththeirawardtitle.

otherpossessives

1.209 There are other ways of showing that something is owned by orconnectedwithsomeoneorsomethingelse.Forexample,youcanuse’s(apostrophes)oraprepositionalphrasebeginningwithof.Mary’sdaughteriscalledElizabeth.

Veryoftenthepersonappointedhasnoknowledgeofthatcompany’sendproduct.…thehouseofarichbankerinParis.In the opinion of the team, what would they consider to be absolutelynecessary?

possessivedeterminersusedintitles

1.210 Possessive determiners are also sometimes used in titles such as YourMajestyandHisExcellency.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph1.56.

Thepossessiveform:apostrophes(’s)1.211 You usually show that something belongs to or is associated with a

specific, named person by adding ’s to the name of the person, and byplacingthispossessiveforminfrontofthethingthatbelongstothem,orisassociatedwiththem.Forexample,ifJohnownsamotorbike,youcanrefertoitas‘John’smotorbike’.SylviaputherhandonJohn’sarm.…themainfeaturesofMrBrown’seconomicpolicy.Whenyouuseanounratherthananametorefertotheperson,thenounphrase containing the possessive form also contains a determiner in theusualway.…hisgrandmother’shouse.Yourmother’sbesthandbag.Note that the determiner applies to the possessive form and not to thenounthatisbeingmodifiedbythepossessive.

spellingandpronunciation

1.212 Thespellingandpronunciationpatternsusedtoformpossessiveschangeaccording to the spellingandpronunciationof thenameornoun.TheseareexplainedintheReferencesection.

otherusesof’s

1.213 Notethatinadditiontobeingthepossessiveform,thepattern’scanalsobeaddedtowordsasacontractionof isorhas.This isexplained in the

Referencesection.

showingcloseconnection

1.214 Apostrophes(’s)ismostoftenaddedtoanounreferringtoapersonorananimal.Iworeapairofmysister’sboots.Philipwatchedhisfriend’sreaction.Billypattedthedog’shead.Itcanalsobeusedtoshowthatsomethingbelongstoorisassociatedwithagroupofpeopleoraninstitution.Sherunstheforeignexchangedeskforthebank’scorporateclients.Theyalsopreparetheuniversity’sbudget.…thepaper’spoliticaleditor,MrFredEmery.TherewasaraidontheDemocraticParty’sheadquarters.Whatisyourgovernment’spolicy?

1.215 Apostrophe s (’s) is sometimes added to a noun referring to an objectwhenspecifyingapartofitoraqualityorfeaturethatithas.Ilikethecar’sdesign.Youcanpredictacomputer’sbehaviourbecauseitfollowsrules.Apostrophe s (’s) is used after nouns and names referring to places tospecifysomethinginthatplace.Heistheadministrativeheadofthecountry’sbiggestcity.Thecity’spopulationisindecline.…Britain’smostfamouscompany.

1.216 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethingbelongsorrelatestoaparticularperson and nobody else, you use own. Own can be used after thepossessive form of a name or noun, as well as after a possessivedeterminer.ProfessorWilson’sownanswermaybeunacceptable.WemustdependonDavid’sownassessment.Ifyouarespecifyinganumberofthings,youputthenumberafterown.…theDoctor’sowntworooms.

otherstructures

1.217 Whenyou are talking about two thingsof the same type that belong todifferentpeopleyoucanusethepossessiveformofanameornounlikeapossessivepronounsothatyoucanavoidrepeatingthethingitself.Inthefirst example below, her brother’s is used instead of her brother’sappearance.Herappearanceisverydifferenttoherbrother’s.MyroomisnexttoKaren’s.Itisyourresponsibilityratherthanyourparents’.Thepossessive form can also be used on its own to refer to someone’shomeorplaceofwork.He’sroundatDavid’s.Shestoppedoffatthebutcher’sforapieceofsteak.Shehasn’tbeenbacktothedoctor’ssince.Possessivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.107to1.110.

usedinprepositionalphraseswithof

1.218 Thepossessiveformcanbeusedinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithofafteranounphrase.Youusethisstructurewhenyouaretalkingaboutoneofanumberofthingsthatbelongtosomeoneorareassociatedwiththem,ratherthanaboutsomethingunique.Julia,afriendofJenny’s,wastheretoo.Thatwordwasafavouriteofyourfather’s.

USAGENOTE

1.219 Possessive formscanalsobeused to refer to thingsofaparticular typethatareusuallyassociatedwithsomeone.…awomandressedinaman’sraincoat.…apoliceman’suniform.…women’smagazines.…themen’slavatory.

1.220 Thepossessive formcansometimesbeusedwithnouns that refer toanactioninordertoshowwhoorwhatisperformingtheaction.

…thebankingservice’srapidgrowth.…Madeleine’sarrivalatFairwaterHouseSchool.Notethatphrasesbeginningwithofareusedmorecommonlytodothis,andthattheyaremoreformalthanthisuseofpossessiveforms.Theuseof prepositional phrases beginning with of to show who or what isperforminganactionisexplainedinparagraph2.282.

1.221 Sometimesyoucanaddapostrophes(’s)toanounreferringtothethingaffected by the performer of an action and put it in front of the nounreferringtothatperformer.Forexample,youcantalkaboutthescheme’ssupporters.…Christ’sfollowers.…thecar’sowner.Sometimesanapostrophes(’s)structurecanbeusedtorefertothethingaffectedbyanaction.…Capello’sappointmentasEnglandmanager.Noteagainthatofstructuresaremorecommonlyusedtodothis.

otherwaysofshowingpossession

1.222 It is also possible to show possession by using either a prepositionalphrasebeginningwithof,orastructurewithanounmodifierinit.Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofareexplainedinparagraphs2.277to2.283.Nounmodifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.169to2.174.

Indefinitedeterminers:all,some,many,etc.1.223 Indefinitedeterminers are used in noun phraseswhen you are talking

aboutpeopleorthingsinageneralway,withoutidentifyingthem.Hereisalistofindefinitedeterminers:

aallananotherany

botheacheitherenougheveryfewlittlemanymoremostmuchneithernootherseveralsome

A, and an are the most common indefinite determiners; they aresometimescalledtheindefinitearticle.Formoreinformationaboutaandan,seeparagraphs1.228to1.235.For more information about the other indefinite determiners, seeparagraphs1.236to1.250.

withcountablenouns

1.224 Aandanareusedwithsingularcountablenouns,andshowthatyouaretalkingaboutjustonepersonorthing.Another is used with singular countable nouns and other with pluralcountablenouns,butonlyafteroneormoreofthesametypeofpersonorthinghasbeenmentioned.Any canbeusedwith singular andplural countable nouns to talk aboutone ormore people or things.You use enough, few,many,more,most,several, and some with plural countable nouns to show that you aretalking about a number of people or things. Each of these determinersindicates a different set or group within the total number. For more

informationabouttheirmeanings,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph1.236.All,both,each,either,andeveryshowthatyouaretalkingaboutthetotalnumber of people or things involved.Both and either specify that onlytwopeopleor thingsare involved.Both is usedwith aplural noun, andeitherwithasingularnoun.All,each,andeveryusuallyshowthat therearemorethantwo.Allisusedwithapluralnoun,andeachandeverywithasingularnoun.No andneither refer to the total number of things involved in negativestatements.Noisusedwithsingularorpluralnouns,andneitheronlywithsingular nouns.No and neither are covered in the section on negativewordsinChapter5.For more information about countable nouns, see paragraphs 1.15 to1.22.

withuncountablenouns

1.225 Foruncountablenouns,any,enough, little,more,most,much,andsomeare used to talk about a quantity of something.No and all indicate thetotalquantityofit.Formoreinformationaboutuncountablenouns, seeparagraphs1.23 to1.33.

BECAREFUL

1.226 A,an,another,both, each, either, every, few,many,neither, and severalarenotusuallyusedwithuncountablenouns.

usingnounswithoutdeterminers

1.227 Whenyouarereferringtothingsorpeopleinanindefiniteway,youcansometimesuseanounwithoutadeterminer.…raisingmoneyfromindustry,government,andtrusts.Permissionshouldbeaskedbeforevisitorsareinvited.Uncountablenounsareusuallyusedwithoutadeterminer.Healthandeducationaremattersthatmostvotersfeelstronglyabout.

Wealth,likepower,tendstocorrupt.Pluralnounsareusedwithoutadeterminerwhenyouarereferringtoallthepeopleorthingsofaparticularkind.Dogsneedaregularbalanceddiet,notjustmeat.Arethereanyjobsthatmencandothatwomencan’t?Plural nouns can also be used without a determiner to talk about anunspecifiednumberofthings.Teachersshouldreadstoriestochildren.Catsanddogsgetfleas.Formoreinformationaboutpluralnouns,seeparagraphs1.41to1.46.

Aandan1.228 Aandanarethemostcommonindefinitedeterminers.Theyareusedfor

talkingaboutapersonorthingwhenitisnotclearornotimportantwhichone is intended. You put a or an in front of the singular form of acountablenoun.He’sboughtthechildrenapuppy.Hewaseatinganapple.Anoldladywascallingtohim.

choosingaoran

1.229 Youuseawhenthefollowingwordbeginswithaconsonantsound.…apiece…agoodteacher…alanguageclass.This includessomewordsthatbeginwithavowel in theirwrittenform,becausethefirstsoundisaysound,/j/.…auniversity…aEuropeanlanguage.Youuseanwhenthefollowingwordbeginswithavowelsound.…anexample…anartexhibition…anearlytrain.This includes some words that begin with the letter h in their writtenform,becausethehisnotpronounced.…anhonestpolitician…quarterofanhour.Aisusuallypronounced/ə/.Anisusuallypronounced/ən/.

notbeingspecificaboutwhichpersonorthingyouarereferringto

1.230 Peopleoftensaythatyouuseaoranwhenyouarementioningsomethingfor thefirst time,but this isnotaveryhelpful rulebecause therearesomanysituationswhereyouusetheforthefirstmentionofsomething.See,forexample,paragraphs1.166,1.167,and1.168.You usually use a or an when it is not clear or not important whichspecificpersonorthingisbeingreferredto.Shepickedupabook.Afterweeksoflooking,weeventuallyboughtahouse.AcolleagueandIgotsomemoneytodoresearchonrats.

addingextrainformation

1.231 Sometimes,aoranissimplyfollowedbyanoun.IgotapostcardfromSusan.TheFBIisconductinganinvestigation.Butifyouwanttoaddextrainformation,youcanaddanadjective,orafollowingclauseorphrase.ImetaSwedishgirlonthetrainfromCopenhagen.I’vebeenreadinganinterestingarticleinTheEconomist.Wehadtowriteastoryaboutourparents’childhood.Ichoseapicturethatremindedmeofmyowncountry.

aoranafterlinkingverbs

1.232 Youcanalsouseaoranafteralinkingverb.Sheisamodelandanartist.Hisfatherwasanalcoholic.Noisewasconsideredanuisance.Hisbrotherwasasensitivechild.Formoreinformationaboutlinkingverbs,seeChapter3.

aandanwithuncountablenouns

1.233 Sometimes,a oran are usedwith an uncountable noun, especially one

thatrelatestohumanemotionsormentalactivity.Thisonlyhappenswhenthe uncountable noun is limited by an adjective, or a phrase or clausegivingmoreinformation.Ageneraleducationisperhapsmoreimportantthananexactknowledgeofsomeparticulartheory.Shehadaneagernessforlife.

usingindividualstogeneralize

1.234 You can use a or an with a noun when you are using one individualpersonorthingtomakeageneralstatementaboutallpeopleorthingsofthattype.Forexample,ifyousayAgunmustbekeptinasafeplace,youaretalkingaboutanindividualguninordertomakeageneralstatementaboutallguns.Acomputercanonlydowhatyouprogramittodo.Adoglikestoeatfarmoremeatthanahumanbeing.Anunmarriedmotherwaslookeddownon.Thisisnottheusualwayofreferringtogroups.Normally,ifyouwanttomakeastatementaboutallthepeopleorthingsofaparticularkind,youusethepluralformofanounwithoutadeterminer.Seeparagraph1.227formoreinformationaboutthis.

nounsreferringtoonethingonly

1.235 Aandanaresometimesusedwithsingularnounssuchassun,moon,andskythatrefertojustonething.Younormallyusethewiththesenouns,butyouuseaoranwhenyouaredrawingattentiontosomespecialfeaturebyaddingamodifierorafollowingphraseorclausetothenoun.Thisuseisparticularlycommoninliterature.Wedroveunderagloomysky.Aweaksunshinesonthepromenade.Formoreinformationonsingularnouns,seeparagraphs1.34to1.40.

Otherindefinitedeterminers

some

1.236 Some isusuallyused to show that there is aquantityof somethingor anumber of things or people, without being precise. It is used withuncountablenounsandpluralcountablenouns.Someisusuallyusedinaffirmativestatements.Thereissomeevidencethatthesystemworks.There’ssomechocolatecakeoverthere.Ihadsomegoodideas.Somecanbeusedinquestions,whenyouexpecttheanswertobeyes.Couldyougivemesomeexamples?Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?Someisalsousedtomeanquitealargeamountornumber.Forexample,inIdidnotmeetheragainforsomeyears,somemeansalmostthesameasseveralormany.Youwillbeunabletorestartthecarforsometime.IttooksomeyearsforDantorealizethetruth.

1.237 You can also use some in front of numbers, in slightly more literaryEnglish,toshowthatyouarenotbeingtotallyaccurate.Iwassomefifteenmilesbyseafromthenearestvillage.…ananimalweighingsomefivetons.

1.238 When you want to emphasize that you do not know the identity of apersonorthing,oryouthinktheir identityisnot important,youcanusesomewithasingularcountablenoun,insteadofaoran.Moststaffmemberswillspendafewweeksinsomedevelopingcountry.Supposingyouhadsomeeccentricwhocameandofferedyouathousandpounds.

any

1.239 Any is used before plural nouns and uncountable nouns when you arereferringtoaquantityofsomethingthatmayormaynotexist.Thepatientsknowtheirrightslikeanyotherconsumers.Checkonlineifyou’reinanydoubt.Youcanstopatanytimeyoulike.

Anyisalsousedinquestionsaskingwhethersomethingexistsornot.Itisalsousedinnegativestatementstosaythatsomethingdoesnotexist.Doyouhaveanyadviceonthat?Doyouhaveanyvacanciesforbarstaff?Ithasn’tmadeanydifference.NobodyinherhouseknowsanyEnglish.Iranguptoseeiftherewereanyticketsleft.QuestionsandnegativestatementsareexplainedfurtherinChapter5.Note that you can use any with singular countable nouns to talk aboutsomeone or something of a particular type, when you do not want tomentionaspecificpersonorthing.Anybigtincontainerwilldo.CarscanberentedatalmostanyUSairport.Any can also be used as a pronoun. See paragraphs 1.93 to 1.161 formoreinformationaboutpronouns.It isalsousedin if-clauses.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeChapter8.

anotherandother

1.240 Anotherisusedwithsingularcountablenounstotalkaboutanadditionalpersonorthingofthesametypeasyouhavealreadymentioned.CouldIhaveanothercupofcoffee?Heopenedanothershoplastmonth.Itcanalsobeusedbeforenumberstotalkaboutmorethanoneadditionalthing.Margaretstayingwithusforanothertendays.Fiveofficialsweresackedandanotherfourarrested.Otherisusedwithpluralnouns,oroccasionallywithuncountablenouns.Otherpeoplemusthavethoughtlikethis.Theyareeitherasleeporentirelyabsorbedinplayorotheractivity.

selectingfromagroup

1.241 Enoughisusedtosaythatthereisasmuchofsomethingasisneeded,or

asmany thingsasareneeded.Youcan thereforeuseenough in frontofuncountablenounsorpluralnouns.There’senoughspaceforthechildrentorunaround.Theyweren’tgettingenoughcustomers.Manyindicatesthatthereisalargenumberofthings,withoutbeingveryprecise.Youusemanywithapluralcountablenoun.Hespokemanydifferentlanguages.Whenyouwanttoemphasizethatthereisonlyasmallnumberofthingsofaparticularkind,youusefewwithapluralcountablenoun.Therearefewdrugsthatactquicklyenoughtobeeffective.Therewerefewdoctorsavailable.Fewisquiteformal.InlessformalEnglish,youcanusenotmanywiththesamemeaning.Therearen’tmanygardenerslikehim.Most indicates nearly all of a group or amount. You usemost with anuncountablenounorapluralcountablenoun.Mostpeoplerecoverbutthediseasecanbefatal.Mostfarmersarestillusingtheoldmethods.Severalusuallyindicatesanimprecisenumberthatisnotverylarge,butismorethantwo.Youuseseveralwithapluralcountablenoun.Severalprojectshadtobepostponed.Ihadseenherseveraltimesbefore.Therewereseveralreasonsforthis.

all,both,andeither

1.242 Allincludeseverypersonorthingofaparticularkind.Youuseallwithanuncountablenounorapluralcountablenoun.Theybelievethatallprisonersshouldbetreatedthesame.Both is used to say something about two people or things of the samekind.Youusebothwithapluralcountablenoun.Thetwopeopleorthingshave usually been mentioned or are obvious from the context. Both issometimes used to emphasize that two people or things are involved,

ratherthanjustone.

Therewereexcellentperformancesfrombothactresses.Denisheldhiscocoainbothhands.Eitherisalsousedtotalkabouttwothings,butusuallyindicatesthatonlyoneofthetwoisinvolved.Youuseeitherwithasingularcountablenoun.Whenitispartofthesubjectofaclause,theverbisinthesingular.Noargumentcouldmoveeitheroldgentlemanfromthisdecision.Ifeither parent has the disease, there is amuchhigher chance that thechildwilldevelopit.Notethateithercanmeanbothof twothings,especiallywhenit isusedwithendandside.Theystoodoneithersideofthebed.

eachandevery

1.243 Youuseeachandeverywhenyouaretalkingaboutallthemembersofagroupofpeopleorthings.Youuseeachwhenyouarethinkingaboutthemembers as individuals, and every when you are making a generalstatement about all of them.Each andevery are followedby a singularcountablenoun.Eachseatwascoveredwithawhitelacecover.Theywouldrushouttomeeteachvisitor.Thisnewwealthcanbeseenineveryvillage.Everychildwouldhavemilkeveryday.Eachapplicanthasfivechoices.IagreewitheverywordPetersays.Youcanmodifyevery butnoteach.Youcan say things such asAlmostevery chair is broken orNot every chair is broken but you cannot sayAlmosteachchairisbrokenorNoteachchairisbroken.Thisisbecauseeachisslightlymorepreciseanddefinitethanevery.Notethateachcanbeusedwhentalkingabouttwopeopleorthings,buteveryisonlyusedfornumberslargerthantwo.

littleandmuch

1.244 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatthereisonlyasmallamountofsomething,youuselittle.Youusemuchtoemphasizealargeamount.Littleandmuchareusedwithuncountablenouns.Littleisusedonlyinaffirmativestatements.Itisnotusedinquestionsornegatives.Therewaslittleapplause.We’vemadelittleprogress.Wehaveverylittleinformation.Littleisquiteformal.Inlessformaltexts,notmuchismorecommon.Forexample, instead of sayingWe’vemade little progress, you can sayWehaven’tmademuchprogress.Muchisusuallyusedinquestionsandnegatives.Doyouwatchmuchtelevision?HedidnotspeakmuchEnglish.Verymuchisusedonlyinnegativestatements.Forexample,Idon’thaveverymuchsugarmeansIhaveonlyasmallquantityofsugar.Ihaven’tgivenverymuchattentiontothisproblem.Muchisusedinaffirmativestatementswhenitismodifiedbyanadverbsuchastoo,sooras.Itwouldtaketoomuchtime.Provideasmuchinformationasyoucanabouttheproperty.In more formal English, much can be used in affirmative statementswithout an adverb. This usage is most common with abstract nouns,particularlythoserelatingtodiscussion,debateandresearch.The subject of company annual accounts is generating much debateamongaccountantsandanalysts.Theteam’sfindingshavecausedmuchexcitementamongmedicalexperts.After much speculation, intelligence agencies now believe that hesurvived.Usually, though, much is not used in affirmative statements. Instead,people generally use a lot of and, in less formal texts, lots of. Forexample,peoplewouldnotusuallysayIhavemuchworktodo; instead,theywouldsayIhavealotofworktodo.Formoreinformationona lot

of,see2.176.

certain,numerous,andvarious

1.245 Some other words can be indefinite determiners, such as certain,numerous, and various. You use certain, numerous and various with apluralcountablenoun.Certainisusedtorefertosomemembersofagroup,withoutspecifyingwhichones.Wehavecertainideasaboutwhattopicsaresuitable.Numerous,likemany,indicatesalargenumberinanimpreciseway.Ihavereceivednumerousrequestsforinformation.Various is used to emphasize that you are referring to several differentthingsorpeople.WelookedatschoolsinvariousEuropeancountries.

more,few,andless

1.246 Therearethreecomparativesthataredeterminers.Moreisusedinfrontofpluralanduncountablenouns,usuallywiththan,torefertoaquantityoramountofsomethingthatisgreaterthananotherquantityoramount.HedoesmorehoursthanIdo.Hisvisitmightdomoreharmthangood.Butmoreisalsooftenusedtorefertoanadditionalquantityofsomethingratherthanincomparisons.Moreteachersneedtoberecruited.Weneedmoreinformation.Less is used to refer to an amount of something that is smaller thananotheramount.Fewerisusedtorefertoagroupofthingsthatissmallerthan another group.Less is usually used before uncountable nouns andfewerbeforepluralnouns,butininformalEnglishlessisalsousedbeforepluralnouns.Thepoorhavelessaccesstoeducation.…machinerywhichuseslessenergy.

Asaresult,hefoundlesstimethanhewouldhavehopedforhishobbies.Therearefewertreeshere.Formoreinformationaboutcomparison,seeparagraphs2.103to2.139.

otherexpressions

1.247 Someotherexpressionsalsobehavelikeindefinitedeterminers:a few,alittle,agoodmany,agreatmany.Thesehaveaslightlydifferentmeaningfromthesingleworddeterminersfew,little,andmany.If you are mentioning a small number of things, but without anyemphasis,youcanuseafewwithpluralcountablenouns.TheywenttoSanDiegoforafewdays.Afewyearsagowesetupafactory.Iusuallydoafewjobsforhiminthehouse.Similarly,ifyouarejustmentioningasmallamountofsomethingwithoutanyemphasis,youcanusealittlewithuncountablenouns.Hespreadalittlehoneyonasliceofbread.IhavetospendalittletimeinOxford.Charlesishavingalittletrouble.However,a goodmany anda great many are more emphatic forms ofmany.Ihaven’tseenherforagoodmanyyears.Hewroteagreatmanynovels.

modifyingdeterminers:fourmorerooms,toomuchtime

1.248 Some indefinite determiners can be modified by very, too, and far, orsometimesbyanotherindefinitedeterminer.Youcanmodifymorewithnumbersorwithotherindefinitedeterminers.Downstairstherearefourmorerooms.Therehadbeennomoreaccidents.Youwillneverhavetodoanymorework.Youcanusetoomanyortoomuch tosay thataquantity ismore thaniswantedorneeded,andtoofewortoolittleifitisnotenough.

Thereweretoomanycompetitors.TheygavetoomuchpowertotheTreasury.There’stoolittleliteratureinvolved.Youcanuseverybeforefew,little,many,andmuch.Youcanalsosayaverylittleoraverygreatmany.Verymanywomenhavemadetheirmarkonindustry.Veryfewcarshadreversinglights.Ihadverylittlemoneyleft.

usingone

1.249 Youuseoneasadeterminerwhenyouhavebeentalkingorwritingabouta group of people or things and you want to say something about aparticularmember of the group.One is used instead of a or an and isslightlymoreemphatic.Wehadonecasethatdraggedonforacoupleofyears.Theycriticisemeallthetime,wroteonewoman.Iknowonehouseholdwherethathappened,actually.Theuseofoneasanumberisexplainedinparagraphs2.214to2.215.

1.250 Manydeterminersarealsopronouns;thatis,theycanbeusedwithoutafollowingnoun.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs1.154to1.161.

predeterminers:allthepeople,quitealongtime

1.251 Normally,adetermineristhefirstwordinanounphrase.However,thereisaclassofwordscalledpredeterminerswhichcancomein frontofadeterminer.Hereisalistofpredeterminers:

allbothdoublehalfmany

quartertwice~quiterathersuchwhat

Thefirstgroupareusedtotalkaboutamountsorquantities.Allcanalsobeusedtorefertoeverypartofsomething.Whenusedwiththismeaningitisusedwithanuncountablenoun.Alltheboysstartedtogiggle.Hewillgiveyoualltheinformation.Allthesepeoplekneweachother.Ishallmissallmyfriends.Iinvitedboththeboys.Boththesepartiessharedonebasicbelief.Shepaiddoublethesumtheyaskedfor.I’mgettingtwicethepayIusedtoget.Inthesecondgroup,quiteandrathercanbeusedeithertoemphasizeortoreducetheeffectofwhatisbeingsaid.Inspeech,themeaningismadeclearbyyourtoneofvoice.Inwriting,it issometimesdifficult toknowwhichmeaningisintendedwithoutreadingmoreofthetext.Ittakesquitealongtimetogetadivorce.Itwasquiteashock.Seafordisratherapleasanttown.Itwasratheradisaster.Suchandwhatareusedforemphasis.Hehassuchabeautifulvoice.Whatamess!

Chapter2Giving information about people and things:adjectives,numbers,andothermodifiers

2.1–2 Introduction

2.2–168 Describingpeopleandthings:adjectives2.19–21 Adjectivestructures2.22–25 Identifyingqualities:asadstory,aprettygirl2.26–29 Identifyingtype:financialhelp,abdominalpains2.30–35 Identifyingcolours:colouradjectives2.36–39 Showingstrongfeelings:complete,absolute,etc.

2.40 Makingthereferencemoreprecise:postdeterminers2.41–53 Specialclassesofadjectives2.54–62 Positionofadjectivesinnounphrases2.63–76 Specialforms:-ingadjectives2.77–93 Specialforms:-edadjectives2.94–102 Compoundadjectives2.103–111 Comparingthings:comparatives2.112–122 Comparingthings:superlatives2.123–139 Otherwaysofcomparingthings:sayingthatthingsaresimilar2.140–156 Talkingaboutdifferentamountsofaquality2.157–168 Sayingthingsaredifferent

2.169–174 Modifyingusingnouns:nounmodifiers

2.175–207 Talkingaboutquantitiesandamounts2.176–193 Talkingaboutamountsofthings:alotofideas,plentyofshops2.194–207 Talkingaboutparticularamountsofthings:apieceofpaper,adropofwater

2.208–271 Referringtoanexactnumberofthings:numbers2.213–231 Talkingaboutthenumberofthings:cardinalnumbers2.232–239 Referringtothingsinasequence:ordinalnumbers

2.240–249 Talkingaboutanexactpartofsomething:fractions2.250–257 Talkingaboutmeasurements2.258–263 Talkingaboutage2.264–271 Approximateamountsandmeasurements

2.272–302 Expandingthenounphrase2.275–290 Nounswithprepositionalphrases2.291–292 Nounswithadjectives2.293–302 Nounsfollowedbyto-infinitive,-edparticiple,or-ingparticiple:somethingtoeat,a

girlcalledPatricia,abasketcontainingeggs

2 Giving information about people andthings: adjectives, numbers, and othermodifiers

Introduction2.1 In the previous chapter the use of nouns, pronouns, and determiners to

nameandidentifypeopleandthingswasexplained.Thischapterexplainsways of givingmore information about the people and things that havealreadybeennamedoridentified.Onewayofgivingmore informationwithinanounphraseaboutpeopleor things isby theuseofanadjective, suchassmall,political, orblue.Adjectivescanbeusedasmodifiersofanounorafterlinkingverbs.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs2.2to2.168.Sometimes,nouns, rather than adjectives, are used tomodify the noun.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.169to2.174.Thereareothergroupsofwordsthatareusedbeforeanounphrasetogivemore information about people and things.They are linked to the nounphrasebyof.Theseincludecertainindefinitedeterminerssuchasmanyof and some of (explained in paragraphs 2.176 to 2.193), and otherexpressions that are used for describing a part or amount of something,suchasapieceofandabottleof(explainedinparagraphs2.194to2.207).Numbersandfractionsarealsousedtoindicatetheamountofpeopleorthingsyouaretalkingabout.Numbersareexplainedinparagraphs2.208to2.239andfractionsareexplainedinparagraphs2.240to2.249.The other way of givingmore informationwithin a noun phrase aboutpeopleorthingsisbyusingaqualifier,thatis,givingextrainformationintheformofaphraseoraclauseafterthenountoexpanditsmeaning.This

isexplainedinparagraphs2.272to2.302.

Describingpeopleandthings:adjectives2.2 Whenyouwanttogivemoreinformationaboutsomethingthanyoucan

give by using a noun alone, you can use an adjective to identify it ordescribeitinmoredetail.…anewidea.…newideas.…newcreativeideas.Ideasareimportant.…tosuggestthatnewideasareuseful.

mainpointsaboutadjectives

2.3 ThemostimportantthingstonoticeaboutanadjectiveinEnglisharewhatstructureitisin(e.g.beforeanounorafteralinkingverb)what type of adjective it is (e.g. describing a quality or placing the

nouninaparticularclass).

BECAREFUL

2.4 The form of an adjective does not change: you use the same form forsingularandpluralandforsubjectandobject.Wewerelookingforagoodplacetocamp.Thenextgoodplacewasforty-fivemilesfurtheron.Goodplacestofishwerehardtofind.Wefoundhardlyanygoodplaces.

structure

2.5 Adjectivesarenearlyalwaysusedinconnectionwithanounorpronountogiveinformationabouttheperson,thing,orgroupthatisbeingreferredto. When this information is not the main purpose of a statement,adjectivesareplacedinfrontofanoun,asinhotcoffee.Theuseofadjectivesinanounphraseisexplainedinparagraph2.19.

2.6 Sometimes, however, the main purpose of a statement is to give theinformationexpressedbyanadjective.Whenthishappens,adjectivesareplacedafteralinkingverbsuchasbeorbecome,asinIamcoldandHebecame ill. The use of adjectives after a linking verb is explained inparagraphs3.122to3.137.

typesofadjective

2.7 Thereisalargegroupofadjectivesthatidentifyqualitiesthatsomeoneorsomethinghas.Thisgroupincludeswordssuchashappyandintelligent.Thesearecalledqualitativeadjectives.Qualitativeadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.22to2.25.

2.8 There is another large group of adjectives that identify someone orsomething as a member of a class. This group includes words such asfinancialandintellectual.Thesearecalledclassifyingadjectives.Classifyingadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.26to2.28.Someadjectivesarebothqualitativeandclassifying.Theseareexplainedinparagraph2.29.

2.9 Thereisasmallgroupofadjectivesthatidentifythecolourofsomething.This group includeswords likeblue andgreen. They are called colouradjectives.Colouradjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.30to2.35.

2.10 Another small group of adjectives are used to emphasize your feelingsabout the person or thing you are talking about. These adjectives arecalled emphasizing adjectives, and they include adjectives such ascomplete,absolute,andutter.Emphasizingadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.36to2.39.

2.11 Thereisasmallgroupofadjectivesthatareusedinaverysimilarwaytodeterminers(seeparagraphs1.162to1.251)tomakethereferencemoreprecise.Thesearecalledpostdeterminersbecausetheirplaceinanounphraseisimmediately after the determiner, if there is one, and before any otheradjectives.Postdeterminersareexplainedinparagraph2.40.

structuralrestrictions

2.12 Mostadjectivescanbeusedeitherbeforethenounorafteralinkingverb.However, there are some that can be used only in one position or theother.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.41to2.53.

2.13 Therearea fewadjectives thatcanbeused immediatelyafter thenoun.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs2.58to2.62.

orderofadjectives

2.14 Whentwoormoreadjectivesareusedinastructure,theyusuallyoccurinaparticularorder.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.54to2.57.

-ingand-edadjectives

2.15 Therearea largenumberofEnglishadjectivesending in -ing,manyofwhicharerelatedtothe-ingparticipleofaverb.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled-ingadjectives.TherearealsoalargenumberofEnglishadjectivesendingin-ed,manyofwhicharerelatedtothe-edparticipleofaverb.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled-edadjectives.-ingadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.63to2.76.-edadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.77to2.93.

compoundadjectives

2.16 Compound adjectives are made up of two or more words, usuallywrittenwithhyphensbetweenthem.Compoundadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.94to2.102.

comparingthings

2.17 When you want to compare the amount of a quality that two or morepeople or things have, you can use comparative and superlativeadjectives.Therearealsosomeotherwaysofcomparingthings.Comparativesareexplainedinparagraphs2.103to2.111,andsuperlativesare explained in paragraphs 2.112 to 2.122. Other ways of comparing

thingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.123to2.139.

talkingabouttheamountofaquality

2.18 You can also talk about the amount of a quality that something orsomeonehasbyusinganadverbliketotallyormildlywithanadjective.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.141to2.168.

Adjectivestructures2.19 Adjectives are used in two main structures. One of them involves

adjectivescomingbeforethenounphrase.IfyousayJuliawascarryingan old suitcase, your main purpose is to say that Julia was carrying asuitcase. The adjective old gives more information about what kind ofsuitcaseitwas.Hewaswearingawhitet-shirt.…atechnicalterm.…aprettylittlestar-shapedflowerbed.Mostadjectivescanbeusedinthisway.

2.20 The other main structure involves adjectives being used after linkingverbssuchasbeandbecome.Puttinganadjectiveafteralinkingverbhastheeffectof focusingattentionon theadjective. IfyousayThe suitcaseshewascarryingwasold,yourmainpurposeistodescribethesuitcase,sothefocusisontheadjectiveold.Theroadsarebusy.Thehousewasquiet.Hebecameangry.Ifeelcold.Nobodyseemedamused.Theuseofadjectivesafterlinkingverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.137.Mostadjectivescanbeusedinthisway.

2.21 In the following examples, the first example in each pair shows anadjectivebeingusedbeforethenoun,whilethesecondexampleshowsitbeingusedwithalinkingverb.

Therewasnoclearevidence.‘That’sveryclear,’Isaid.Ithadbeenapleasantevening.It’snotabigstream,butit’sverypleasant.Sheboughtaloafofwhitebread.Thewallswerewhite.

Identifyingqualities:asadstory,aprettygirl2.22 There are two main types of adjective, qualitative and classifying.

Adjectivesthatdescribeaqualitythatsomeoneorsomethinghas,suchassad, pretty, small, happy, healthy, wealthy, and wise, are calledqualitativeadjectives.…asadstory.…aprettygirl.…asmallchild.…ahappymotherwithahealthybaby.…wealthybankers.Ithinkitwouldbewisetogiveup.

gradability:verysad,ratherfunny

2.23 Adjectives that describe qualities are gradable, which means that thepersonorthingreferredtocanhavemoreorlessofthequalitymentioned.

2.24 Theusualwayinwhichyoushowtheamountofaqualitythatsomethingor someone has is by using adverbs like very and rather in front ofqualitativeadjectives.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.140to2.156.

2.25 Theotherwayinwhichyoucan talkabout theamountofaquality thatsomethingorsomeonehasisbyusingacomparative,suchasbiggerandmore interesting, or a superlative, such as the biggest and the mostinteresting. Comparatives and superlatives are explained in paragraphs2.103to2.122.Hereisalistofqualitativeadjectives:

activeangry

anxiousappropriateattractivebadbeautifulbigbriefbrightbroadbusycalmcarefulcheapcleanclearclosecoldcomfortablecommoncomplexcoolcuriousdangerousdarkdeardeepdetermineddifferentdifficultdirtydryeasyeffectiveefficientexpensivefair

familiar

famousfastfatfinefirmflatfrankfreefreshfriendlyfrightenedfunnygoodgreathappyhardheavyhighhotimportantinterestingkindlargelatelightlikelylonglooseloudlovelylowluckynarrownervous

newnice

obviousoddoldpalepatientplainpleasantpoorpopularpowerfulprettyproudquickquietrarereasonablerichroughsadsafesensibleserioussharpshockedshortsicksignificantsillysimpleslowsmallsoftspecial

steadystrangestrong

stupidsuccessfulsuitablesuresurprisedsweettallterriblethickthintighttinytiredtypicalunderstandingusefulviolentwarmweakwetwidewildworriedyoung

Identifyingtype:financialhelp,abdominalpains2.26 The othermain type of adjective consists of adjectives that you use to

identifythetypeorclass thatsomethingbelongsto.Forexample,ifyousayfinancialhelp,youareusingtheadjective financial todescribewhattype of help you are talking about (that is, to classify help).Adjectivesthatareusedinthiswayarecalledclassifyingadjectives.

…financialhelp.…abdominalpains.…amedievalmanuscript.…mydailyshower.…anequalpartnership.…asufficientamountofmilk.Note thatnounmodifiers (seeparagraphs2.169 to2.174)areused inasimilarwaytoclassifyingadjectives.Forexample,financialmattersandmoneymattersaresimilarinbothstructureandmeaning.Hereisalistofclassifyingadjectives:

absoluteactiveactualagriculturalalternativeannualapparentavailablebasiccentralchemicalcivilcommercialcommunistconservativeculturaldailydemocraticdirectdomesticdoubledueeasteastern

economiceducationalelectricemptyexternalfemalefinancialforeignfreefullgeneralgoldenhistoricalhumanidealindependentindustrialinevitableintellectualinternalinternationallegallocalmagicmalemedicalmentalmilitarymodernmoralnationalnaturalnegativenorthnorthernnuclear

official

openoriginalpersonalphysicalpoliticalpositivepossiblepotentialprivateprofessionalproperpsychologicalpublicrawreadyrealreligiousrevolutionaryrightroyalruralscientificseparatesexualsinglesocialsolidsouthsouthernstandardstraightsufficienttheoreticaltraditional

urbanwest

westernwoodenwrong

2.27 Adjectives such as British, American, and Australian, that indicatenationality or origin, are also classifying adjectives. They start with acapitalletterbecausetheyarerelatedtonamesofcountries.…Americancitizens.Someclassifyingadjectivesareformedfrompeople’snames,forexampleVictorianandShakespearean.Theyalsostartwithacapitalletter.…Victorianhouses.

2.28 Because they put something in a class, classifying adjectives are notgradableinthewaythatqualitativeadjectivesare.Forexample,ifyoudonothavetopayforsomething,youcannotsaythatitisveryfree,orratherfree. Things are either in a particular class or not in it. Therefore,classifyingadjectivesdonothavecomparativesandsuperlativesandarenotnormallyusedwithadverbslikeveryandrather.However,whenyouwanttoshowthatyoufeelstronglyaboutwhatyouaresaying,youcanusean intensifyingadverbsuchasabsolutelywithaclassifyingadjective.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.147to2.148.

adjectivesthatareofbothtypes

2.29 Someadjectivescanbeeitherqualitativeorclassifyingdependingonthemeaning.Forexample,inanemotionalperson,emotionalisaqualitativeadjective meaning feeling or expressing strong emotions; it has acomparativeandsuperlativeanditcanbeusedwithwordslikeveryandrather.Thus,apersoncanbeveryemotional,ratheremotional,ormoreemotional than someone else. However, in the emotional needs ofchildren, emotional is a classifying adjective meaning relating to aperson’semotions,andsoitcannotbeusedwithwordslikeveryorrather,anditdoesnothaveacomparativeandsuperlative.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareoftenusedbothasqualitativeadjectives

andasclassifyingadjectives:

academicconsciousdryeducationaleffectiveemotionalextremelatemodernmoralobjectiveordinaryregularreligiousrevolutionaryruralscientificsecretsimilarsocial

Identifyingcolours:colouradjectives2.30 When you want to say what colour something is, you use a colour

adjective.…herblueeyes.…aredribbon.Hereisalistofthemaincolouradjectives:

blackbluebrowncream

greengreyorangepinkpurpleredscarletvioletwhiteyellow

addingextrainformationtocolouradjectives

2.31 Ifyouwant to specifyacolourmoreprecisely,youuseaword suchaslight,pale,dark,deep,orbright,infrontofacolouradjective.…lightbrownhair.…apalegreensuit.…adarkbluedress.…deepreddye.…herbrightblueeyes.Thesecombinationssometimeshavehyphens.…alight-bluesuit.…theplant’stinypale-pinkflowers.Note that these words cannot be used with the colours black orwhite,becauseyoucannothavedifferentshadesofblackandwhite.

approximatecolours

2.32 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutacolourthatdoesnothaveadefinitenameyoucan:useacolouradjectivewith-ishaddedtotheend

…greenishglass.…yellowishhair.combinetwocolouradjectives,oftenwith-ishor-yontheendof the

firstone

…greenish-whiteflowers.…agreenyblueline.…theblue-greenwaves.

BECREATIVE

2.33 Youcanmixcoloursinthesewaystoproducewhatevernewcolouryouaretryingtodescribe.

comparisonofcolouradjectives

2.34 Colouradjectivessuchasblueandgreenoccasionallyhavecomparativesandsuperlativesendingin-erand-est.Hisfacewasredderthanusual.…thebluestskyIhaveeverseen.Comparatives and superlatives are explained in paragraphs 2.103 to2.122.

colournouns

2.35 Colourscanalsobenouns,andthemaincolourscanalsobepluralnouns.Thesnowshadowshadturnedtoadeepblue.Theyblendedinsowellwiththekhakiandredsofthelandscape.…brilliantlycolouredinreds,yellows,blacks,andpurples.

Showingstrongfeelings:complete,absolute,etc.2.36 You can emphasize your feelings about something that youmention by

puttinganadjectivesuchascomplete,absolute,orutterinfrontofanoun.Hemademefeellikeacompleteidiot.Someofitwasabsoluterubbish.…utterdespair.…purebliss.You generally use an adjective of this kind onlywhen the noun showsyouropinionaboutsomething.Becausetheyareusedtoshowstrongfeelings,theseadjectivesarecalledemphasizingadjectives.

Hereisalistofemphasizingadjectives:

absolutecompleteentireoutrightperfectpositivepurerealtotaltrueutter

adjectivesforshowingdisapproval

2.37 Asmallgroupofadjectivesendingin-ingareusedinveryinformalspokenEnglishforemphasis,usuallytoshowdisapprovalorcontempt.Everybodyinthewholestinkingtownwasloadedwithmoney.Shutthatblinkingdoor!Hereisalistofadjectivesusedinformallyforemphasis:

blinkingblitheringbloomingblunderingcrashingflamingfreezingpiddlingravingscaldingstinkingthumping

thunderingwhopping

BECAREFUL

2.38 Many of these adjectives are usually used with one particular noun oradjective after them: blithering idiot, blundering idiot, crashing bore,ravinglunatic,thunderingnuisance,freezingcold,scaldinghot,piddlinglittle…,thumpinggreat…,whoppinggreat….He’sdrivingthatcarlikearavinglunatic!I’vegotastinkingcold.…apiddlinglittlecar.

veryasanemphasizingadjective

2.39 Thewordveryissometimesusedtoemphasizeanoun,inexpressionsliketheverytopandtheveryend.…attheveryendoftheshop.…theverybottomofthehill.Thesemoleculeswereformedattheverybeginningofhistory.

Makingthereferencemoreprecise:postdeterminers2.40 Thereisasmallgroupofadjectivesthatareusedinaverysimilarwayto

determiners(seeparagraphs1.162to1.251)tomakethereferencemoreprecise.Thesearecalledpostdeterminers,becausetheirplaceinanounphraseisimmediatelyafterthedeterminer,ifthereisone,andbeforeanyotheradjectives.…thefollowingbriefdescription.…certainbasichumanqualities.…improvementsinthelastfewyears.…furthertechnologicaladvance.Heworehisusualoldwhitecoat….…theonlysensiblethingtodo.Youoftenneed tomake itclearpreciselywhatyouare referring to.Forexample, if you say Turn left at the tall building someone might askwhichtallbuildingyoumean.IfyousayTurnleftatthenexttallbuilding,

therecanbenodoubtwhichoneyoumean.Thepostdeterminernextpicksitoutprecisely.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatarepostdeterminers:

additionalcertainchiefentireexistingfirstfollowingfurtherlastmainnextonlyoppositeotherparticularpastpresentpreviousprincipalremainingsamespecialspecificusual

Someoftheseadjectivesarealsoordinaryclassifyingadjectives.Hehadchildrenfromapreviousmarriage.Therearetwomainreasonsforthis.Hereisalistofpostdeterminersthatarealsoclassifyingadjectives:

additionalchiefexistingfurthermainotherparticularpastpreviousprincipalremainingspecific

Adjectivesthatareusedtoshowthepositionofsomethingarealsousedforprecisereference.…themiddlebuttonofherblackleathercoat.…thetop100Germancompanies.Here is a list of adjectives sometimesused to talk about thepositionofsomethingaswellasforprecisereference:

leftrightupperlowertopbottommiddleendfrontback

Postdeterminers can also be used with numbers. This is explained inparagraph2.219.

Specialclassesofadjectives2.41 Mostadjectivescanbeusedbothbeforethenounandafteralinkingverb,

buttherearesomethatareonlyusedinonepositionortheother.Thereareafewadjectivesthatarealwaysoralmostalwaysusedinfrontof a noun and are never or rarely used after a linking verb. Theseadjectivesarecalledattributiveadjectives.Examples are atomic and outdoor. You can talk about an atomicexplosion, but you do not sayThe explosion was atomic. You can talkaboutoutdoorpursuits,butyoudonotsayTheirpursuitsareoutdoor.

adjectivesthatareonlyusedinfrontofanoun

2.42 Afewqualitativeadjectives(seeparagraphs2.22to2.25)areonlyusedinfrontofanoun.Here isa listofqualitativeadjectivesalwaysusedinthisway:

adoringbelatedchequeredchokedcommandingfatefulflagrantfleetingknottypaltrypunishingramshacklescantsearingthanklessunenviable

Most adjectives that are only used in front of a noun are classifyingadjectives (see paragraphs 2.26 to 2.28). Here is a list of classifying

adjectivesusedattributively:

atomicbridalcardiaccountlesscubicdigitaleasteasterneventualexistingfederalforensicindoorinstitutionalintroductoryinvestigativejudiciallonemaximumnationwideneighbouringnorthnorthernoccasionalorchestraloutdoorphoneticpreconceivedremedialreproductivesmokelesssouthsouthern

subterraneansupplementaryunderlyingwestwesternwoollen

2.43 There are no colour adjectives (see paragraphs 2.30 to 2.35) that arerestrictedtothisposition.Emphasizingadjectives(seeparagraphs2.36to2.39)areusuallyusedinfrontofanoun.

adjectivesthatalwaysfollowalinkingverb

2.44 Some adjectives are normally used only after a linking verb and not infrontofanoun.Theseadjectivesarecalledpredicativeadjectives.For example, you can say She felt glad, but you do not normally talkaboutagladwoman.Hereisalistofadjectivesusuallyusedinthisway:

afraidalivealoneapartasleepawakeawarecontentduegladilllikelyreadysafesorry

sureunableunlikelywell

Notethattheydonothavetobefollowedbyaprepositionalphrase.2.45 Someadjectives areusually followedby aprepositional phrasebecause

theirmeaningwould otherwise be unclear or incomplete. For example,youcannotsimplysaythatsomeoneisaccustomed.Youhavetosaythattheyareaccustomedtosomething.The following usage note explains which prepositions you use after aparticularadjective.

USAGENOTE

2.46 Therearea fewadjectives thatare followedby thepreposition towhentheyareusedafteralinkingverb.She’sallergictocats.Olderpeopleareparticularlysusceptibletoheartproblems.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandarefollowedbyto:

accustomedadjacentallergicattributableattunedaversecloseconducivedevotedimperviousinjuriousintegralprone

proportionalproportionatereconciledrelatedresignedresistantsimilarsubjectsubservientsusceptibleunaccustomed

2.47 Therearea fewadjectives thatare followedby theprepositionofwhentheyareusedafteralinkingverb.Hewasawareofthedangerthatfacedhim.Theyseemedcapableofwinningtheirfirstgameoftheseason.Hewasdevoidofanytalentwhatsoever.Hismindseemedtohavebecomeincapableofanythought.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandarefollowedbyof:

awarebereftcapablecharacteristicdesirousdevoidfondfullheedlessillustrativeincapableindicativemindful

reminiscentrepresentative

2.48 Thereareafewadjectivesthatarefollowedbytheprepositionwithwhentheyareusedafteralinkingverb.Hissurprisebecametingedwithdisbelief.Theplastichastobecompatiblewiththebodytissuesthatmakecontactwithit.Thiswayoflifeisfraughtwithdanger.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandarefollowedbywith:

compatibleconsonantconversantfilledfraughtriddledtinged

2.49 Some adjectives are followedby other prepositionswhen they are usedafteralinkingverb.Theseideasarerootedinself-deception.Didn’tyousaytheraidwascontingentontheweather?Darwinconcludedthatpeopleweredescendedfromapes.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandarefollowedbytheprepositionindicated:

contingentondescendedfrominherentinlackinginrootedin

steepedinswathedinunhamperedby

Insomecases,thereisachoicebetweentwoprepositions.Manyoftheircoursesareconnectedwithindustry.Such names were arbitrarily given and were not connected to anyparticularevent.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandthatarefollowedbytheprepositionsshown:

answerableforanswerabletoburdenedbyburdenedwithconnectedtoconnectedwithdependentondependentuponimmunefromimmunetoinclinedtoinclinedtowardsincumbentonincumbentuponinsensibleofinsensibletointentonintentuponparalleltoparallelwithreliantonreliantuponstrickenby

strickenwith

2.50 Different is most commonly followed by from. It is also sometimesfollowedbytoinBritishEnglishorthaninAmericanEnglish.

Studentstodayaredifferentfromthestudentstenyearsago.

adjectivesfollowedbyto-infinitiveclauses

2.51 Tocomplete themeaningofsomeadjectives thatareusedpredicatively,you need to follow with a clause beginning with a to-infinitive. Forexample, you cannot just sayHe is unable. You have to add a clausebeginning with to-infinitive such as to do:He is unable to do it. To-infinitiveclausesareexplainedintheReferencesection.Theywereunabletohelpher.Iamwillingtotry.Sheisboundtonoticethere’ssomethingwrong.I’minclinedtoagreewiththeminister.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatarealwaysornearlyalwaysfollowedbyato-infinitiveclause:

ablebounddestineddoomedduefatedfitinclinedliablelikelyloathpreparedunableunwillingwilling

2.52 Youcanalsouseaclausebeginningwithato-infinitiveaftermanyotheradjectivestogivemoreinformationaboutsomething.Iwasafraidtogohome.Iwashappytoseethemagain.Hewaspowerlesstopreventit.Iwasalmostashamedtotellher.Thepathwaseasytofollow.Note that the subject of the main clause is also the subject of the to-infinitiveclause.

adjectivesfollowedbythat-clauses

2.53 Whenadjectivesthatrefertosomeone’sbeliefsorfeelingsareusedaftera linkingverb, theyareoften followedbya that-clause (seeparagraphs8.119to8.121).Thesubjectofthethat-clauseisnotalwaysthesameasthesubjectofthemainclause,soyouneedtospecifyit.Shewassurethathemeantit.Hewasfrightenedthatsomethingterriblemightbesaid.I’mawarethatIreachedaratherlargeaudiencethroughthebook.Notethatthewordthatisnotalwaysusedinathat-clause.Theyweresureshehadbeenborninthecity.Hereisalistofcommonadjectivesoftenfollowedbyathat-clause:

afraidangryanxiousawarecertainconfidentfrightenedgladhappypleased

proudsadsorrysuresurprisedunawareupsetworried

Notethatalloftheseadjectivesexceptangry,aware,unaware,upset,andworriedcanalsobefollowedbyato-infinitive.Iwasafraidthatshemightnotbeabletobearthestrain.Don’tbeafraidtoaskquestions.ShewassurprisedthatIknewaboutit.ThetwinswereverysurprisedtoseeRalph.

Positionofadjectivesinnounphrases2.54 Whenyouusemorethanoneadjectiveinanounphrase,theusualorder

fortheadjectivesis:qualitativeadjectives,followedbycolouradjectives,followedbyclassifyingadjectives.…alittlewhitewoodenhouse.…prettyblacklacydresses.…alargecircularpoolofwater.…abeautifulpinksuit.…rapidtechnologicaladvance.…aniceredapple.…theblacktriangularfin.This order is nearly always followed inEnglish.Occasionally however,when you want to focus on a particular characteristic of the person orthingyouaredescribing,youcanvarythisorder,especiallywhenoneoftheadjectivesreferstocolourorsize.…asquareblackhole.Notethatyousometimesputacommaorandbetweenadjectives.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs8.180to8.186andparagraph8.201.

…thelong,lowcaravan.Itwasalongandtediousbusiness.

2.55 Comparatives (see paragraphs 2.103 to 2.111) and superlatives (seeparagraphs2.112to2.122)normallycomeinfrontofallotheradjectivesinanounphrase.…betterparentalcontrol.…thehighestmonthlyfiguresonrecord.

positionofnounmodifiersandadjectives

2.56 Whenanounphrasecontainsbothanadjectiveandanounmodifier(seeparagraphs 2.169 to 2.174) the adjective is placed in front of the nounmodifier.…theboomingEuropeancarindustry.…theworld’sbiggestandmostprestigiousbookfair.

twoormoreadjectivesafteralinkingverb

2.57 Whenyouusetwoadjectivesafteralinkingverb,youuseaconjunction,usually and, to link them. If you use more than two adjectives, youusuallyputaconjunctionsuchasandbetweenthelasttwoadjectivesandcommasbetweentheothers.Thisisfullyexplainedinparagraphs8.180to8.186andparagraph8.201.Theroomwaslargeandsquare.Wefelthot,tired,andthirsty.Note that you put the adjectives in the order that you think is themostimportant.

adjectivesafternouns

2.58 Therearea fewadjectives thatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteranoun.Hereisalistshowingthedifferentgroupsofadjectivesusedafteranoun:

designateelectgalore

incarnatemanqué~broaddeephighlongoldtallthickwide~concernedinvolvedpresentproperresponsible~affectedavailablerequiredsuggested

USAGENOTE

2.59 The adjectivesdesignate,elect,galore, incarnate, andmanqué are onlyusedimmediatelyafteranoun.Shewasnowpresidentelect.Thereareemptyhousesgalore.

2.60 Theadjectivesbroad,deep,high,long,old,tall,thick,andwideareusedimmediatelyaftermeasurementnounswhengivingthesize,duration,orageofathingorperson.Thisuseisfullyexplainedinparagraph2.253.…sixfeettall.…threemetreswide.…twentyfiveyearsold.

2.61 Theadjectivesconcerned,involved,present,responsible,andproperhavedifferentmeaningsdependingonwhetheryouputtheminfrontofanounorimmediatelyafterone.Forexample,theconcernedmotherdescribesamother who is anxious, but the mother concerned simply refers to amotherwhohasjustbeenmentioned.…theapprovalofinterestedandconcernedparents.Theideaneedstocomefromtheindividualsconcerned.Allthisbecameaveryinvolvedprocess.Heknewallofthepeopleinvolved.…thepresentinternationalsituation.Ofthe18peoplepresent,Iknowonlyone.…parentstryingtoactinaresponsiblemanner.…thepersonresponsibleforhisdeath.…apropertraininginhowtoteach.…thefirstroundproperoftheFACup.

2.62 Theadjectivesaffected,available,required,andsuggestedcanbeusedinfrontofanounorafteranounwithoutanychangeinmeaning.Newspapersweretheonlyavailablesourceofinformation.…thenumberofteachersavailable.…therequiredchanges.You’rewaybelowthestandardrequired.…thecostofthesuggestedimprovements.Theproposalssuggestedarederivedfromsuccessfulexperiments.Asidefromtheaffectedchild,thedoctorcheckseveryothermemberofthehousehold.…theproportionofthepopulationaffected.

Specialforms:-ingadjectives2.63 There are many adjectives ending in -ing.Most of them are related in

formtothe-ingparticiplesofverbs.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled-ingadjectives.Hewasanamiable,amusingfellow.Hehadbeenupallnightattendingadyingman.The-ingformisexplainedintheReferencesection.

describinganeffect

2.64 One group of -ing adjectives describe the effect that something has onyourfeelingsandideas,oronthefeelingsandideasofpeopleingeneral.…analarmingincreaseinburglaries.Asurprisingnumberofmendonotmarry.…acharminghouseontheoutskirtsofthetown.…awarmwelcomingsmile.

2.65 These adjectives are normally qualitative adjectives. This means thatthey can be used with a submodifying adverb (a word like very orrather),andhavecomparativesandsuperlatives.…averyconvincingexample.Thereisnothingverysurprisinginthis.…averyexcitingidea.…areallypleasingeveningatthetheatre.WhenBernardmoanshe’smuchmoreconvincing.…oneofthemostboringbooksI’veeverread.

2.66 Theycanbeusedinfrontofanounorafteralinkingverb.Theycanstillshowamazingloyaltytotheirparents.It’samazingwhattheycando.…themostterrifyingtaleeverwritten.Thepresentsituationisterrifying.

2.67 These -ing adjectives have a related transitive verb that you use todescribethewaysomeoneisaffectedbysomething.Forexample,ifyouspeakofanalarmingincrease,youmeanthattheincreasealarmsyou.Ifyou speak ofa surprisingnumber, youmean that the number surprisesyou.Here is a list of -ing adjectives that describe an effect and that have asimilarmeaningtotheusualmeaningoftherelatedverb:

alarmingamazingamusingannoying

appallingastonishingastoundingbewilderingboringchallengingcharmingcompellingconfusingconvincingdemeaningdepressingdevastatingdisappointingdisgustingdistractingdistressingdisturbingembarrassingenchantingencouragingentertainingexcitingfrighteningharassinghumiliatinginfuriatinginspiringinterestingintimidatingintriguingmenacingmisleadingmockingoverwhelmingpleasing

refreshing

relaxingrewardingsatisfyingshockingsickeningstartlingsurprisingtemptingterrifyingthreateningthrillingtiringwelcomingworrying

Transitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.14to3.25.

describingaprocessorstate

2.68 Theothermaingroupof-ingadjectivesareusedtodescribeaprocessorstatethatcontinuesoveraperiodoftime.…hergrowingbandofsupporters.Oilandgasdrillersaredoingaboomingbusiness.…alifeofincreasinglabouranddecreasingleisure.

2.69 These adjectives are classifying adjectives, so they are not used withwordslikeveryandrather.However,adjectivesusedtoidentifyaprocessare often modified by adverbs that describe the speed with which theprocesshappens.…afastdiminishingdegreeofpersonalfreedom.…rapidlyrisingproductivity.

2.70 These-ingadjectiveshaverelatedintransitiveverbs.Hereisalistof-ingadjectivesthatdescribeacontinuingprocessorstateandthathaveasimilarmeaningtotheusualmeaningoftherelatedverb:

ageingailingbleedingboomingburstingdecreasingdiminishingdwindlingdyingexistingincreasinglivingprevailingrecurringreigningremainingresoundingrisingruling

Intransitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.8to3.13.2.71 These-ingadjectivesareonlyusedinfrontofanoun,sowhen-ingforms

of intransitive verbs appear after the verbbe they are actually part of aprogressiveform.

BECREATIVE

2.72 InEnglish,youcanmakemostverbsintoadjectivesbyadding-ingtotheverbandputtingitinfrontofthenoun,tosaywhatsomeoneorsomethingisdoing.…awalkingfigure.…FIFA,worldfootball’srulingbody.…bandsperforminginfrontofscreamingcrowds.…twoyearsoffallingemployment.…atremendousnoiseofsmashingglass.

formandmeaning

2.73 Most of the -ing adjectives talked about so far are related to verbs.Sometimes however, -ing adjectives are not related to verbs at all. Forexample,thereisnoverbtoneighbour.Wholefamiliescamefromneighbouringvillages.Hereisalistof-ingadjectivesthatarenotrelatedtoverbs:

appetizingbaldingcunningenterprisingexcruciatingimpendingneighbouringscathingunwitting

2.74 Sometimes,an-ingadjectiveisrelatedtoanuncommonuseofaverb,orappearstoberelatedtoaverbbutisnotrelatedexactlytoanycurrentuse.Forexample, theverbhaunt ismostcommonlyused inconnectionwithghosts,but theadjectivehaunting ismoreoftenused to talkabout suchthings as songs and memories. A haunting tune is a tune you cannotforget.Here is a list of qualitative -ing adjectives that are not related to acommontransitiveuseofaverb:

becomingbracingcuttingdashingdisarmingengagingfetching

haltinghauntingmovingpenetratingpiercingpressingpromisingramblingravishingretiringrevoltingsearchingtaxingtrying

Here is a list of classifying -ing adjectives that are not related to acommonintransitiveuseofaverb:

actingdrivingfloatinggatheringgoingleadingmissingrunning

2.75 Some adjectives are derived from a verb and a prefix. For example,outgoingisderivedfromtheverbgoandtheprefixout-.Thereisnoverbtooutgo.Wouldn’tthatcauseadelayinoutgoingmail?Hereisalistof-ingadjectivesderivedfromaverbandaprefix:

forthcoming

incomingoncomingongoingoutgoingoutstandingoverarchingoverbearingupliftingupstanding

2.76 Asmallgroupof-ingadjectivesareusedininformalspokenEnglishforemphasis, usually to express disapproval. This use is explained inparagraphs2.41to2.42.Somecompoundadjectives(seeparagraphs2.94to2.102)endin-ing.

Specialforms:-edadjectives2.77 AlargenumberofEnglishadjectivesendin-ed.Manyofthemhavethe

sameformasthe-edparticipleofaverb.Othersareformedbyadding-edtoanoun.Othersarenotcloselyrelatedtoanyotherwords.…adisappointedman.…abeardedman.…sophisticatedelectronicdevices.

2.78 Adjectives with the same form as irregular -ed participles (see theReference section) that do not end in -ed are also included here as -edadjectives.Wasitabrokenbone,atornligament,orwhat?The-edparticiplesofsomephrasalverbs(seeparagraphs3.83to3.116)canalsobeusedasadjectives.Whentheyareusedinfrontofanoun,thetwopartsof thephrasalverbareusuallywrittenwithahyphenbetweenthem.…thebuilt-upurbanmassofthecity.

2.79 Most -ed adjectives are related to a transitive verb and have a passivemeaning.Theyshowthatsomethinghashappenedorishappeningtothethingbeingdescribed.Forexample,afrightenedpersonisapersonwho

hasbeenfrightenedbysomething.Aknowncriminalisacriminalwhoisknownbythepolice.Wehavealonglistofsatisfiedcustomers.Wecannotrefusetoteachchildrentherequiredsubjects.

qualitative-edadjectives

2.80 -ed adjectives that refer to a person’s mental or emotional reaction tosomethingaregenerallyqualitative.Hewasaworriedoldman.…aboredoldwoman.…aninterestedstudent.These adjectives canbemodifiedbywords such asvery andextremely,justlikeotherqualitativeadjectives(seeparagraphs2.140to2.156).

formandmeaning

2.81 Likeotheradjectivesusedfortalkingaboutfeelings,theseadjectivesareoften used to describe the expression, voice, or manner of the personaffected,insteadofreferringdirectlytothatperson.…herbigbluefrightenedeyes.Shecouldhearhisagitatedvoice.Barrygavehimaworriedlook.

2.82 Hereisalistofqualitative-edadjectivesthathaveasimilarmeaningtothemostcommonmeaningoftherelatedverb:

agitatedalarmedamusedappalledastonishedboredconfusedcontenteddelighted

depresseddepriveddisappointeddisgusteddisillusioneddistressedembarrassedexcitedfrightenedinhibitedinterestedpleasedpreoccupiedpuzzledsatisfiedshockedsurprisedtiredtroubledworried

Here is a list of qualitative -ed adjectives that do not have a similarmeaningtotheusualmeaningoftherelatedverb:

animatedattachedconcerneddetermineddisposeddisturbedguardedhurtinclinedmixedstrained

classifying-edadjectives

2.83 Manyother-edadjectivesareusedforclassifying,andsocannotbeusedwithwords likeveryandrather.For example,a furnishedapartment isonetypeofapartment,contrastingwithanapartmentwithoutfurniture.…afurnishedapartment.…apaintedwoodenbowl.…theclosedbedroomdoor.Most adjectives that refer to physical distinctions are classifyingadjectives.

2.84 Hereisalistofclassifying-edadjectivesthathaveasimilarmeaningtothemostcommonmeaningoftherelatedverb:

abandonedarmedblockedboiledbrokencannedclassifiedclosedconcentratedcondemnedcookeddivideddrawndriedestablishedfixedfurnishedhauntedhiddenimprovedinfected

integratedknownlicensedloadedpaidpaintedprocessedreducedrequiredtorntrainedunitedwasted

Here is list of -ed classifying adjectives that have a different meaningfromthemostcommonmeaningoftherelatedverb:

advancedmarkednotedpointedspottedveiled

modifying-edadjectives

2.85 Classifying -ed adjectives cannot normallybemodifiedwithwords likequiteandvery.However,anadverbofmanner,(seeparagraphs6.36 to6.44)oranadverbofdegree,(seeparagraphs6.45to6.52)isoftenusedbeforean-edadjective.For example, a pleasantly furnished room is a room that has beenfurnishedwithpleasantfurniture.…pleasantlyfurnishedrooms.

…awell-knownnovelist.2.86 Some -ed adjectives are not often used on their own, and an adverb is

necessary to complete the sense.You do not usually talk aboutdressedpeople,butyoucansaythattheyarewelldressedorsmartlydressed forexample.The-edadjectivesinthefollowingexamplesnearlyalwayshaveanadverbinfrontofthem.…acautiouslywordedstatement.…impeccablydressedmen.Itwasarichlydeservedhonour.…superblycutclothes.…theexistenceofahighlydevelopednationalpress.…awellorganizedcampaign.…atall,powerfullybuiltman.Shegazeddownathisperfectlyformedlittleface.Notethatcombinationslikethisaresometimeshyphenated,makingthemcompoundadjectives.…awell-equippedarmy.

-edadjectiveswithanactivemeaning

2.87 Afew-edadjectivesarerelatedtothe-edparticipleofintransitiveverbsandhaveanactivemeaning,notapassivemeaning.Forexample,afallentreeisatreethathasfallen.…acapsizedship.Sheisthedaughterofaretiredarmyofficer.…anescapedprisoner.Hereisalistof-edadjectiveswithanactivemeaning:

accumulateddatedescapedfadedfallenretiredswollen

wilted

-edadjectivesafterlinkingverbs

2.88 Most-edadjectivescanbeusedbothinfrontofanounandafteralinkingverb.Theworriedauthoritiesdecidedtoplaysafe.Myhusbandwasworried.Asmallnumberof -ed adjectivesarenormallyonlyusedaftera linkingverb.Often,theyarefollowedbyapreposition,ato-infinitive,ora that-clause.Iwasthrilledbytheexhibition.TheBraziliansarepleasedwiththeresults.…fooddestinedforareasofsouthSudan.Hewasalwayspreparedtoaccountforhisactions.Here is a list of -ed adjectives often used after a linking verb, with orwithoutaphraseorclauseafterthem:

convinceddelightedinterestedintimidatedintriguedinvolvedpleasedpreparedscaredthrilledtiredtouched

Hereisa listof-edadjectivesnormallyusedaftera linkingverbwithaphraseorclauseafterthem:

agreeddestineddressedfinishedlostpreparedshutstuck

BECREATIVE

2.89 The -ed participle of almost any transitive verb can be used as anadjective,thoughsomearemorecommonlyusedthanothers.…shesaid,withaforcedsmile.Therewasonepaidtutorandthreevolunteertutors.Therecoveredanimalswillbereleased.…thefinalcorrectedversion.

BECREATIVE

2.90 Some-edadjectivesareformedfromnouns.Forexample,ifalivingthinghaswings,youcandescribeitaswinged.Ifsomeonehasskills,youcandescribethemasskilled.…wingedangels.…askilledengineer.Shewasdressedinblackandcarriedablackbeadedpurse.…armouredcars.…theeducationofgiftedchildren.

-edadjectivesformedfromnouns

2.91 Hereisalistof-edadjectivesformedfromnouns:

armouredbarbedbeaded

beardeddetailedfloweredfreckledgiftedglovedhoodedmanneredpointedprincipledsalariedskilledspottedstripedturbanedwalledwinged

-edadjectivesformedfromnounsarecommonlyusedasthesecondpartof compound adjectives (see paragraph 2.94 to 2.102) such as grey-hairedandopen-minded.

-edadjectivesunrelatedtoverbsornouns

2.92 Therearealso some -ed adjectives in regularuse that arenot related toverbs or nouns in theways described above. For example, there are nowords parch or belove. There is a noun concert, but the adjectiveconcerteddoesnotmeanhavingaconcert.Heclimbedupthedryparchedgrasstotheterracesteps.…acomplexandantiquatedsystemoftaxation.…attemptstomountaconcertedcampaign.…thepurchaseofexpensivesophisticatedequipment.

2.93 Hereisalistof-edadjectivesthatarenotrelatedtoverbsornouns:

antiquated

ashamedassortedbelovedbloatedconcertedcrazeddeceaseddoomedindebtedparchedruggedsophisticatedtinned

Compoundadjectives2.94 Compound adjectives are made up of two or more words, usually

writtenwithhyphensbetweenthem.Theymaybequalitative,classifying,orcolouradjectives.Iwasinalight-heartedmood.Shewasdressedinabottle-greenpartydress.…thebuilt-upurbanmassofthecity.…anair-conditionedrestaurant.…agood-lookinggirl.…one-waytraffic.…apart-timejob.

formationpatterns

2.95 These are the most common and least restricted patterns for formingcompoundadjectives:adjectiveornumberplusnounplus-ed,e.g.grey-hairedandone-sidedadjectiveoradverbplus-edparticiple,e.g.low-paidandwell-behavedadjective,adverb,ornounplus-ingparticiple,e.g.good-looking,long-

lastingandman-eating.

Notethatcompoundadjectivesdescribesimpleconcepts:agood-lookingperson looksgood, andaman-eating beast eatshumans.More complexdescriptions in English need to be given using a following phrase orclause.

2.96 These are less common and more restricted patterns for formingcompoundadjectives:nounplus-edparticiple,e.g.tongue-tiedandwind-sweptnounplusadjective,e.g.accident-prone,trouble-freeadjectiveplusnoun,e.g.deep-sea,present-day-edparticipleplusadverb,e.g.run-down,cast-offnumberplussingularcountablenoun,e.g.five-page,four-door

Note that compound adjectives formed according to the last of thesepatternsarealwaysusedinfrontofanoun.

compoundqualitativeadjectives

2.97 Hereisalistofcompoundqualitativeadjectives:

able-bodiedabsent-mindedaccident-pronebig-headedclear-cutclose-fittingcold-bloodedeasy-goingfar-fetchedfar-reachinggood-lookinggood-temperedhard-uphard-wearingill-advisedkind-hearted

laboursavinglaid-backlight-heartedlong-lastinglong-standinglong-sufferinglow-cutlow-paidlow-slungmind-blowingmouth-wateringmuddle-headednarrow-mindednice-lookingoff-colouroff-handoff-puttingold-fashionedone-sidedopen-mindedrun-downsecond-classsecond-rateshop-soiledshort-handedshort-livedshort-sightedshort-temperedslow-wittedsmooth-talkingsoft-heartedstarry-eyedstrong-mindedstuck-upsun-tannedswollen-headed

tender-hearted

thick-skinnedtongue-tiedtop-heavytrouble-freetwo-edgedtwo-facedwarm-heartedwell-balancedwell-behavedwell-dressedwell-knownwell-offwind-blownworldly-wisewrong-headed

compoundclassifyingadjectives

2.98 Hereisalistofcompoundclassifyingadjectives:

air-conditionedall-outall-powerfulaudio-visualblue-bloodedbow-leggedbrand-newbreast-fedbroken-downbroken-heartedbuilt-upbullet-proofburnt-outcast-off

clean-shavencross-Channelcross-countrycut-pricedeep-seadeep-seateddouble-barrelleddouble-breasteddrip-drydrive-induty-boundduty-freeempty-handedface-savingfar-flungfirst-classfree-rangefree-standingfreeze-driedfront-pagefull-blownfull-facefull-grownfull-lengthfull-scalegilt-edgedgrey-hairedhalf-pricehalf-yearlyhand-pickedhigh-heeledhome-madeice-coldinterest-freeknee-deeplast-minute

late-night

lead-freeleft-handedlife-sizelong-distancelong-lostlong-rangeloose-leafmade-upman-eatingmass-producedmiddle-agednever-endingnorth-eastnorth-westnuclear-freeodds-onoff-guardoff-peakone-wayopen-endedopen-mouthedpanic-strickenpart-timepresent-daypurpose-builtready-maderecord-breakingred-brickremote-controlledright-angledright-handedsecond-classsecond-handsee-through

silver-platedsingle-handed

so-calledso-sosouth-eastsouth-weststrong-armtax-freetone-deaftop-secretunheard-ofwide-awakeworld-famousworn-outyear-long

compoundcolouradjectives

2.99 Hereisalistofcompoundcolouradjectives:

blood-redblue-blackbottle-greendove-greyelectric-blueflesh-colouredice-blueiron-greyjet-blacklime-greennavy-bluenut-brownoff-whitepea-greenpearl-grey

royal-blueshocking-pinksky-bluesnow-white

longcompoundadjectives

2.100 A few compound adjectives are made up of more than two words.Compoundsofthreeormorewordsareoftenwrittenwithhyphenswhentheyareusedinfrontofnouns,andwithouthyphenswhentheyareusedafteralinkingverb.…theday-to-daychoresoflife.…adown-to-earthapproach.…afree-and-easyrelationship.…life-and-deathdecisions.…atriptoanout-of-the-wayresort.Theiractisoutofdate.

2.101 Somecompoundadjectivesseemratheroddbecause theycontainwordsthat are never used as single words on their own, for example namby-pamby,higgledy-piggledy, and topsy-turvy.Words like these areusuallyinformal.…allthatartsy-craftsyspiritualism.…hisla-di-dafamily.

foreigncompoundadjectives

2.102 Some compound adjectives are borrowed from foreign languages,especiallyfromFrenchandLatin.…theargumentsonceusedtodefendlaissez-faireeconomics.…theirpresentpercapitafuelconsumption.Inthecommercialtheatre,almosteveryproductionisadhoc.Hereisalistofcompoundadjectivesborrowedfromotherlanguages:

àlamodeaposteriori

aprioriadhocadlibaufaitavant-gardebonafidecomposmentiscordonbleudefactodejuredeluxederigueurdetropexgratiahorsdecombatinfradiglaissez-fairenoncomposmentispercapitaprimafacieproratasubjudice

Comparingthings:comparatives2.103 Youcandescribesomethingbysayingthat ithasmoreofaqualitythan

something else. You do this by using comparative adjectives. Onlyqualitative adjectives usually have comparatives, but a few colouradjectives also have them. Comparatives normally consist of the usualformof the adjectivewitheither -er added to theend, as inharder andsmaller,ormoreplacedinfront,asinmoreinterestingandmoreflexible.Notethatgoodandbadhave the irregularcomparativeformsbetterandworse.ThepatternsforformingregularandirregularcomparativesareexplainedintheReferencesection.

infrontofanoun

2.104 Comparativescanbeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanoun.Thefamilymovedtoasmallerhome.Hedreamsofabetter,moreexcitinglife.Ahardermattressoftenhelpswithbackinjuries.Notethatcomparativescanalsobeusedasmodifiersinfrontofone.Anunderstandingofthisrealityprovokesabetterone.

afteralinkingverb

2.105 Comparativescanalsobeusedafteralinkingverb.Theballsoakedupwaterandbecameheavier.Hisbreathbecamequieter.Weneedtobemoreflexible.Theuseofadjectivesafterlinkingverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.137.

structuresusedaftercomparatives

2.106 Comparativesareoftenfollowedbythanwhenyouwanttospecifywhattheother thinginvolvedin thecomparisonis.Yousayexactlywhatyouarecomparingbyusingoneofanumberofstructuresafterthan.Thesestructurescanbenounphrases

Charliewasmorehonestthanhispredecessor.…anareabiggerthanMexico.Note thatwhen than is followed by a pronoun on its own, the pronounmustbeanobjectpronounsuchasme,him,orher.Mybrotherisyoungerthanme.Laminwasshorterthanher.phrasesthatstartwithapreposition

The changeswill be evenmorestriking in the case of teaching than inmedicine.

TheoddsofsurvivingchildhoodinNewYorkCityareworsethaninsomeThirdWorldcountries.clauses

Iwouldhavedoneabetterjobthanhedid.Iwasabetterwriterthanhewas.He’stallerthanIam.Notethatwhenacomparativeisnotfollowedbyathanphrase,theotherthinginthecomparisonshouldbeobvious.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysCouldIhaveabiggerone,please?theyarelikelytobeholdingtheitemthattheythinkistoosmall.Amattresswouldbebetter.

positionofcomparatives

2.107 Ifyouchooseaphraseorclausebeginningwiththanwhenyouareusingacomparativeinfrontofanoun,youusuallyputthephraseorclauseafterthewholenounphrase,notdirectlyafterthecomparative.Theworldisamoredangerousplacethanitwas.WillyownedalargercollectionofbooksthananyoneelseIhaveevermet.Acomparativecanalsocomeimmediatelyafteranoun,butonlywhenitisfollowedbythanandanounphrase.We’vegotaratbiggerthanacatlivinginourroof.…packsofcardslargerthanhewasusedto.

moreandmorethan

2.108 More is sometimes used in front of a whole noun phrase to show thatsomethinghasmoreof thequalitiesofone thing thananother,or isonethingratherthanbeinganother.Musicismoreawayoflifethananinterest.Thisismoreawarmoviethanawestern.Notethatmorethanisusedbeforeadjectivesforemphasis.Theirlifemaybehorriblydull,buttheyaremorethansatisfied.Youwouldbemorethanwelcome.

comparativesusedasnouns

2.109 Comparativeadjectivesaresometimesusedasnoun-typewordsinfairlyformalEnglish. Insuchphrases,youput the in frontof it, and follow itwithofandanounphrasethatreferstothetwothingsbeingcompared.…theshorterofthetwolines.Dorotheawasthemorebeautifulofthetwo.Therearetwowindmills,thelargerofwhichstandsahundredfeethigh.Ifitisclearwhatyouaretalkingabout,youcanomitofandthefollowingnounphrase.Noticetoquitmustcovertherentalperiodorfourweeks,whicheveristhelonger.

less

2.110 Theformthat isused tosay thatsomethingdoesnothaveasmuchofaqualityassomethingelseislessfollowedbyanadjective.Theanswerhadbeenlesstruthfulthanhisown.Youcanalsouselessandanadjectivetosaythatsomethingdoesnothaveasmuchofaqualityasithadbefore.Asthedayswentby,Sitabecamelessanxious.Notethatlessthanisusedbeforeadjectivestoexpressanegativeidea.Itwouldhavebeenlessthanfair.

contrastedcomparatives

2.111 You show that one amount of a quality or thing is linked to anotheramountbyusingtwocontrastedcomparativesprecededbythe.Thesmalleritis,thecheaperitistopost.Themoremilitantwebecame,thelessconfidentshebecame.Thelargertheorganization,thelessscopethereisfordecision.

Comparingthings:superlatives2.112 Another way of describing something is to say that it has more of a

qualitythananythingelseofitskind.Youdothisbyusingasuperlative

adjective.Onlyqualitativeadjectivesusuallyhavesuperlatives,butafewcolouradjectivesalsohavethem.Superlativesnormallyconsistofeither-estaddedtotheendofanadjectiveandtheplacedinfrontofit,asinthehardestandthesmallest,orofthemostplacedinfrontoftheadjective,asinthemostinterestingandthemostflexible.Notethatgoodandbadhavetheirregularsuperlativeformsthebestandtheworst.Thepatterns for forming regular and irregular superlativesof adjectivesareexplainedintheReferencesection.Note that superlative adjectives are nearly always preceded by the,because you are talking about something definite. Occasionally, whensuperlatives are used after a linking verb, the is omitted (see paragraph2.117).

BECAREFUL

2.113 Adjectiveswithmost in frontof themarenot always superlatives.Mostcanalsomeanvery.Thisbookwasmostinteresting.Mygrandfatherwasamostextraordinaryman.Wordslikeveryandratherarecalledsubmodifyingadverbs.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs2.140to2.156.

usedinfrontofanoun

2.114 Superlativescanbeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanoun.HewasthecleverestmanIeverknew.Itwasthemostexcitingsummeroftheirlives.Shecameoutofthethickestpartofthecrowd.Nowwecometothemostimportantthing.…theoldestrockpaintingsinNorthAmerica.…themosteminentscientistsinBritain.Notethatsuperlativesarealsousedasmodifiersinfrontofone.Nooneeverusedthesmallestone.

usedafteralinkingverb

2.115 Superlativesarealsousedafteralinkingverb.Hewastheyoungest.Thesergeantwasthetallest.Theuseofadjectivesafterlinkingverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.137.

structuresusedaftersuperlatives

2.116 Youcanuseasuperlativeonitsownifitisclearwhatisbeingcompared.Forexample,ifyousayPaulwasthetallest,youarereferringtoagroupofpeoplethathasalreadybeenidentified.Ifyouneed to refer to thepointof thecomparison,youuseaphraseorclausethatconsistsofphrasesthatstartwithapreposition,usuallyinorof

Henrywasthebiggestofthem.Thethirdrequirementisthemostimportantofall.Thesecakesareprobablythebestintheworld.Note that if the superlative is placed in front of a noun, the prepositioncomesafterthenoun.…thebesthotelforfamilies.I’mintheworstbusinessintheworld.arelativeclause

It’sthebestI’mlikelytoget.ThewaitingroomwastheworstIhadseen.Notethatifthesuperlativeisplacedinfrontofanoun,therelativeclausecomesafterthenoun.That’sthemostconvincinganswerthatyou’vegivenme.

USAGENOTE

2.117 Youusuallyput the in frontof thesuperlative,butyoucanoccasionallyomitit,especiallyininformalspeechorwriting.

Woolandcottonblanketsaregenerallycheapest.Itcanbeusedbywhoeverisclosest.However,youcannotomit thewhenthesuperlative isfollowedbyoforanother structure showingwhat group of things you are comparing. So,for example, you can say Amanda was the youngest of our group orAmandawastheyoungestorAmandawasyoungest,butyoucannotsayAmandawasyoungestofourgroup.You can sometimes use the possessive form of a noun or a possessivedeterminer instead of the in front of a superlative.Often the possessiveformofanounisusedinsteadofaphrasebeginningwithapreposition.Forexample,youcansayBritain’soldestmaninsteadoftheoldestmaninBritain.…theworld’smostpopularcheese.…mynewestassistant.Thepossessiveformofnounsisexplainedinparagraphs1.211 to1.222,andpossessivedeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.194to1.210.

usedwithotheradjectives

2.118 Asuperlativeissometimesaccompaniedbyanotheradjectiveendingin-able or -ible. This second adjective can be placed either between thesuperlativeandthenounorafterthenoun.…thenarrowestimaginablerangeofinterests.…themostbeautifulsceneryimaginable.…thelongestpossiblegap.Isaythatinthenicestwaypossible.

superlativesusedasnouns

2.119 Superlative adjectives are sometimes used like nouns in fairly formalEnglish.Whenyouuseasuperlativeadjectiveinthisway,youputtheinfrontofit,andfollowitwithofandanounorpronounthatreferstothethingsbeingcompared.Whensuperlativeadjectivesareusedinthiswaytheycanrefertoonethingortomorethanone.Theyareoftentoopoortobuyorrenteventhecheapestofhouses.He made several important discoveries. The most interesting of these

camefromanexaminationofanoldmanuscript.Ifitisclearwhatyouaretalkingabout,youcanomitofandthefollowingnounphrase.Therearethreetypesofant-eater.Thesmallestlivesentirelyintrees.

USAGENOTE

2.120 In informal speech, people often use a superlative rather than acomparative when they are talking about two things. For example,someonemightsayThetrainisquickestratherthanThetrainisquickerwhencomparingatrainservicewithabusservice.However,somepeoplethinkthatitisbettertousesuperlativesonlywhencomparingmorethantwothings.

usedwithordinalnumbers:thesecondbiggestcity

2.121 Ordinalnumbersareusedwithsuperlativestoshowthatsomethinghasmoreofaqualitythannearlyallotherthingsoftheirkind.Forexample,ifyousaythatamountainisthesecondhighestmountain,youmeanthatitishigherthananyothermountainexceptthehighestone.CanceristhesecondbiggestcauseofdeathinBritain.…thesecondmostimportantmaninherlife,herhairdresser.ItisJapan’sthirdlargestcity.Ordinalnumbersareexplainedinparagraphs2.232to2.239.

theleast

2.122 Whenyouwanttoshowthatsomethinghaslessofaqualitythananythingelse,youusetheleastfollowedbyanadjective.Thisistheleastpopularbranchofmedicine.Similarly,whenyouaretalkingaboutagroupofthingsthathavelessofaqualitythanotherthingsoftheirkind,youusetheleast.…theleastsavagemeninthecountry.

Otherwaysofcomparingthings:sayingthatthingsaresimilar2.123 Anotherwayofdescribingthingsisbysayingthatsomethingissimilarin

somewaytosomethingelse.

talkingaboutthingswiththesamequality

2.124 If you want to say that a thing or person has as much of a quality assomethingorsomeoneelse,youcanuseastructurebasedonthewordasinfrontofaqualitativeadjective.Usuallythisadjectiveisfollowedbyaphraseorclausethatalsobeginswithas.Thiscanbeaphrasebeginningwiththeprepositionas

You’rejustasbadasyoursister.…hugepondsasbigastenniscourts.Takingswereashighasever.aclauseintroducedbyas

ConversationwasnotasslowasIfeareditwouldbe.Thevillagegardensaren’tasgoodastheyusedtobe.

2.125 Whenthiscomparativestructureisfollowedbyaphraseconsistingofasandapronounonitsown,thepronounmustbeanobjectpronounsuchasme,him,orher.Janewasnotascleverashim.However, when the comparative structure is followed by a clauseconsistingofas and a pronoun that is the subject of a clause, then thatpronounmustbeasubjectpronounsuchasI,heorshe.Theyaren’tascleverastheyappeartobe.

2.126 If it isclearwhatyouarecomparingsomethingorsomeoneto,youcanomitthephraseorclause.Frozenpeasarejustasgood.

2.127 Youcanalsousetheas…as… structure tosay thatsomethinghasmuchmoreor lessofaquality thansomethingelse.Youdothisbyputtinganexpressionsuchastwice,threetimes,tentimes,orhalfinfrontofthefirstas.Forexample,ifonebuildingistenmetreshighandanotherbuildingistwentymetreshigh,youcansaythatthesecondbuildingistwiceashighasthefirstbuildingorthatthefirstbuildingishalfashighasthesecond

one.

Thegrasswastwiceastallasintherestofthefield.Wateriseighthundredtimesasdenseasair.This structure is often used in the same way to refer to qualities thatcannot bemeasured. For example, if youwant to say that something ismuchmoreusefulthansomethingelse,youcansaythatthefirstthingisahundredtimesasusefulasthesecondone.Withoutthishelp,rearingourchildrenwouldbetentimesashardasitis.

USAGENOTE

2.128 Whentheas…as…structureisprecededbynot,ithasthesamemeaningasless…than.Forexample,IamnotastallasGeorgemeansthesameasIamlesstallthanGeorge.Somepeopleusenotso…as… insteadofnotas…as….Thefilmisnotasgoodasthebook.Theyoungotterisnotsohandsomeastheold.

2.129 Words like just, quite, nearly and almost can be used in front of thiscomparative structure, modifying the comparison with their usualmeanings.Sunburncanbejustassevereasaheatburn.Theuseofthesewordsincomparisonisexplainedinparagraphs2.157to2.168.

2.130 When you are using the as…as… structure you sometimes put a nounafter the adjective andbefore the followingphraseor clause.Thisnounmustbeginwithaoran.Forexample, insteadofsayingThisknife isasgoodasthatone,youcansayThisisasgoodaknifeasthatone.I’masgoodacookassheis.Thiswasnotasbadaresultastheyexpected.Sometimes, instead of usingnot before this structure, you usenot suchfollowedbyaoran,anadjective,anoun,andas.Waterisnotsuchagoodconductorasmetal.

2.131 Insteadofusingthisas…as… structureyoucanuseexpressionssuchastheheightofandthesizeoftoshowthatsomethingisasbigassomething

else,orbiggerorsmaller.Thetumourwasthesizeofagolfball.Itisroughlythelengthofaman’sarm.

like

2.132 Ifsomethinghassimilarqualitiesorfeaturestosomethingelse,insteadofusingtheas…as…comparativestructureyoucansaythatthefirstthingislikethesecondone.Youdothisbyusingphrasesbeginningwithlikeafterlinkingverbs.Helookedlikeanactor.Thatsoundslikeanexaggeration.Thewholethingislikeabaddream.Hereisalistofthelinkingverbsusedwithlike:

befeellookseemsmellsoundtaste

Whenyouwant to say that one thing resembles another, you can use aphrasebeginningwithlikeaftertheselinkingverbs.Itwaslikeadream.SometimesIfeellikeaprisonerhere.Helookedlikeaniceman.Thehousesseemedlikemansions.Yousmelllikeatramp!Itsoundedlikeafineidea.

2.133 Likehasthecomparativemorelikeandlesslike,andthesuperlativemostlikeandleastlike.Itmadeherseemlesslikeachild.

Ofallhischildren,shewastheonemostlikeme.

USAGENOTE

2.134 Youcanusewordslikeexactlyandjustinfrontoflike.Helooksjustlikeababy.Shelookedlikeaqueen,justexactlylikeaqueenThisisexplainedinparagraph2.165.

sameas

2.135 Ifyouwanttosaythatonethingisexactlylikesomethingelse,youcansaythatitisthesameastheotherthing.Thericharethesameastherestofus.Thesameascanbefollowedbyanounphrase,apronoun,oraclause.24SpringTerracewasthesameasallitsneighbours.Hercolouringwasthesameasmine.The furnishings are not exactly the same as they were when we livedthere.Iftwoormorethingsareexactlylikeeachother,youcansaythattheyarethesame.Comeandlook!They’reexactlythesame.Theybothtastethesame.Youuse thesamewhen you are comparing people or thingswith otherpeopleorthingsthatyouhavejustmentioned.Itlookslikeacalculatorandweighsaboutthesame.Themessagewasthesame.Theendresultisthesame.Notethatyouusetheoppositeandthereverseinasimilarway.ThekindofreligiousthoughtsIhadwerejusttheopposite.Somepeoplethinkthatahealthydietisexpensive,butinfactthereverseistrue.

USAGENOTE

2.136 Youcanusewordslikenearlyandexactlyinfrontofthesameasandthesame.Theyarevirtuallythesameasothersinglecells.Youtwolookexactlythesame.Here is a list ofwords used in the samewaywith the sameas and thesame:

almostexactlyjustmoreorlessmuchnearlyvirtually

Thesewordsareexplainedinparagraphs2.140to2.168.2.137 You can put a noun such as size, length, or colour after the same. For

example,ifyouwanttosaythatonestreetisaslongasanotherone,youcansaythatthefirststreetisthesamelengthasthesecondone,orthatthetwostreetsarethesamelength.Itsbrainwasaboutthesamesizeasthatofagorilla.Theywerealmostthesameheight.

adjectivesmeaningthesame

2.138 The adjectivesalike, comparable, equivalent, identical, and similar arealsousedtosaythattwoormorethingsarelikeeachother.Youcanputthepreposition to after all of themexceptalike in order tomention thesecondofthethingsbeingcompared.Theyalllookedalike.Thehouseswereallidentical.FlemishissimilartoAfrikaans.

modifyingadjectivesusedincomparisons

2.139 Whenyouwanttosuggestthatyouarecomparingdifferentamountsofaquality,youcanusewordslikecomparatively,relatively,andequally.Psychology’sacomparativelynewsubject.Thecostsremainedrelativelylow.HertechniquewaslessdramaticthanAnn’s,butequallyeffective.Hewasextrapolitetohissuperiors.

Talkingaboutdifferentamountsofaquality2.140 Whenyouwanttosaysomethingmoreaboutthequalitythatanadjective

describes, you can use a submodifying adverb such as very or ratherwith it.Youdo this inorder to indicate theamountof thequality,or tointensifyit.

submodifyingadverbs:extremelynarrow,slightlydifferent

2.141 Because qualitative adjectives are gradable, allowing you to say howmuchorhow littleof thequality is relevant,youaremore likely tousesubmodifyingadverbs(wordslikeextremelyorslightly)withthemthanwithothertypesofadjective.…anextremelynarrowroad.…ahighlysuccessfulcompany.…inaslightlydifferentway.Iwasextraordinarilyhappy.…helpingtheminastronglysupportiveway.…averyprettygirl.Sheseemsverypleasant.…aratherclumsyperson.Hishairwasratherlong.

2.142 You can use words like very and extremely with some classifyingadjectives(seeparagraphs2.146to2.148)andwithcolouradjectives(seeparagraph2.35).Notethatmost-edadjectivescanbemodifiedbywordssuchasveryandextremely,justlikeotherqualitativeadjectives.…averyfrightenedlittlegirl.…anextremelydisappointedyoungman.

intensifyingqualitativeadjectives

2.143 You can use many submodifying adverbs like very or extremely withqualitativeadjectivesinordertointensifytheirmeaning.…extremelyhightemperatures.Geoffreywasadeeplyreligiousman.Franceisheavilydependentonforeigntrade.Hereisalistofwordsusedtointensifythemeaningofadjectives:

amazinglyawfullybitterlycriticallydangerouslydeeplydelightfullydisturbinglydreadfullyeminentlyespeciallyexceedinglyextraordinarilyextremelyfantasticallygreatlyheavilyhighlyhopelesslyhorriblyhugelyimpossiblyincrediblyinfinitelynotablyparticularlyradicallyreally

remarkablyseriouslystrikinglysupremelysurprisinglysuspiciouslyterriblyunbelievablyveryviolentlyvitallywildlywonderfully

Note that very can be used in front of superlative adjectiveswhen youwanttobeveryemphatic.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.167to2.168.

2.144 Manyof these submodifying adverbs not only intensify themeaning oftheadjectivebutalsoallowyoutoexpressyouropinionaboutwhatyouaresaying.Forexample, ifyousaythatsomethingissurprisingly large,youareexpressingsurpriseathowlarge it isaswellas intensifying themeaningoflarge.Hehasamazinglylongeyelashes.…adelightfullyrefreshingtaste.…ashockinglybrutalscene.…ahorriblyuncomfortablechair.…incrediblyboringdocuments.However, you use a few of these submodifying adverbs with no otherpurposethantointensifythemeaningoftheadjective.They’reawfullybrave.Theothergirlsweredreadfullydullcompanions.Hereisalistofwordsonlyusedtointensifyadjectives:

awfullydreadfully

especiallyextremelygreatlyhighlyreallysoterriblyvery

Note thatawfully,dreadfully,and terribly areused in informal languageandhighlyisusedinveryformallanguage.Notealsothatsoisnormallyonlyusedafteralinkingverb.Iamsosorry.

reducingqualitativeadjectives

2.145 Some submodifying adverbs are used to reduce the effect of qualitativeadjectives.Thestorywasmildlyamusing.It’safairlycommonfeeling.…moderatelyrichpeople.…hisratherlargestomach.Mylastquestionissomewhatpersonal.Hereisalistofwordsusedtoreducetheeffectofanadjective:

faintlyfairlymildlymoderatelyprettyquiteratherreasonablyslightlysomewhat

Notealso thatquite is normally only usedwith adjectives that are usedafteralinkingverb.Shewasquitetall.

talkingaboutextent

2.146 Somemodiifyingadverbsareusedtotalkabouttheextentofthequalitythatyouaredescribing.Hereisalistofwordsusedtotalkabouttheextentofaquality:

almostexclusivelyfullylargelymainlymostlynearlypartlypredominantlyprimarilyroughly~absolutelyaltogethercompletelyentirelyperfectlypurelyquitesimplytotallyutterly

USAGENOTE

2.147 Thefirstgroupinthelistaboveareusedalmostalwaysjusttotalkaboutthe extent of a quality. They aremost commonly usedwith classifyingadjectives.Itwasanalmostautomaticreflex.…ashopwithanexclusivelyfemaleclientele.…thelargelyruralsoutheast.Thewolfisnownearlyextinct.The reasons for this were partly economic and practical, and partlypoliticalandsocial.Almostandnearlyarealsousedwithqualitativeadjectives.Theclubwasalmostempty.Itwasnearlydark.Note that roughly can be usedwhen youwant to say that something isnearlyorapproximatelylikesomethingelse.West Germany, Japan and Sweden are at roughly similar levels ofeconomicdevelopment.Notealsothathalf issometimesusedinthisway.Forexample,youcandescribe someone as half American if just one of their parents wasAmerican.

2.148 The second group in the list above are used not only to talk about theextentofaqualitybutalsotoemphasizetheadjective.Theyareusedwithclassifyingadjectivesaswellasqualitativeadjectives.You’reabsolutelyright.Thispolicyhasbeencompletelyunsuccessful.Everyoneappearedtobecompletelyunawareofthefact.Thediscussionwaspurelytheoretical.Itreallyisquiteastonishing.…atotallynewsituation.Welivedtotallyseparatelives.…utterlytrivialmatters.Note that absolutely is frequently used with qualitative adjectives thatexpress enthusiasm or lack of enthusiasm.When you use absolutely inthiswayyouareemphasizinghowstronglyyoufeelaboutwhatyouare

saying.…anabsolutelyabsurdidea.Ithinkit’sabsolutelywonderful.Theenquiryisabsolutelycrucial.Hereisalistofqualitativeadjectivesoftenemphasizedbyabsolutely:

absurdawfulbrilliantcertaincrucialenormousessentialexcellentfurioushilarioushugeimpossiblemassiveperfectridiculoussplendidterriblevitalwonderful

Notealsothatcompletelyandutterlycanalsobeusedinthisway.Itiscompletelyimpossibletoimaginesuchaworld.Hebegantofeelutterlymiserable.

sayingthatthereisenoughofsomething

2.149 You can use submodifying adverbs such asadequately,sufficiently, andacceptablywhenyouwanttosaythatsomeoneorsomethinghasenoughofthequalityyouaredescribing.

Theroofisadequatelyinsulated.Wefoundabankofsnowsufficientlydeeptodigacave.

USAGENOTE

2.150 Youcanalsoshowthatyouthinksomethingissufficientbyusingenough.Enoughalwayscomesaftertheadjective,andneverbeforeit.Iwasnotagoodenoughrider.ItseemedthatHenryhadnotbeencarefulenough.Enough can be followed by the preposition for to indicate a personinvolved,orbyato-infinitivetoindicatearelatedaction.Agirlfromthefactorywasn’tgoodenoughforhim.Ifyoufindthatthewhitewineisnotcoldenoughforyou,askforsomeicetobeputinit.Thechildrenareoldenoughtotraveltoschoolontheirown.Noneofthefruitwasripeenoughtoeat.Notethatwhenenoughisusedafteranadjective,youcanusejustinfrontof the adjective to show that someone or something has enough of thequalitydescribedbytheadjective,butnomorethanthat.Someofthesecreaturesarejustlargeenoughtoseewiththenakedeye.

2.151 Enoughisalsoadeterminer(seeparagraphs1.223to1.247).Hehasn’thadenoughexercise.Whenenough is a determiner, it canhave aword like just oralmost infrontofit.Therewasjustenoughspaceforabed.Ihavealmostenoughtokensforonebook.

sayingthatthereisnotenoughofsomething

2.152 If you want to show that you think something you are describing isinsufficient, you can use submodifying adverbs such as inadequately,insufficiently,andunacceptably.…peoplegrowingupininsufficientlysupportivefamilies.Theirpublicationswereinadequatelyresearched.

sayingthatthereistoomuchofsomething

2.153 Ifyouwanttosaythatyouthinksomeoneorsomethinghastoomuchofaquality,younormallyusetooinfrontofaqualitativeadjectivethatisusedafteralinkingverb.Myfeetaretoobig.Itwastoohot.DadthoughtIwastooidealistic.Youcanemphasize toobyputting far in frontof it. In informalEnglishyoucanalsouseway.Thejourneywasfartoolong.Itwasfartoohottoworkinthegarden.Thepricewaswaytoohigh.Toocanbefollowedbytheprepositionfor to indicateapersoninvolvedorbyato-infinitivetoindicatearelatedaction.Theshoesweretoobigforhim.Hewastoooldforthatsortofthing.Shewastooweaktoliftme.Hewastooproudtoapologize.Notethatyoudonotusuallyusetoowithanadjectiveinfrontofanoun,althoughyoudousetooinfrontofthedeterminersmany,much,andfew.Thereistoomuchchanceoferror.Toofewpeoplenowadaysareinterestedinliterature.Youasktoomanyquestions,Sam.

BECAREFUL

2.154 Toocannotbeusedinsteadofvery.RatherthansayingIamtoohappytomeetyou,youmustsayIamveryhappytomeetyou.

2.155 Otherwords that indicate toomuchof a quality areexcessively, overly,and the prefix over-. These can be used, like too, with adjectives thatcome after a linking verb, but they can also be usedwith adjectives infrontofanoun.…excessivelyhighaccidentrates.…anintellectualbutover-cautiousman.Theywereoverlyeager.

BECREATIVE

2.156 Aswellasadverbsofdegree likeexcessivelyandinsufficiently,youcanuse some other types of adverb in front of adjectives to modify theirmeaning.…theonceelegantpalace.…apermanentlymuddyroad.…internationallyfamousgolfers.…naturallyblondehair.…coollyelegantfurniture.…purposelyexpensivegadgets.AdverbsareexplainedinChapter6.

Sayingthingsaredifferent2.157 When you are using comparative adjectives, youmaywant to say that

somethinghasmuchmoreormuchlessofaqualitythansomethingelse.Youdothisbyaddingwordslikemuchoralittle.Itisamuchbetterschoolthanyours.Thesecreaturesaremuchlessmobile.Therearefarworsedangers.Somechildrenarealotmoredifficultthanothers.

Youalsousethesewordstosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreormuchlessofaqualitythanithadbefore.Hehadbecomemuchmoremature.That’smuchlessimportantthanitwas.

2.158 Some modifying words and phrases are only used when comparativeadjectivesarebeingusedafterlinkingverbs.Youlookalotbetter.Itwouldbeagooddealeasierifyoucametomyplace.Thejourneybackwasagreatdealmoreunpleasantthantheoutwardonehadbeen.Hereisalistofmodifyingwordsandphrasesusedinfrontofcomparativeadjectivesafteralinkingverb:

agooddealagreatdealalotheapslots

NotethatlotsandheapsareonlyusedininformalspokenEnglish.2.159 However, other submodifying adverbs can be used with comparative

adjectives thatarebeingusedeither infrontofanounoraftera linkingverb.Theyarefacedwithamuchharderproblemthantherestofus.Theriskfromsmokingismuchgreaterifyouhaveaweakheart.Computerscanbeappliedtoafarwiderrangeoftasks.Thedelaywasfarlongerthantheyclaimed.Hereisalistofsubmodifyingadverbsusedwithadjectivesthatareusedbothinfrontofanounandafteralinkingverb:

considerablyfarinfinitely

muchvastlyverymuch

USAGENOTE

2.160 Ifyouwant tosay thatsomethinghasmoreofaquality thansomethingelsethatalreadyhasalotofit,youuseevenorstillbeforeacomparativeadjective,orstillafterit.She’sevenlazierthanme!ShewasevenmorepossessivethanRosamund.Ihadastillmorerecentreport.Thetextisactuallyworsestill.Similarly,youuseevenorstilltosaythatsomethinghaslessofaqualitythansomethingelsethathaslittleofthisquality.Thisdidnothappenbeforethewar,andisnowevenlesslikely.Youalsouseeven or stillwhen comparing the amount of a quality thatsomethinghasatonetimewiththeamountthatithasatanother.Theflightwasevenfastercomingback.Theywillbecomericherstill.In formalor literaryEnglish,yet is sometimesused in the samewayasstill.Hewouldhavebeenyetmorealarmedhadshewithdrawn.Theplanesgrowmightieryet.

2.161 Youcanshowthatsomethinghasanincreasingordecreasingamountofaquality by repeating comparative adjectives. For example, you can saythat something isgettingbiggerandbigger,moreandmoredifficult, orlessandlesscommon.He’sgettingtallerandtaller.…defencesthatwereprovingmoreandmoreeffective.Increasingly can be used instead of more and more and decreasinglyinsteadoflessandless.Iwasbecomingincreasinglydepressed.

Itwasthefirstofanumberofincreasinglyfranktalks.2.162 If youwant to say that something has a littlemore or a little less of a

qualitythansomethingelse,youuserather,slightly,abit,alittlebit,oralittlewithcomparativeadjectives.It’sarathermorecomplicatedstorythanthat.She’sonlyalittlebittallerthanhersister.Youalsousetheseformstosaythatsomethinghasalittlemoreoralittlelessofaqualitythanithadbefore.Wemustberathermorevisibletopeopleinthecommunity.…thelittlethingsthatmadelifeslightlylessintolerable.

2.163 Ifyouwanttosayemphaticallythatsomethinghasnomoreofaqualitythan something else or than it had before, you can use no in front ofcomparativeadjectives.Somespeciesofdinosaurwerenobiggerthanachicken.Any is used for emphasis in front of comparatives in negative clauses,questions,andconditionalclauses.Forexample,Hewasn’tanytallerthanJanemeansthesameasHewasnotallerthanJane.Iwastenanddidn’tlookanyolder.Ifitwillmakeyouanyhappier,I’llshaveoffmybeard.Isthatanyclearer?Notethatyouonlyusenoandanylikethiswhencomparativesarebeingusedaftera linkingverb.Youcannotusenoandanywithcomparativeswhen they are being used in front of a noun phrase. For example, youcannotsayItwasanobettermealorIsthatananyfastertrain?

2.164 When you use the comparative structure as … as … (see paragraphs2.124 to 2.130), submodifying words such as just, quite, nearly, andalmost can be used in front of it, modifying the comparison with theirusualmeanings.Marywasjustaspaleashewas.Thereisnothingquiteaslonelyasillness.…ahugebirdwhichwasnearlyasbigasaman.Thelandseemedalmostasdarkasthewater.Nearlyisalsousedwhentheas…as…structureisprecededbynotwith

themeaningless……than.Youputitafterthenot.Forexample,Iamnotnearly as tall as George means the same as I am much less tall thanGeorge.Thisisnotnearlyascomplicatedasitsounds.

2.165 Whenyouuseliketodescribesomeoneorsomethingbycomparingthemwithsomeoneorsomethingelse(seeparagraphs2.132to2.134),youcanuseasubmodifyingadverbinfrontofit.…animalsthatlookedalittlelikedonkeys.It’saplaneexactlylikehis.Hereisalistofmodifyingwordsandphrasesusedwithlike:

abitalittleexactlyjustquiterathersomewhatvery

2.166 When you use the same as and the same to describe someone orsomethingbysayingtheyareidenticaltosomeoneorsomethingelse,youcan use a number of submodifying adverbs in front of them, includingjust,exactly,much,nearly,virtually,andmoreorless.I’mjustthesameaseveryoneelse.ThesituationwasmuchthesameinGermany.Themoralcodewouldseemtobemoreor less thesame throughout theworld.

2.167 When you are using superlative adjectives, you may wish to say thatsomethinghasmuchmoreormuchlessofaqualitythananythingelseofitskind.The submodifying adverbsmuch, quite, easily, by far, and very can beusedwiththesuperlativeadjectives.

Much,quite,andeasilyareplacedinfrontoftheandthesuperlative.Musicmayhavebeenmuchthemostrespectableofhistastes.…themostfrighteningtimeofmylife,andquitethemostdishonest.Thisiseasilythebestfilmoftheyear.Byfarcanbeplacedeitherinfrontoftheandthesuperlativeorafterthesuperlative.Theyarebyfarthemostdangerouscreaturesontheisland.TheUnionwasthelargestbyfar.

2.168 Veryisonlyusedwithsuperlativesformedbyadding-estorwithirregularsuperlativessuchasthebestandtheworst.Veryisplacedbetweentheandthesuperlative.…theveryearliestcomputers.Itwasoftheveryhighestquality.Very is alsoused tomodify superlative adjectiveswhenyouwant to beveryemphatic. It isplacedafter adeterminer suchas theor that and infrontofasuperlativeadjectiveoronesuchasfirstorlast.…intheverysmallestcountries.…oneoftheveryfinestbreedsofdogs.…ontheveryfirstdayofthewar.Hehadcomeattheverylastmoment.Thatverynextafternoonhewasworkinginhisroom.Hespentweeksinthatverysamebasement.

Modifyingusingnouns:nounmodifiers2.169 Nounscanbeusedasmodifiersinfrontofothernounswhenyouwantto

givemorespecificinformationaboutsomeoneorsomething.Sometimes,whennounsareusedlikethistheybecomefixedexpressionscalledcompoundnouns(seeparagraphs1.83to1.92).Whenthenounsusedinfrontofothernounsarenotinfixedexpressions,theyarecallednounmodifiers.…thecardoor.…tennislessons.…afootballplayer.

…catfood.…themusicindustry.…asurpriseannouncement.

singularandpluralforms

2.170 Younormallyusethesingularformofacountablenoun(seeparagraphs1.15 to 1.22) as a nounmodifier, evenwhen you are referring tomorethanonething.Forexample,yourefertoashopthatsellsbooksasabookshop,notabooksshop,eventhoughitsellsalargenumberofbooks,notjustone.Many plural nouns lose their -s endings when used in front of othernouns.…mytrouserpocket.…pyjamatrousers.…paratroopattacks.Here is a listof commonpluralnouns that lose their -sand -esendingswhentheyareusedasmodifiers:

knickersparatroopspyjamasscissorsspectaclestroopstrousers

However, somepluralnounskeep the same formwhenused in frontofothernouns.…armscontrol.…clothespegs.Hereisalistofcommonpluralnounsthatremainthesamewhentheyareusedasmodifiers:

armsbinocularsclothesglassesjeanssunglasses

Pluralnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.41to1.46.

usingmorethanonenounmodifier

2.171 Ifyouwant tobe evenmore specific,youcanusemore thanonenounmodifier. For example, a car insurance certificate is a certificate thatshowsthatacarhasbeeninsured,andastatepensionschemeisaschemethatisrunbythestateandconcernsworkers’pensions.…aCareersInformationOfficer.…carbodyrepairkits.…afamilydinnerparty.…aschoolmedicalofficer.

usedwithadjectives

2.172 If you want to give more information about a noun that has a nounmodifier in front of it, you can put adjectives in front of the nounmodifier.…alongcarjourney.…anewscarletsilkhandkerchief.…complexbusinessdeals.…thisbeautifulmorningsunlight.…theFrenchfilmindustry.When an adjective comes in front of two nouns, it is usually obviouswhether it is modifying the two nouns combined or only the nounmodifier.Forexample,inanelectriccanopener,theadjectiveelectricismodifyingthecombinationcanopener;whereasinelectricshocktreatment,electricis modifying the noun shock and then both the adjective and the noun

modifieraremodifyingthenountreatment.Adjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.2to2.102.

useofpropernouns

2.173 Propernouns canalsobeusedasnounmodifiers.For example, if youwant toshowthat something isconnectedwithaplace,organization,orinstitution,youput thenameof theplace,organization,or institution infrontofallothernounmodifiers.Youalsoputtheminfrontofclassifyingadjectives.…BrightonTechnicalCollege.…theCambridgeHouseLiteracyScheme.Propernounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.52to1.58.

BECREATIVE

2.174 The use of nounmodifiers in English is very common indeed. In fact,whenthecontextmakesitclearwhatyoumean,youcanusealmostanynountomodifyanyothernoun.Youcanusenounmodifierstotalkaboutawiderangeofrelationshipsbetweenthetwonouns.Forexample,youcansaywhatsomethingismadeof,asincottonsocks.Youcanalsosaywhatismadeinaparticularplace,asinaglassfactory.Youcansaywhatsomeonedoes,asina footballplayer,oryoucansaywheresomethingis,asinmybedroomcurtains.You can saywhen something happens, as in themorningmist and herwartimeactivities.Youcanalsodescribethenatureorsizeofsomething,asinasurpriseattackandapocketchess-set.

Talkingaboutquantitiesandamounts2.175 Thissectiondealswithwaysof talkingaboutquantitiesandamountsof

things.Youoftenrefertoquantitiesbyusinganumber,butsometimesineverydaysituationsyoucandothisbyusingawordoraphrasesuchasseveral or a lot and link it with of to the following noun. Quantityexpressionsliketheseareexplainedinparagraphs2.176to2.193.Whenphrases such as a bottle are used like this, they are called partitives.

Partitivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.194to2.207.When you want to be very precise about the quantity or amount ofsomething, you can use numbers (see paragraphs 2.208 to 2.239) orfractions(seeparagraphs2.240to2.249).Numbers,fractions,andquantityexpressionsarealsousedinexpressionsof measurement to indicate the size, weight, length, and so on, ofsomething. Ways of talking about measurements are explained inparagraphs2.250 to 2.257.Approximatemeasurements are explained inparagraphs 2.264 to 2.271. Numbers are also used to say how oldsomeoneorsomethingis.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.258to2.263.

Talkingaboutamountsofthings:alotofideas,plentyofshops2.176 When you want to talk about a quantity of things or an amount of

something,youcanusethepronounformofsomeindefinitedeterminers(suchasallorboth)followedbyofandanounphrase.Iamsurebothofyouagreewithme.Mostofthepopulationhavefled.Allofherchildrenliveabroad.

2.177 Hereisthelistofindefinitedeterminersthatcanbeusedinthisway.Ofisgivenaftereachasareminder.

allofanotherofanyofbothofeachofeitherofenoughof(a)fewoffeweroflessof(a)littleoflotsofmanyofmoreof

mostofmuchofneitherofnoneofoneofseveralofsomeof

Youcanalsouseaphrasesuchasa lotoforanumberof to talk aboutquantityinthesameway.…ahousewithlotsofwindows.Imakealotofmistakes.InTunisthereareanumberofartgalleries.Ineverfoundtherestofmyrelatives.

2.178 Hereisalistofphrasesthatcanbeusedtotalkaboutquantity.

anamountofabitofalittlebitofacoupleofagooddealofagreatdealofalotofagoodmanyofagreatmanyofanumberofplentyofaquantityof~amajorityofthemajorityofaminorityof~partof

theremainderoftherestofthewholeof~gobsof(American)heapsofloadsofmassesoftonsof

Note that the words in the last group in this list are used in informalspeechonly.

onlywithdefinitedeterminers

2.179 Someofthesequantityexpressionsarelinkedbyofonlytonounphrasesthatbeginwithadefinitedeterminersuchasthe,these,ormy.Apronounsuchasus,them,orthesecanalsobeusedafterof.Nearlyalloftheincreasehasbeencausedbyinflation.Partofthefarmlayclosetotheriverbank.Onlyafewofthemwerearmed.Here is a list of quantity expressionswithof that are usually or alwaysfollowedbynounphrasesbeginningwithdefinitedeterminers:

allofanotherofanyofbothofcertainofeachofeitherofenoughoffewoffeweroflessof

littleofmanyofmoreofmostofmuchofneitherofnoneofoneofpartofseveralofsomeofvariousof~afewofalittleofagoodmanyofagreatmanyof~theremainderoftherestofthewholeof

withplacenames

2.180 Someofthesequantityexpressionscanalsobeusedwithplacenames.MuchofAmericawillbeshockedbywhathappened.…involvingmostofAfricaandalotofSouthAmerica.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsusedwithplacenames:

alloflessofmoreofmostofmuchofnoneof

partofsomeof~abitofalittlebitofagooddealofagreatdealofalotof~therestofthewholeof

verbagreement

2.181 Whenyouuseaquantityexpressionasthesubjectofaverb,theverbissingularorpluraldependingonwhetherthequantityexpressionreferstoonethingortomorethanonething.Someoftheinformationhasalreadybeenanalysed.Someofmybestfriendsarepolicemen.

withpluralnouns

2.182 Many quantity expressions can only be used in front of plural nounphrases.Iamsurebothofyouagreewithme.Start by looking through their papers for either of the two documentsmentionedbelow.Fewoftheseorganizationssurviveforlong.Severalofhisbestbooksareaboutspaceflight.Iwouldliketoaskyouacoupleofquestions.Thereportcontainedlargenumbersofinaccuracies.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsthatareonlyusedwithpluralnounphrases:

anotherof

bothofcertainofeachofeitheroffewoffewerofmanyofneitherofnumbersofoneofseveralofvariousof~acoupleofafewofagoodmanyofagreatmanyofanumberof

Formoreinformationabouteachofseeparagraphs2.186to2.187,aboutfewerofseeparagraph2.189,andaboutanumberofseeparagraphs2.191to2.192.Note thatneitherof is used in a similarway to either of when you aretalking about two things in negative clauses. This is explained inparagraph5.81.

withuncountablenounsandsingularnouns

2.183 A few quantity expressions are only used with uncountable nouns andsingularnounphrases.Muchofthedaywastakenupwithclasses.Thisisabitofachange.Therewasagooddealofsmoke.Ifyouuserichmilk,pouroffalittleofthecream.Ispentthewholeoflastyearworkingthere.

Here is a list ofquantity expressionsonlyusedwithuncountablenounsandsingularnounphrases:

lessoflittleofmuchofpartof~abitofalittlebitofagooddealofagreatdealofalittleof~thewholeof

Formoreinformationaboutlessofseeparagraph2.189.

withpluralnounsanduncountablenouns

2.184 Avery fewquantityexpressionsareusedonlywithpluralnounphrasesanduncountablenouns.…theseizureofvastquantitiesofillegalweapons.Verylargequantitiesofaidwereneeded.Theyhadloadsofthingstosayabouteachother.Wehadloadsofroom.…plentyofthemen.Makesureyougiveplentyofnotice.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsthatareonlyusedwithpluralnounphrasesanduncountablenouns:

plentyofquantitiesof~gobsof(American)

heapsofloadsofmassesoftonsof

Notethatwhenthesecondgroupinthislistareusedwithanuncountablenoun as the subject of a verb, the verb is singular, even though thequantityexpressionlooksplural.Massesandmassesoffoodwasleftover.

withalltypesofnoun

2.185 Somequantityexpressionscanbeusedwithpluralnouns,with singularnouns,orwithuncountablenouns.…someofthemostdistinguishedmenofourtime.Wedidsomeofthejourneybynight.Someofthegossipwassurprisinglyaccurate.Here is a list of quantity expressions that are used with plural nouns,singularnouns,oruncountablenouns:

allofanyofenoughoflotsofmoreofmostofnoneofsomeof~anamountofalotofaquantityof~theremainderoftherestof

Note thatanamountof is nearly always usedwith an adjective such assmall:asmallamountof.Thisisexplainedinparagraph2.191.Note also that when lots of is used with an uncountable noun as thesubjectofaverb,theverbissingular,eventhoughthequantityexpressionlooksplural.Hethoughtthatlotsoflovelymoneywasthesourceofhappiness.Anyofisexplainedmorefullyinparagraph2.188.

USAGENOTE

2.186 Whenyouwant to refer to eachmemberof aparticulargroup,youcanuseeachofandapluralnounphrase.Eachofthedrawingsisslightlydifferent.Wefeelquitedifferentlyabouteachofourchildren.Workouthowmuchyoucanaffordtopayeachofthem.Notethateachoneandeveryonecanbeusedbeforeof insteadofeach,foremphasis.Thisviewofpovertyinfluenceseachoneofus.Everyoneofthemisgivenafinancialtarget.

BECAREFUL

2.187 Whenthequantityexpressioneachof isusedwithapluralnounphrase,theverbafterthenounphraseisalwayssingular.

USAGENOTE

2.188 Any of can refer to one or several people or things, or to part ofsomething.Notethatifitisthesubjectofaverb,whenitreferstoseveralthings, theverb isplural, andwhen it refers to apartof something, theverbissingular.Shehasthosecoats.Shemighthavebeenwearinganyofthem.Hardlyanyofthesefindtheirwayintoconsumerproducts.Hasanyofthisbeenhelpful?Itwasmoreexpensivethananyoftheothermagazineswewerenormally

abletoafford.2.189 Therearethreecomparativequantityexpressionsthatcanbeusedbefore

nounphrases.Lessofisusuallyusedwithsingularnounsanduncountablenouns,fewerofisusuallyusedwithpluralnouns,andmoreofisusedwithallthreetypesofnoun.Ienjoycookingfarmorenow,becauseIdolessofit.Fewerofthesechildrenwillbecomebored.Hewasfarmoreofanexistentialist.Notethatmoreofissometimesusedinfrontofanounphrasetointensifyit.Hecouldhardlyhavefeltmoreofafoolthanhedidatthatmoment.Shewasmoreofaflirtthanever.Americaismuchmoreofaclasslesssociety.Note also that less of is sometimes used instead of fewer of, butmanypeoplethinkthatthisisnotcorrect.

omittingof

2.190 Whenthecontextmakes itclear,orwhenyouthink that thepersonyouaretalkingtowillunderstandwhatyoumean,youcansometimesreducethe structure to the quantityword only. For example, if you are talkingaboutapplicationsforajobandthereweretwentycandidates,youcansaySomewereverygoodratherthanSomeofthemwereverygood.Afewcrossedoverthebridge.Somepartscanbeseparatedfromthewhole.Ihavefourbins.Ikeeponeinthekitchenandtherestinthedustbinarea.Most of the books had been packed into an enormous trunk and theremainderpiledontopofit.

USAGENOTE

2.191 Youcanaddadjectivestoanumberofandaquantityoftosayhowlargeorsmallanamountornumberofthingsis.Thecityattractsalargenumberoftourists.Wehadalimitednumberofpeopletochoosefrom.Thenovelprovidesanenormousquantityofinformation.

…atinyquantityofacid.An amount of is always used with adjectives, and is usually used withuncountablenouns.Pourasmallamountofthesauceoverthechicken.Hehasalargeamountofresponsibility.Itonlyinvolvesasmallamountoftime.Therehastobeacertainamountofsacrifice.Theyhavedoneavastamountofhardwork.The plural forms of quantity, number, and amount are used, especiallywhenreferringtoseparateamounts.…groupsthatemploylargenumbersoflow-paidworkers.Enormousamountsofmoneyarespentonadvertising.

modifyingquantityexpressions

2.192 When a quantity expression contains an adjective, you can put very infrontoftheadjective.…averygreatdealofwork.…averylargeamountofmoney.

2.193 Somequantityexpressionscanbemodifiedusingquite.I’vewastedquiteenoughofmylifehere.Quiteafewoftheemployeesarebeginningtorealisethetruth.Mostofthemhavehadquitealotofexperience.…quitealargeamountofindustry.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsthatcanbemodifiedbyquite:

enoughafewalotofalargeamountofasmallamountofanumberofalargenumberof

Talking about particular amounts of things: a piece of paper, adropofwater2.194 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaparticularquantityofsomething,youcan

useapartitivestructurethatconsistsofaparticularpartitive(e.g.piece)linkedbyoftoanothernoun.Partitivesarealwayscountablenouns.Whoownsthisbitofland?…portionsofmashedpotato.Ifthepartitiveissingular,thentheverbusedwithitisusuallysingular.Ifitisplural,theverbisalsoplural.Apieceofpaperislifeless.Twopiecesofmetalwerebeingrubbedtogether.Notethatallpartitivesconsistoftwoormorewords,becauseofisneededineverycase.Ofisprintedinthelistsbelowasareminder.

partitiveswithuncountablenouns

2.195 When the noun after the partitive is an uncountable noun, you usecountablenounssuchasbit,drop,lump,orpieceasthepartitive.Here’sabitofpaper.…adropofblood.Dropsofsweatdrippedfromhisforehead.…atinypieceofmaterial.…apinchofsalt.…specksofdust.Thesepartitivescanbeusedwithoutofwhenit isobviouswhatyouaretalkingabout.Hesatdown in thekitchenbeforeaplateof coldham,buthehadonlyeatenonepiecewhenthephonerang.

2.196 Hereisalistofpartitivesusedwithuncountablenouns:

amountofbitofblobofchunkof

clumpofdashofdropofgrainofheapofknoboflumpofmassofmorselofmountainofpieceofpileofpinchofpoolofportionofscrapofsheetofshredofsliceofspeckofspotoftouchoftraceof

Someofthesepartitivesarealsousedwithpluralnounsreferringtothingsthattogetherformamass.…ahugeheapofstones.…apileofnewspapers.Hereisalistofpartitivesusedwithbothuncountableandpluralnouns:

amountofclumpofheapofmassof

mountainofpileofportionof

BECREATIVE

2.197 Manynounsthatrefertotheshapeofanamountofsomethingcanalsobepartitiveswithuncountableorpluralnouns.…aballofwool.…columnsofsmoke.…aringofexcitedfaces.Hereisalistofpartitivesusedfortalkingabouttheshapeofanamountofsomething:

ballofcolumnofringofshaftofsquareofstickofstripofthreadoftuftofwallof

Manynouns that refer tobothshapeandmovementcanalsobeusedaspartitives.Itblewajetofwaterintotheair.…aconstantstreamofchildrenpassingthroughthedoor.Here is a list of partitives used for talking about both shape andmovement:

dribbleofgushof

gustofjetofshowerofspurtofstreamoftorrentof

BECREATIVE

Youcanuseanynountodescribeshapeinthisway.Forexampleyoucantalkaboutatriangleofsnookerballs.

2.198 Therearemanynounsthatrefertogroupsthatcanbeusedaspartitives.Theyarelinkedbyoftopluralnounsthatindicatewhatthegroupconsistsof.Itwasevaluatedbyanindependentteamofinspectors.Agroupofjournalistsgatheredattheairporttowatchustakeoff.…abunchofflowers.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtogroups:

audienceofbunchofclumpofcompanyoffamilyofflockofgangofgroupofherdofteamoftroupeof

BECREATIVE

Youcanuseanynounreferringtoagroupofpeopleorthingsinthisway.Forexample,youcantalkaboutanarmyofvolunteers.

measurementnouns

2.199 Nounsreferringtomeasurementsareoftenusedinpartitivestructurestotalk about an amount of something that is a particular length, area,volume, or weight. Uncountable nouns are used after of in structuresreferring to length, and both uncountable and plural nouns are used instructuresreferringtoweight.…tenyardsofvelvet.Thousandsofsquaremilesoflandhavebeencontaminated.Idrinkapintofmilkaday.…threepoundsofstrawberries.…10ouncesofcheese.Nouns referring to measurements are explained in paragraphs 2.250 to2.257.

referringtocontentsandcontainers

2.200 Youusepartitiveswhenyouwanttotalkaboutthecontentsofacontaineraswellas to thecontainer itself.Forexample,youcanrefer toacartonfilledwithmilkasacartonofmilk.Iwenttobuyabagofchips.Thewaiterappearedwithabottleofredwine.…apacketofcigarettes.…apotofhoney.…tubesofglue.Youcanalsousepartitivestorefertothecontentsonly.Theydrankanotherbottleofchampagne.Sheateawholeboxofchocolates.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtocontainers:

bagofbarrelofbasinofbasketofbottleof

bowlofboxofbucketofcanofcartonofcaseofcaskofcrateofcupofglassofjarofjugofmugofpackofpacketofplateofpotofsackofspoonoftablespoonoftankofteaspoonoftinoftuboftubeoftumblerof

endingin-ful

2.201 Youcanadd-fultothesepartitivesreferringtocontainers.Hebroughtmeabagfulofsweets.Pourabucketfulofcoldwaterontheash.…acupfulofboiledwater.…atankfulofpetrol.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtocontainersthatareverycommonly

usedwith-ful:

bagbasketboxbucketcupplatespoontablespoontankteaspoon

Whenpeoplewanttomakeanounendingin-fulplural,theyusuallyaddan-s totheendoftheword,asinbucketfuls.Howeversomepeopleputthe-sinfrontof-ful,asinbucketsful.Sheladledthreespoonfulsofsugarintomytea.Theywerecollectingbasketfulsofapples.…twoteaspoonfulsofpowder.…2teaspoonsfulofmilk.

BECREATIVE

2.202 Youcanalsoadd-fultootherpartitives.Eleanorwasholdinganarmfulofredroses.Iwentoutsidetothrowahandfulofbreadtothebirds.Hetookanothermouthfulofwhisky.…ahousefulofchildren.

USAGENOTE

2.203 You sometimes use a mass noun instead of a partitive structure. Forexample, two teas means the same as two cups of tea, and two sugarsmeanstwospoonfulsofsugar.Wedrankacoupleofbeers.Iaskedfortwocoffeeswithmilk.

Massnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.28to1.31.

referringtopartsandfractions

2.204 Youuseapartitivewhenyouwanttotalkaboutapartorafractionofaparticularthing.Ispentalargepartofmylifeinbroadcasting.ThesystemisbreakingdowninmanypartsofAfrica.AlargeportionoftheuniversitybudgetgoesintotheCommunityServicesarea.…amassmovementinvolvingallsegmentsofsociety.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtoapartofsomething:

partofportionofsectionofsegmentof

referringtoindividualitems

2.205 You use a partitive with an uncountable noun referring to things of acertaintypewhenyouwanttorefertooneparticularthingofthattype.…anarticleofclothing.Iboughtafewbitsoffurniture.Anyitemofinformationcanbeaccessed.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtoonethingofaparticulartype:

articleofbitofitemofpieceof

Here is a list of uncountable nouns referring to things of a certain typethatareoftenusedwiththepartitiveslistedabove:

adviceapparatusbaggageclothingequipmentfurniturehomeworkinformationknowledgeluggagemachinerynewsresearch

pairof

2.206 Somepluralnounsrefertothingsthatarenormallythoughttoconsistoftwoparts,suchastrousersorscissors.Someothersrefertothingsthataremadeintwos,suchasshoesorsocks.Whenyouwanttotalkaboutoneofthesetwo-partitems,ortwo-itemsets,youusethepartitivepairlinkedtothesepluralnounsbyof.…apairofjeans.…apairoftights.…adozenpairsofsunglasses.Iboughtapairoftennisshoes.Ismashedthreepairsofskis.Thesepluralnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.41to1.46.

BECREATIVE

2.207 Wheneveryouwantto(i)talkaboutalimitedamountofsomething,(ii)indicate the area that something occupies, or (iii) specify a particularfeaturethatsomethinghas,youcanuseanounthatindicatestheamountor the nature of the thing (e.g. a bottle), linked by of to a noun thatindicateswhatthethingis(e.g.water).

For example, if you saya forest of pines, you are talking about a largeareaoftrees.Similarly,youcantalkaboutaborderofroses.Thisstructurecanbeextendedverywidely,sothatyoucantalkaboutacityofdreamingspires,forexample.

Referringtoanexactnumberofthings:numbers

cardinalnumbers

2.208 Whenyouwant to refer toanexactnumberof things,youusenumberssuch as two, thirty, and 777, which are called cardinal numbers, orsometimescardinals.I’mgoingtoaskyouthirtyquestions.…twohundredandsixtycopiesoftherecord.ThecardinalnumbersarelistedintheReferencesectionandtheiruseisexplainedinparagraphs2.213to2.231.

ordinalnumbers

2.209 When youwant to identify or describe something by showingwhere itcomesinaseriesorsequence,youuseanordinalnumber,oranordinal,suchasfirst,second,fourteenth,ortwenty-seventh.Shereceivedavideocameraforherfourteenthbirthday.Irepeatedmystoryforthethirdtimethatday.Theordinalnumbersare listed in theReferencesection and their use isexplainedinparagraphs2.232to2.239.

fractions

2.210 Whenyouwanttoshowhowlargeapartofsomethingiscomparedtothewholeofit,youuseafractionsuchasathirdorthree-quarters.AthirdoftheAmericanforceswereinvolved.Thebottlewasaboutthree-quartersfullwhenhestarted.Fractionsareexplainedinparagraphs2.240to2.249.

measuringthings

2.211 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutasize,distance,area,volume,weight,speed,ortemperature,youcandosobyusinganumberorquantityexpressioninfrontofameasurementnounsuchasfeetandmiles.Hewasaboutsixfeettall.It’sfourmilestothecitycentrefromhere.Measurementnounsareexplainedinparagraphs2.250to2.257.Ifyoudonotknowtheexactnumber,size,orquantityofsomething,youcangiveanapproximateamountormeasurementusingoneofagroupofspecialwordsandexpressions.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs2.264to2.271.

age

2.212 When you want to say how old someone or something is, you have achoiceofwaysinwhichtodoit.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs2.258to2.263.

Talkingaboutthenumberofthings:cardinalnumbers2.213 If youwant to talk about someor all of the things in a group, you can

show how many things you are talking about by using a cardinalnumber.ThecardinalnumbersarelistedintheReferencesection.ByChristmas,wehadtencows.Whenyouuseadeterminerandanumberinfrontofanoun,youputthedeterminerinfrontofthenumber.…thethreeyoungmen.…mytwodaughters.Watchtheeyesofanytwopeopleengrossedinconversation.AllthreecandidatesarecomingtoBlackpoollaterthisweek.Whenyouputanumberandanadjectiveinfrontofanoun,youusuallyputthenumberinfrontoftheadjective.…twosmallchildren.…fifteenhundredlocalresidents.

…threebeautifulyounggirls.

one

2.214 Oneisusedasanumberinfrontofanountoemphasizethatthereisonlyonething,toshowthatyouarebeingprecise,ortocontrastonethingwithanother.Oneisfollowedbyasingularnoun.ThatistheonebigreservationI’vegot.Hebalancedhimselfononefoot.Therewasonlyonegateintothepalace.ThistreatywassignedoneyearaftertheSuezCrisis.Itwasnegativeinonerespectbutpositiveinanother.Oneisalsoused,likeothernumbers,asaquantityexpression.Oneofmystudentssoldmeherticket.…oneofthefewgreatnovelsofthecentury.It’soneofthebestfilmsI’veeverseen.One also has special uses as a determiner and a pronoun. These areexplainedinparagraph1.249andparagraphs1.158to1.161.

2.215 Whenalargenumberbeginswiththefigure1,the1canbesaidorwrittenasaorone.Oneismoreformal.…amilliondollars.…ahundredandfiftymiles.Overonemillionpoundshasbeenraised.

talkingaboutnegativeamounts

2.216 Thenumber0 isnotused inordinaryEnglish tosay that thenumberofthingsyouaretalkingaboutiszero.Insteadthenegativedeterminernoorthenegativepronounnoneisused,oranyisusedwithanegative.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs5.51and5.71to5.73.

numbersandagreement

2.217 Whenyouuseanynumberexceptoneinfrontofanoun,youuseapluralnoun.Thereweretenpeoplethere,allmen.

…ahundredyears.…ahundredandonethings.

2.218 When you use a number and a plural noun to talk about two or morethings,youusuallyuseapluralverb.Youuseasingularverbwithone.Sevenguerrillaswerewounded.Thereisoneclue.However,whenyouaretalkingaboutanamountofmoneyortime,oradistance,speed,orweight,youusuallyuseanumber,apluralnoun,andasingularverb.Threehundredpoundsisalotofmoney.Tenyearsisalongtime.Twentysixmilesisalongwaytorun.90milesanhourismuchtoofast.Ninetypoundsisallsheweighs.Waysofmeasuringthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.250to2.257.

numberswithordinalsandpostdeterminers

2.219 Youcanusecardinalnumberswithbothordinals(seeparagraphs2.232to 2.239) and postdeterminers (see paragraph 2.40). When you use acardinal numberwith a determiner followed by an ordinal number or apostdeterminer, the cardinal number usually comes after the determinerandtheordinalorpostdeterminer.Thefirsttwoyearshavebeenverysuccessful.…throughoutthefirstfourmonthsofthisyear.…thelasttwovolumesoftheencyclopedia.…inthepreviousthreeyearsofhisreign.Note that some postdeterminers can be used like ordinary classifyingadjectives(seeparagraph2.40).Whentheyareusedlikethis,thecardinalnumbercomesbeforethem.Hehaswrittentwopreviousnovels.…twofurtherexamples.

numbersaspronouns

2.220 When either the context makes it clear, or you think that your listeneralready knows something, you can use the cardinal number without anoun.Thesetwoarequitedifferent.Whencardinalnumbersareused like this,youcanputordinalnumbers,postdeterminers,or superlativeadjectives inbetween thedeterminerandthecardinalnumber.I want to tell you about the programmes. The first four are devoted touniversities.Theothersixaremasterpieces.Thebestthirtyhavethepotentialtobesuccessfuljournalists.

expressinglargenumbers

2.221 When you use dozen, hundred, thousand,million, orbillion to indicateexactnumbers,youputaoranothernumberinfrontofthem.…ahundreddollars.…sixhundredandtenmiles.…athousandbillionpounds.…twodozendiapers.

BECAREFUL

2.222 Whenyouusedozen,hundred, thousand,million,orbillion theyremainsingularevenwhenthenumberinfrontofthemisgreaterthanone.

BECAREFUL

2.223 Youcanusedozen,hundred,thousand,million,orbillionwithoutofinaless precise way by putting several, a few, and a couple of in front ofthem.…severalhundredpeople.Afewthousandcarshavegone.…lifeacoupleofhundredyearsago.

approximatequantities

2.224 When youwant to emphasize how large a number iswithout stating itprecisely,youcanusedozens,hundreds,thousands,millions,andbillionsinthesamewayascardinalsfollowedbyof.That’sgoingtotakehundredsofyears.…hundredsofdollars.WetravelledthousandsofmilesacrossEurope.…languagesspokenbymillionsofpeople.Wehavedozensoffriendsinthecommunity.Youcanputmanyinfrontofthesepluralforms.Ihavetravelledmanyhundredsofmileswiththem.

USAGENOTE

2.225 Peopleoftenusethepluralformswhentheyareexaggerating.Iwasmeetingthousandsofpeople.Doyouhavetofillinhundredsofformsbeforeyougo?You can also emphasize or exaggerate a large number by using thesewordsinphrasesbeginningwithby.…abookwhichsellsbythemillion.…peoplewhogiveinjectionsbythedozen.Videosoftheroyalweddingsoldbythehundredthousand.

numbersaslabels

2.226 Cardinalnumbersareusedtolabeloridentifythings.Room777oftheStanleyHotel.Number11DowningStreet.

numbersasquantityexpressions

2.227 Youcanalsousecardinalnumbersasquantityexpressionslinkedbyoftoa noun phrase referring to a group. You do this when you want toemphasizethatyouaretalkingaboutapartorallofagroup.Isawfouroftheseprogrammes.Threeofthequestionstodayhavebeenaboutdemocracy.Iuseplastickitchenbins.Ihavefourofthem.

Alleightofmygreat-grandparentslivedinthecity.AllfourofuswantedtogetawayfromtheEarl’sCourtarea.Theclerklookedatthesixofthemandsaid,Allofyou?Ifinditlessworryingthanthetwoofyouaresuggesting.Quantityexpressionsareexplainedinparagraphs2.176to2.193.

numberquantityexpressionsaspronouns

2.228 Cardinalnumbersareusedtoquantifysomethingwithout theofand thenounphrase,whenitisclearwhatyouarereferringto.…agroupofpainters,nineorteninall.Oftheotherwives,twoaredancersandoneisasinger.…thetallerstudentofthetwo.…breakfastfortwo.

numbersaftersubjectpronouns

2.229 Cardinalnumbersarealsousedaftersubjectpronouns.InthefallwetwoaregoingtoEngland.Youfour,comewithme.

numbersincompoundadjectives

2.230 Cardinal numbers can be used as part of a compound adjective (seeparagraphs2.94to2.102).ThecardinalnumberisusedinfrontofanountoformacompoundadjectivethatisusuallyhyphenatedHetookoutafive-dollarbill.Iwroteafive-pagesummaryofthesituation.Note that the noun remains singular even when the number is two ormore, and that compound adjectives that are formed like this cannot beusedaftera linkingverb.Forexample,youcannotsayMyessayisfive-hundred-word.InsteadyouwouldprobablysayMyessayisfivehundredwordslong.

numberswithtimeexpressions

2.231 Cardinal numbers are sometimes usedwith general timewords such as

month andweek.You do thiswhen youwant to describe something bysaying how long it lasts. If the thing is referred towith an uncountablenoun,youusethepossessiveform(seeparagraphs1.211to1.222)ofthegeneraltimeword.She’salreadyhadatleastninemonths’experience.OnFridayshehadbeengiventwoweeks’notice.Sometimestheapostropheisomitted.Theywantedthreeweeksholidayandthreeweekspay.The determiner a is usually used when you are talking about a singleperiod of time, althoughone can be used insteadwhen youwant to bemoreformal.She’sonayear’sleavefromHunterCollege.Hewasonlygivenoneweek’snotice.Cardinalnumbersarealsousedwithgeneral timewordsasmodifiersofadjectives.Shewasfourmonthspregnant.Therainsaretwomonthslate.Hisrentwasthreeweeksoverdue.

Referringtothingsinasequence:ordinalnumbers2.232 Ifyouwanttoidentifyordescribesomethingbysayingwhereitcomesin

aseriesorsequence,youuseanordinalnumber.Quietlytheytooktheirseatsinthefirstthreerows.Flora’sflatisonthefourthfloorofthisfive-storeyblock.Theystoppedatthefirstofthetrees.Notethatyoucanalsousefollowing,last,next,preceding,previous,andsubsequentlikeordinalnumberstosaywheresomethingcomesinaseriesorsequence.Thefollowingmorninghecheckedoutofthehotel.…thelastrungsofthefire-escape.…atthenextgeneralelection.Theprecedingtexthasbeenprofessionallytranscribed.Imentionedthisinapreviousprogramme.…thesubsequentcareerpatternsofthosetakingdegrees.

Following,subsequent,previous,andprecedingareonlyusedtoindicatethepositionofsomethinginasequenceintimeorinapieceofwriting.Nextand last are usedmore generally, for example to refer to things inrowsorlists.TheordinalnumbersarelistedintheReferencesection.

asmodifiers

2.233 Ordinalsareoftenusedinfrontofnouns.Theyarenotusuallyusedafterlinkingverbslikebe.Theyareusuallyprecededbyadeterminer.…thefirstdayofautumn.Hetookthelifttothesixteenthfloor.…onhertwenty-firstbirthday.…hisfather’ssecondmarriage.Insomeidiomaticphrasesordinalsareusedwithoutdeterminers.Thepictureseemsatfirstglancechaotic.Imight.Onsecondthoughts,no.Firstchildrenusuallygetalotofattention.

writtenforms

2.234 Ordinals can be written in abbreviated form, for example in dates orheadingsorinveryinformalwriting.Youwritethelasttwolettersoftheordinal after thenumber expressed in figures.For example, first can bewritten as1st, twenty-second as 22nd, hundred and third as 103rd, andfourteenthas14th.…onAugust2nd.…the1stDivisionoftheSovereign’sEscort.…the11thCavalry.

ordinalswithof

2.235 Youcanspecifywhichgroupthethingreferredtobyanordinalbelongstobyusingtheprepositionofaftertheordinal.Itisthethirdofaseriesofeightprogrammes.Tonywasthesecondoffoursons.

Whenordinalsareusedlikethis,theyusuallyrefertoonepersonorthing.However,when they are usedwith a to-infinitive, or another phrase orclauseafter them, theycan refer toonepersonor thingor tomore thanone.Firstisusedlikethismorethantheotherordinals.Iwasthefirsttorecover.Theyhadtobethefirsttogo.Theproposals–thefirstfor22years–amounttoanewcharterforthementallyill.Thewithdrawalswerethefirstthatthearmyagreedto.

aspronouns

2.236 You can use an ordinal to refer to amember of a group that you havealreadymentioned or to something of the kind alreadymentioned, andyoucanomitthenounthatidentifiesthething.InAugust1932twoofthegroup’smemberswereexpelledfromthepartyandathirdwassuspended.Thethirdchildtriestooutdothefirstandsecond.Asecondpheasantflewup.Thenathirdandafourth.

2.237 The adjectives next and last can be used, like ordinals, by themselveswhenthecontextmakesthemeaningclear.Youmissedonemeal.Thenextisonthetableinhalfanhour.Smithyremovedthelastofthescrews.

ordinalsusedasadverbs

2.238 Theordinalfirstisalsousedasanadverbtoshowthatsomethingisdonebeforeother things.Otherordinalsarealsosometimesused to show theorderinwhichthingsaredone,especiallyininformalEnglish.Peoplealsouseordinalsasadverbswhentheyaregivingalistofpoints,reasons,oritems.Thisisexplainedfullyinparagraph10.54.

otherusesofordinals

2.239 The use of ordinals in expressing fractions is explained in paragraphs2.241 and 2.243. The use of ordinals to express dates, as in theseventeenthofJune,isexplainedinparagraph4.88.

Ordinal numbers can be used in front of cardinal numbers. This isexplainedinparagraphs2.219to2.220.

Talkingaboutanexactpartofsomething:fractions2.240 When you want to show how small or large a part of something is

comparedtothewholeofit,youuseafraction,suchasathird,followedby of and a noun referring to the whole thing. Fractions can also bewritteninfigures(seeparagraph2.248).

singularfractions

2.241 When you express a fraction inwords, theway you do so depends onwhetherthefractionissingularorplural.Ifitissingular,youwriteorsayan ordinal number or the special fraction terms half or quarter, witheither the numberone or a determiner such asa in front of them. Thefractionislinkedtoanounbyof.Thisstateproducesathirdofthenation’soil.…aquarterofaninch.Youcantakeafifthofyourmoneyoutondemand.Atenthofourbudgetgoesonfuel.Forestscoveronethirdofthecountry.…onethousandthofadegree.…onequarterofthetotalpopulation.An adjective can also be placed after the determiner and before thefraction.…thefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Ireadthefirsthalfofthebook.…thesouthernhalfofEngland.…inthefirstquarterof2004.

USAGENOTE

2.242 Ifyouareusinghalfinfrontofapronoun,youstilluseofafterthehalf.NearlyhalfofitcomesfromtheMiddleEast.Morethanhalfofthemhavegonehome.Halfofushavelostourjobs.

Notethatwhenthefractionahalfisusedwithof,youusuallywriteorsayitashalfwithoutadeterminer.Ahalfandonehalfarerarelyused.Theylosthalfoftheirpay.Halfofthepeoplewenttoprivateschools.IhadcrossedmorethanhalfofAmerica.

pluralfractions

2.243 If the fraction isplural,youputacardinalnumber in frontofapluralformoftheordinalnumberorspecialfractionwordquarter.…thepoorertwothirdsoftheworld.Thejourneyisgoingtotakethreequartersofanhour.…fourfifthsofthemoney.Ninetenthsofthemliveontheland.…3millionthsofacentimetre.Whenhalf is usedwithwhole numbers or amounts, it is usedwith thedeterminera.…oneandahalfacresofland.…fourandahalfcenturies.

agreementwithverb

2.244 Whenyoutalkaboutfractionsofasinglething,youuseasingularformofaverbafterwards.Halfofourworkistodesignprogrammes.Twothirdsoftheplanet’ssurfaceiscoveredwithwater.Twofifthsoftheforestwasremoved.However,whenyoutalkaboutfractionsofanumberofthings,youuseapluralformofaverbafterwards.TwothirdsofChad’sexportswerecotton.Aquarterofthestudentswereseenindividually.Morethanhalfofthesephotographsareofher.

fractionsaspronouns

2.245 Whenitiscleartoyourlistenerorreaderwhoorwhatyouarereferring

to,eitherbecauseofthecontextorbecauseyouandyourlistenerorreaderknowwhatismeant,youcanusefractionsaspronounswithouttheofandnounafterthem.Ofthepeoplewhoworkhere,halfareFrenchandhalfareEnglish.Twothirdsweresterilized.Onesixtharedisappointedwiththeservice.

numbersfollowedbyfractions

2.246 Besides theiruseasquantityexpressions linkedbyof toanounphrase,fractionscanalsobeusedafterawholenumberoramountplusand,witha noun placed after the fraction. The noun must be plural even if thenumberisone.You’vegottositthereforoneandahalfhours.…fiveandaquarterdays.…morethanfourandahalfcenturiesagoIfyouareusingainsteadofone,theandandthefractioncomeafterthenoun.…amileandahalfbelowthesurface.…amileandaquarterofmotorway.

halfaspredeterminer

2.247 Besidesbeingusedwithofasaquantityexpression,halfisalsousedasapredeterminer(seeparagraph1.251),directlyinfrontofadeterminer.Imethalfthegirlsattheconference.Thefarmerssoldoffhalftheirland.…halfapoundofcoffee.…halfabottleofmilk.Note that half is always used with of before a pronoun (see paragraph2.242).

fractionsexpressedinfigures

2.248 You canwrite a fraction in figures, for example 1/2, 1/4,3/4, and2/3.These correspond to a half, a quarter, three quarters and two thirds

respectively.

expressingpercentages

2.249 Fractions are often given in a special form as a number of hundredths.This type of fraction is called a percentage. For example, threehundredths, expressed as a percentage, is three per cent. It can also bewrittenasthreepercentor3%.Ahalfcanbeexpressedas fiftypercent,fiftypercent,or50%.90percentofmostfoodiswater.About20percentofstudentaccountantsarewomen.Before196045%ofBritishtradewaswiththeCommonwealth.Youusepercentagesontheirownasnounphraseswhenit isclearwhattheyreferto.Ninetypercentwereselfemployed.…interestat10%perannum.

Talkingaboutmeasurements2.250 You can refer to a size, distance, area, volume, weight, speed, or

temperature by using a number or quantity expression in front of ameasurementnoun.Measurementnounsarecountable.Theygrowtotwentyfeet.…blocksofstoneweighinguptoahundredtons.Reducethetemperaturebyafewdegrees.Averageannualtemperaturesexceed20°centigrade.Other ways of expressing distance are explained in paragraphs 6.91 to6.92.Measurementnounsreferringtosize,area,volume,andweightareoftenusedinpartitivestructures(seeparagraphs2.194to2.207)suchasa pint of milk and a pound of onions. They are also used in phrasesbeginningwithof(seeparagraph2.283).

imperialandmetricmeasurements

2.251 There are two systems of measurement used in Britain – the imperialsystem and themetric system. Each system has its ownmeasurementnouns.

Here is a list of the imperial units of measurement indicating size,distance,area,volume,andweight:

inchfootyardmile~acre~pintquartgallon~ouncepoundstonehundredweightton

Notethatthepluraloffootisfeet,butfootcanalsobeusedwithnumbers.Similarlystoneisusuallyusedinsteadofstones.Hereisalistofthemetricunitsofmeasurementindicatingsize,distance,area,volume,andweight:

millimetrecentimetremetrekilometre~hectare~millilitrecentilitre

litre~milligramgramkilogramtonne

afterlinkingverbs

2.252 Measurement nouns are often used after linking verbs such as be,measureandweigh.Thefishwasabouteightfeetlong.Itmeasuresapproximately26incheswide×25incheslong.…asquareareameasuring900metresoneachside.Itweighsfiftyormorekilos.Theuseofadjectivesafterlinkingverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.137.

adjectivesaftermeasurements

2.253 Whenmeasurementnounsthatgivethesizeofsomethingareusedafteralinkingverb, theyareoften followedbyanadjective thatmakes itclearexactlywhatthemeasurementreferstoHewasaboutsixfeettall.Thespearswereaboutsixfootlong.…aroom2metreswide.Thewaterwasfifteenfeetdeep.…alayerofstonefourmetresthick.Hereisalistoftheadjectivesthatfollowmeasurementnounsindicatingsize:

broaddeephighlong

tallthickwide

Note that you do not say two pounds heavy but two pounds in weightinstead.

phrasesbeginningwithinaftermeasurements

2.254 Similarly, some measurement nouns can be followed by prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithin.…ablockoficeonecubicfootinsize.Iputonnearlyastoneinweight.Theyarethirtycentimetresinlength.…depositsmeasuringuptoakilometreinthickness.Itwasclosetotenfeetinheight.Hereisalistofphrasesbeginningwithinusedaftermeasurements:

inareainbreadthindepthindistanceinheightinlengthinsizeinthicknessinvolumeinweightinwidth

measurementnounsusedasmodifiers

2.255 Measurementnounscanalsobeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanounwhenyouwanttodescribethingsintermsoftheirmeasurements.…a5foot9inchbed.

…70foothighmoundsofdust.…12×12inchtiles.…afive-poundbagoflentils.Notethatthemeasurementnounissingular.

USAGENOTE

2.256 Ifyouwanttodescribefullythesizeofanobjectorarea,youcangiveitsdimensions; that is, you givemeasurements of its length andwidth, orlength,width,anddepth.Whenyougivethedimensionsofanobject,youseparatethefiguresusingand,by,orthemultiplicationsignx.…planksofwoodaboutthreeinchesthickandtwofeetwide.Theislandmeasuresabout25milesby12miles.LakeNyasais450mileslongbyabout50mileswide.Theboxmeasuresapproximately26incheswide×25inchesdeep×16incheshigh.If you are talking about a square object or area, you give the length ofeachsidefollowedbythewordsquare.Eachfamilyhasonlyoneroomeightortenfeetsquare.Thesitemeasuresroughly35feetsquare.Squareisusedinfrontofunitsoflengthwhenexpressingarea.Cubic isusedinfrontofunitsoflengthwhenexpressingvolume.…afarmcovering300squaremiles.Thebrainofthefirstape-menwasaboutthesamesizeasthatofagorilla,around500cubiccentimetres.You express temperature in degrees, using either degrees centigrade, ordegrees Fahrenheit. Note that in everyday language the metric termcentigradeisusedtoindicatetemperature,whereasinscientificlanguagethe term Celsius is used which refers to exactly the same scale ofmeasurement.

2.257 Youtalkaboutthespeedofsomethingbysayinghowfaritcantravelinaparticular unit of time. To do this, you use a noun such as mile orkilometre,followedbyper,a,oran,andatimenoun.Thecarcoulddoonlyforty-fivemilesperhour.Windspeedsattheairportwere160kilometresperhour.

Warshipsmoveatabout500milesperday.

Talkingaboutage2.258 Whenyouwanttosayhowoldsomeoneis,youhaveachoiceofwaysin

which to do it. You can be exact or approximate. Similarly, when youwanttosayhowoldsomethingis,youcanusedifferentways,someexact,andsomeapproximate.

talkingaboutexactage

2.259 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaperson’sexactage,youcandosobyusingbefollowedbyanumber,andsometimesyearsoldafterthenumber

Iwasnineteen,andhewastwenty-one.I’monly63.Sheistwenty-fiveyearsold.Iamfortyyearsold.of(orlesscommonlyaged)andanumberafteranoun

…achildofsix.…twolittleboysagedaboutnineandeleven.a compound adjective, usually hyphenated, consisting of a number,

followedbyasingularnounreferringtoaperiodoftime,followedbyold…atwenty-two-year-oldstudent.…afive-month-oldbaby.…apretty350-year-oldcottage.…aviolationofasix-year-oldagreement.acompoundnounconsistingofanumberfollowedby-year-old

The servantwasapale little fourteen-year-oldwho lookedhardlymorethanten.Allthesix-year-oldsaretaughtbyoneteacher.…MelvinKalkhoven,atall,thinthirty-five-year-old.

talkingaboutapproximateage

2.260 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaperson’sageinanapproximateway,youcandosobyusing

in, followed by a possessive determiner, followed by a plural nounreferringtoaparticularrangeofyearssuchastwentiesandteensHewasinhissixties.Ididn’tmaturetillIwasinmyforties.…thegroupswhoarenowintheirthirties.…whenIwasinmyteens.Note that you can use early, mid-, middle, or late to indicateapproximatelywheresomeone’sagecomesinaparticularrangeofyears.Hewastheninhislateseventies.Shewasinhermid-twenties.Janeisonlyinherearlyforties.overorunderfollowedbyanumber

Shewaswelloverfifty.Shewasonlyalittleoverfortyyearsold.Thereweren’tenoughpeoplewhowereunder25.Notethatyoucanalsouseaboveorbelowfollowedby theageofandanumber.55percentofthemwerebelowtheageoftwenty-one.acompoundnounreferringtoagroupofpeoplewhoseageismoreor

lessthanaparticularnumber,whichconsistsofoverorunderfollowedbythepluralformoftheparticularnumber.Theover-sixtiesdonotwanttobeturnedoutoftheirhomes.Schoolingforunder-fivesshouldbeexpanded.

ThisconstructionisnotcommoninAmericanEnglish.2.261 Youcanputseveraloftheabovestructuresafteranountotalkaboutthe

ageofapersonorthing.…awomaninherearlythirties.…helpforelderlyladiesover65.Shehadfourchildrenundertheageoffive.

2.262 Ifyouwant to say that someone’sage is similar to someoneelse’s age,youusestructuressuchasofhisageandofherparents’ageafteranoun.Theofisoftendropped.AlotofgirlsofHelen’sageareinterestedinclothes.

It’seasytomakefriendsbecauseyou’rewithpeopleofyourownage.Shewillhaveatoughtimewhensheplayswithchildrenherownage.

talkingabouttheageofathing

2.263 Ifyouwanttosaywhattheageofathingis,youcanusebefollowedbyanumberfollowedbyyearsold

It’satleastathousandmillionyearsold.Thehousewasaboutthirtyyearsold.Notethatyoucanalsousethispatternafteranoun.…rocks200millionyearsold.a compound adjective indicating the centurywhen something existed

orwasmade,whichconsistsofanordinalnumberandcentury…asixth-centurychurch.…lifeinfifth-centuryAthens.a compound adjective, usually hyphenated, consisting of a number,

followedbyasingularnounreferringtoaperiodoftime,followedbyold…a1,000-year-oldtemple.

Approximateamountsandmeasurements2.264 Ifyoudonotknowtheexactnumber,size,orquantityofsomething,you

cangiveanapproximateamountormeasurementusingoneofagroupofspecialwordsandexpressions.Someofthesewordsandexpressionsareputinfrontofaquantityandsomeareputafterit.Here is a list of some of the words and expressions used to giveapproximateamountsandmeasurements:

aboutalmostamaximumofaminimumofapproximatelyaroundatleast

atmostatthemaximumatthemostlessthanmaximumminimummorethannearlynomorethanoddorlessormoreorsoorthereaboutsorunderoverroughlysomesomethinglikeunderupto

expressingminimumamounts

2.265 Some of these expressions indicate that a number is aminimum figureandthattheactualfigureisormaybelarger.Hereisalistofexpressionsthatindicateaminimumnumber:

aminimumofatleastminimummorethanormoreoverplus

USAGENOTE

2.266 Youputaminimumof,morethan,andoverinfrontofanumber.Heneededaminimumof26Democraticvotes.…aschoolwithmorethan1300pupils.TheBritishhavebeenontheislandforoverathousandyears.Youputormoreandplusafteranumberoramount,andminimumafteranamount.…achoiceofthreeormorepossibilities.ThisistheworstdisasterIcanrememberinmy25yearsplusasapoliceofficer.Hedoesanhour’shomeworkpernightminimum.Youputatleastinfrontofanumberorafteranumberoramount.Shehadatleastadozenbrandies.Imusthaveslepttwelvehoursatleast!

expressingmaximumamounts

2.267 Some of these expressions are used to indicate that a number is amaximumfigureandthattheactualfigureisormaybesmaller.Hereisalistofexpressionsthatindicateamaximumnumber:

almostamaximumofatmostatthemaximumatthemostfewerthanlessthanmaximumnearlynomorethanorlessorunder

underupto

USAGENOTE

2.268 You putalmost, a maximum of, fewer than, less than, nearly, no morethan,underanduptoinfrontofanumber.Fewerthanandlessthanmeanthesame,butfewerthanismoreformal.Therewerefewerthan20peopleattheevent.Thepuppy’slessthansevenweeksold.Thecompanynowsuppliesalmost100ofthecity’srestaurants.Theseloansmustberepaidoveramaximumofthreeyears.Shehadnearlyfiftydollars.Wemanagedtofinishtheentirejobinunderthreemonths.Theirbodiesmightbeuptoametrewide.Youputatthemaximum,atmost,atthemost,maximum,orless,andorunderafteranumber.Classesareofeightatthemaximum.Theimagestakethirty-sixhoursmaximum.Theareawouldyieldonly200poundsofriceorless.…12hoursaweekorunder.

expressingapproximateamounts

2.269 Someoftheseexpressionsareusedtoshowthatanumberisapproximateandthattheactualfigurecouldbelargerorsmaller.Hereisalistoftheexpressionsshowingthatanumberisapproximate:

aboutapproximatelyaroundoddorsoorthereaboutsroughly

somesomethinglike

USAGENOTE

2.270 Youputabout,approximately,around,roughly,some,andsomethinglikeinfrontofanumber.About85studentswerethere.Everyyearwehaveapproximately40pupilswhotakemathematics.Itwouldcostaround35millionpounds.Aloftconversioncostsroughly£12,000.TheyhavetopayAmericasome$683,000thisyear.Harringtonhascheatedusoutofsomethinglikethirtythousandquidoverthepasttwoyears.Youputoddandorsoafteranumberoramount,andorthereaboutsafteranamount.…ahundredoddacres.Forhalfaminuteorso,neitherofthemspoke.Getthetemperatureto30°Corthereabouts.

2.271 Youshowarangeofnumbersusingbetweenandand,orfromandto,orjustto.Mostof the farmsaroundherearebetween fourand fivehundredyearsold.Myhospitalgroupscontainfromtentotwentypatients.…peasantsowningtwotofiveacresofland.Note the use of anything before between and from, to emphasize howgreattherangeis.Anaveragerateofanythingbetween25and60percentisusual.Itisajobthattakesanythingfromtwotofiveweeks.

Expandingthenounphrase2.272 Thissectiondealswithstructuresthatareusedtoaddfurtherinformation

about the person or thing referred to. These are called qualifiers. The

wordthatisqualifiedisusuallyanounbutcanbeanindefinitepronounorthose.

possiblestructures

2.273 Thestructuresthataredealtwithinthissectionareprepositionalphrases

…agirlwithredhair.…themaninthedarkglasses.Theuseofprepositionalphrasestoexpandthenounphraseisexplainedinparagraphs2.275to2.290.adjectivesfollowedbyphrasesorclauses

…machinerycapableofclearingrubbleoffthemainroads.…thetypeofcommentslikelytoprovokecriticism.…aconceptinconceivableahundredyearsearlier.Theuseofadjectivesfollowedbyphrasesorclausestoexpandthenounphraseisexplainedinparagraphs2.291to2.292.non-finiteclauses

…asimpledevicetotestlungfunction.…twooftheproblemsmentionedabove.Hegesturedtowardsthethreecardslyingonthetable.Theuseofnon-finite clauses to expand thenounphrase is explained inparagraphs2.293to2.301.nounphrasesgivingfurtherinformationaboutothernounphrases.This

isexplainedinparagraph2.302.2.274 Some other structures are also used. These are explained fully in other

sections.Theyincludesingle words such as galore and concerned, which are explained in

paragraphs2.58to2.62.relativeclauses

Shortlyaftertheshooting,themanwhohaddoneitwasarrested.Where’sthatcakeyourmothermade?

Relativeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.83to8.116.placeadverbsandtimeadverbials

…downinthedungeonbeneath.…areflectionoflifetodayinEngland.Time adverbials are explained in Chapter 4 and adverbs of place areexplainedinparagraphs6.53to6.72.

Nounswithprepositionalphrases2.275 Ingeneral,anyprepositionalphrasethatdescribesorclassifiessomething

canbeuseddirectlyafteranounorpronoun.…themanincharge.…afilmaboutfourmenonholiday.Shereachedintotheroombehindher.

2.276 In particular, there are several kinds of prepositional phrase that areusuallyonlyused in thisway.Of these,prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofarethemostnumerous.Othersincludecertainusesofwith,inandby.

of

2.277 Many nouns referring to things and actions can be expanded by usingprepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofafterthem.Thisallowsthenountobeexpandedwithawiderangeofmeanings.Youcanuseofwithnounsreferringtofeelingssuchasloveandfeartoshowwhatthefeelingrelatesto;forexample,fearofflyingandloveofanimals.Furthermeaningsaredescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.

BECAREFUL

2.278 Personal pronouns are not usually placed after of. For example, youcannotsayJoycewas thedaughterofhimor thepagesof it.Possessivedeterminersareusedinsteadtoshowpossession.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs1.194to1.210.

2.279 Prepositional phrases beginning with of can be used to show whatsomethingconsistsof.

…aletterofconfirmation.…strongfeelingsofjealousy.Theycanalsobeusedtoshowwhatthesubjectmatterofsomethingis.…apictureofahouse.…Gretchen’saccountofherinterviewwithNichols.…theideaofdeath.

2.280 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofcanbeusedtosaythatsomethingbelongstoorisassociatedwithsomeoneorsomething.CentalisatrademarkofMonotoreLtd.No.28wasthetownhouseofSirWinstonChurchill.JamesisthesonofaMethodistminister.Theactingabilityofthepupilsisadmirable.…thebeautyoftheWelshlandscape.Fourboyssatonthefloorofthelivingroom.Ellenaimlesslyturnedthepagesofhermagazine.Note that apostrophe s (’s) structures aremuchmore frequently used tosaythatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorsomething.Apostrophes (’s)isexplainedinparagraphs1.211to1.222.

2.281 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofcanbeusedtosaythatsomeoneorsomethinghasaparticularquality.…awomanofenergyandambition.…problemsofvaryingcomplexity.…aflowerofmonstrousproportions.Ahouseholdofthissizeinevitablyhasproblems.Ofcanalsobeusedinfrontofanumbertoindicatesomeone’sage.…awomanoftwenty-two.…achildofsix.Other ways of talking about age are explained in paragraphs 2.258 to2.263.

2.282 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofcanbeusedwithnounsreferringtoanactiontoshowwhoorwhatisperformingtheaction.…thearrivalofthepolice.…thegrowthofmodernindustry.

Theyarealsousedtoshowwhoorwhatsomeonedoessomethingto.Forexample,ifyouaretalkingaboutpeoplewhosupportascheme,youcancallthemthesupportersofthescheme.…supportersofthehungerstrike.…criticsoftheTradeUnionMovement.…thecreatoroftheuniverse.…astudentofEnglish.…thecauseofthetragedy.Ofstructuresarealsousedtoindicatethethingaffectedbyanaction.…thedestructionoftheircity.…thedismissalofhundredsofworkers.

2.283 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofandcontainingmeasurementareusedtoshowhowgreatanarea,speed,distance,ortemperatureis.Therewerefiresburningoveratotalareaofabout600squaremiles.Itcanbarelymaintainaspeedof25kilometresanhour.…anaverageannualtemperatureof20°.Waysofmeasuringthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.250to2.257.

with

2.284 Prepositional phrases beginning with with can be used to say thatsomeone or something has a particular characteristic, feature, orpossession.…agirlwithredhair.…agirlwithaforeignaccent.…abigcarwithrecliningseats.…amanwithaviolenttemper.…themanwiththegun.…thosewithlargefamilies.Theyarealsousedtoindicatewhatsomethinghasonorinit.…asheetofpaperwithwritingonit.…aroundboxwithsomebuttonsinit.…awhite,plainenvelopewithhernameprintedonit.…fragmentsofwrappingpaperwithbitsof sticky tape stilladhering to

them.

in

2.285 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithincanbeusedtosaywhatsomeoneiswearing.…agrey-hairedmaninaraincoat.…themaninthedarkglasses.…littlegroupsofpeopleinblack.

by

2.286 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithbycanbeusedafteranounreferringtoanactiontosaywhoorwhatisperformingit.…hisappointmentbytheKing.…thecompressionofairbythepiston.

withprepositionalphrases

2.287 Some nouns, especially abstract nouns, need to be followed by aprepositionalphrasetoshowwhattheyrelateto.Thereisoftenlittleornochoiceaboutwhichprepositiontouseafteraparticularnoun.Hehasanallergytopeanuts.…hisauthorityoverthem.…thesolutiontoourenergyproblem.…thebondbetweenmotherandchild.

2.288 Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhavetoafterthem:

accessaddictionadherenceaffrontallegianceallergyallusionalternative

answerantidoteapproachattachmentaversioncontributiondamagedevotiondisloyaltyexceptionfidelityincitementintroductionprefacepreluderecoursereferencerelevancereplyresistancereturnsequelsolutionsusceptibilitytestimonythreatvulnerabilitywitness

Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhaveforafterthem:

admirationappetiteaptitudebid

cravingcreditcuredemanddesiredisdaindislikedisregarddisrespecthungerloveneedprovisionquestreciperegardremedyrespectresponsibilityroomsearchsubstitutesympathysynonymtastethirstdemand

Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhaveonafterthem:

assaultattackbanclaimcomment

concentrationconstraintcrackdowncurbdependenceeffectembargoholdinsistencereflectionreliancerestrictionstancetax

Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhavewithafterthem:

affinitycollisioncollusionconnectioncontrastcorrespondencedatedealingsdissatisfactionencounterfamiliarityidentificationintersectionintimacyinvolvementlinkparityquarrel

relationshipsympathy

Here is a list of nouns that are usually followed by one of twoprepositions.Thelistindicatesthechoiceofprepositionsavailable:

agreementaboutagreementonargumentagainstargumentforbattleagainstbattleforcaseagainstcasefordebateaboutdebateondecisionaboutdecisionontransitionfromtransitionto

Hereisalistofothernounsthatareusuallyfollowedbyapreposition.

complexaboutcrimeagainstgrudgeagainstinsuranceagainstreactionagainstsafeguardagainstangeratbondbetweendeparturefromescapefromexcerptfrom

freedomfromquotationfromforayintorelapseintoawarenessofauthorityovercontrolover

Asyoucan see from the lists andexamplesgivenabove, it isoften thecasethatwordswithasimilarmeaningaretypicallyfollowedbythesamepreposition.Forexample,appetite,craving,desire,hunger,andthirstareallfollowedbyfor.

USAGENOTE

2.289 Somenouns are related toverbs that are alwaysoroften followedbyaparticularpreposition.Thesenounsarefollowedbythesameprepositionas their related verbs, and they are used to indicate the thing that isaffectedby theaction.For example, to is used after both the verb referandtherelatednounreference.Wehavealreadyreferredtothisphenomenon.…reverentreferencestotheimportanceofhome.Theyswimaboutbusilysearchingforfood.…thesearchforfood.Iwanttoescapefromhere.…anescapefromreality.

2.290 Somenounsreferringtoafeelingorstatearerelatedtoanadjectivethatis usually followed by a preposition. These nouns are followed by thesameprepositionastheirrelatedadjectives.Forexample,ofisusedaftertheadjectiveawareandtherelatednounawareness.Shewasquiteawareofhercurrentsituation.…thepublic’sincreasingawarenessoftheproblems.HewasangryatSallyGardnerforaccusinghim.…herangeratthekids.

Nounswithadjectives

2.291 When adjectives are used in clauses after nouns or pronouns to expandtheirmeaningtheycanbefollowedbyprepositionalphrases

…awarningtopeopleeagerforaquickcure.thoseresponsiblefortheproject.ato-infinitive

…remarkslikelytocauseoffence.Ithasbeendirectedagainstthoseleastabletoretaliate.expressionsoftimeorplace

…aconceptinconceivableahundredyearsearlier.Forthefacilitiesavailablehere,Imustaskforafee.Notethatyoucanuseadjectivesasqualifierswhentheyareprecededbytimeormeasurementexpressions.…thosestillalive.…asmallhillabout400feethigh.Notealso that a fewadjectives, suchaspresentandresponsible, canbeusedontheirownafteranounorpronoun.Theuseoftheseadjectivesisexplainedinparagraphs2.58to2.62.

otherstructures

2.292 There are some other structures, especially those that indicatecomparison,degree,orresult,thatofteninvolveaqualifyingstructure.Inparticular, somewords thatmodify adjectives, such asmore, too, or so,oftenhaveaqualifyingstructuretocompletetheirmeaning.Petercamein,moreexcitedthananyonehadseenhimbefore.Ralphwastooangrytothinkclearly.…steelcylindersstrongenoughtosurviveanuclearcatastrophe.…agrandpianoasbigastwocoffins.Shewassoillthatshecouldn’teat.Technologyhasmadesuchspectacularadvancesthatitisdifficulttokeepup.The use of comparative adjectives plus than after noun phrases isexplainedinparagraphs2.106to2.108.Otherwaysofcomparingthings

are explained in paragraphs 2.123 to 2.139. The use of so…that andsuch…thatisexplainedinparagraphs8.58to8.63.

Nouns followedby to-infinitive, -ed participle, or -ing participle:somethingtoeat,agirlcalledPatricia,abasketcontainingeggs2.293 Thefollowingnon-finiteclauses(=clausescontainingaverbthathasno

tense)canbeusedtoexpandthemeaningofanoun:to-infinitiveclauses(see paragraphs 2.294 to 2.299), -ed participle clauses (see paragraph2.300),and-ingparticipleclauses(seeparagraph2.301).

nounsfollowedbyto-infinitiveclauses

2.294 Ato-infinitiveclauseisoftenplacedafternounsinordertoshowwhatthethingreferredtoisintendedtodo.ThegovernmentofMexicosetupaprogrammetodevelopnewvarietiesofwheat.Theyneedpeopletoworkinthefactories.

2.295 Youcanrefertosomethingorsomeonethatshouldorcanhavesomethingdonetothembyusingaclausecontaininga to-infinitiveafteranounorindefinitepronoun.Imakenotesinthebackofmydiaryofthingstobemendedorreplaced.…whenI’vehadsomethingtoeat.You can also use a clause consisting of a to-infinitive followed by apreposition.Therewasn’tevenachairtositon.Hehadnothingtowritewith.

2.296 Youcanalsouseato-infinitiveclausewhenyouwanttosaythatyouaretalking about, for example, the first, oldest, or only person who didsomething.…thefirstwomantobeelectedtothecouncil.

2.297 A clause containing a to-infinitive is used after some abstract nouns toshowwhatactiontheyrelateto.…peoplewhodidn’thavetheopportunitytogotouniversity.

USAGENOTE

2.298 Manyofthesenounsarerelatedtoverbsoradjectivesthatarealsooftenfollowed by to-infinitive clauses. For example, a to-infinitive clause isused after both the verb need and the noun need, and after both theadjectiveableandtherelatednounability.Ineedtoborrowfivethousanddollars.…theneedtopreservesecrecyabouttheirintentions.Itfailedtogrow.

2.299 Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhaveato-infinitiveclauseafterthem:

abilityattemptbidchancecompulsiondesiredisinclinationfailureinabilityinclinationneedopportunityreadinessreasonrefusalunwillingnessurgewaywillingness

nounsfollowedby-edparticipleclauses

2.300 Aclausecontainingan-edparticiplecanbeuseddirectlyafteranounto

showthatsomethinghasbeenproducedoraffectedbyanaction.

…agirlcalledPatricia.…dressesmadeofpaper.…twooftheproblemsmentionedabove.…astorywrittenbyanine-year-oldgirl.

nounsfollowedby-ingparticipleclauses

2.301 Aclausecontainingan-ingparticiplecanbeuseddirectlyafteranountoshowthatsomeoneorsomethingisdoingsomething.Hegesturedtowardsthethreecardslyingonthetable.…awickershopping-basketcontaininggroceries.

withanidentifyingnounphrase

2.302 Youcangivefurtherinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingbyusinganounphrasethatdescribesthemoridentifiesthem.Ifyouputthisnounphraseafterthemainnounphrase,acommaisalmostalwaysputafterthemainnounphrasebecausethesecondnounphraseisseparatefromit,notpartofit.…thebaldeagle,thesymbolofAmerica.…DavidBeckham,afirst-classfootballplayer.Hermother,aCanadian,diedwhenshewassix.If you put this noun phrase before the main noun phrase, you cansometimes choose whether to use a comma to separate the two nounphrasesornot.…Joan’shusband,JimInglis.…myhusbandGeorge.

Chapter3Makingamessage:typesofverb

3.2–125 Showingwhoisinvolved3.8–13 Intransitiveverbs:talkingabouteventsthatinvolveonlythesubject3.14–25 Transitiveverbs:involvingsomeoneorsomethingotherthanthesubject3.26–31 Reflexiveverbs:verbswheretheobjectrefersbacktothesubject3.32–45 Delexicalverbs:verbswithlittlemeaning3.46–54 Verbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject3.55–58 Verbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphrase3.59–67 Changingyourfocusbychangingthesubject:Iopenedthedoor,Thedooropened3.68–72 Verbsthatinvolvepeopleaffectingeachotherwiththesameaction:JohnandMary

argued3.73–82 Verbsthatcanhavetwoobjects:givesomeonesomething3.83–116 Phrasalverbs:Isatdown,Shewokemeup3.117–125 Compoundverbs:ice-skate,baby-sit

3.126–181 Linkingverbs3.132–137 Adjectivesafterlinkingverbs:Heseemshappy,I’mtired3.138–147 Nounsafterlinkingverbs:Sheisateacher,Itremainedasecret3.148–154 Commenting3.155–160 Otherverbswithfollowingadjectives:Hestoodstill3.161–171 Describingtheobjectofaverb3.172–177 Usingaprepositionalphraseafteralinkingverb3.178–181 Talkingaboutwhatrolesomethinghasorhowitisperceived:theprepositionas

3.182–212 Talking about closely linked actions: using two mainverbstogether

3.189–201 Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebythesameperson3.202–212 Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebydifferentpeople

3 Makingamessage:typesofverb

3.1 Whenyoumakea statement,youuseaclause.Aclause that isused tomakeastatementcontainsanounphrase,whichrefers to thepersonorthing thatyouare talkingabout, andaverbphrase,which showswhatsortofaction,process,orstateyouaretalkingabout.Thenounphrase,whichusuallycomesinfrontof theverb, iscalledthesubject of the verb or the clause. For example, in the clause Ellenlaughed,Ellenisthesubject.TheformationofnounphrasesisexplainedinChapters1and2.A verb phrase used in a statement has a particular form, and showsagreement with number and person. The formation of verb phrases isexplained in the Reference section. Quite often in statements the verbphraseisasingleword,anditisquitecommontotalkabouttheverbofaclause.Thischapterdealsmainlywiththeuseofverbsinactiveclauses,wherethe subject is theperformerof an action rather than thepersonor thingaffected by an action. The use of verbs in passive clauses, where thesubject is thepersonor thingaffected, isexplained inparagraphs9.8 to9.24.

Showingwhoisinvolved

intransitiveverbs

3.2 Ifanactionoreventinvolvesonlyonepersonorthing,youmentiononlytheperformeroftheaction(thesubject)andtheaction(theverb).Thegirlscreamed.Iwaited.Anawfulthinghashappened.

Verbslikethisarecalledintransitiveverbs.However,youcan thenmentionanotherpersonor thing that is involvedusingaprepositionalphrase.Shewalkedacrossthestreet.Intransitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.8to3.13.

transitiveverbs

3.3 If the action or event involves another person or thing that the actionaffects, relates to, orproduces, youput anounphrase referring to themafter theverb.This iscalled theobjectof theverb. If it isnecessary todistinguishitfromotherobjects,itiscalledthedirectobject.Heclosedthedoor.Ihatesport.Someofthewomennoticedme.Verbslikethisarecalledtransitiveverbs.Transitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.14to3.25.Reflexiveverbsanddelexicalverbsarespecialkindsoftransitiveverbs.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs3.26to3.31and3.32to3.45.

intransitiveortransitiveverbs

3.4 Themajority of verbs in English give you the option of presenting aneventeitherasinvolvingthesubjectonly,orasinvolvingthesubjectandsomeoneorsomethingelseasadirectobject.Shepaintsbyholdingthebrushinherteeth.Yarkovpaintsvividportraitsoffriendsandacquaintances.GusaskedmewhetherI’dliketohavedinnerwithhim.Iaccepted.Iacceptedtheinvitation.Thismeansthatmostverbscanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject.Verbsthatcanbeusedlikethisareexplainedinparagraphs3.46to3.54.Withsomeverbs,thethingaffectedbytheactioncanbeputastheobjectoftheverborastheobjectofaprepositionaftertheverb.Theseverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.55to3.58.

Ergativeverbsareaspecialkindofverbthatcanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs3.59to3.67.

reciprocalverbs

3.5 Reciprocalverbsrefertoactionsthatinvolvepeopleaffectingeachotherinthesamewaywiththesameaction.Therearetwotypesofreciprocalverb.Onetypeisusedeitherwithorwithoutanobject.WemetatHargreaves’place.IhadmethiminZermatt.The other type is used without an object, and with or without aprepositionalphrasementioningoneoftheparticipants.Wearguedoverthisquestionforalongtime.Iarguedwiththismanforhalfanhour.Reciprocalverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.68to3.72.

verbswithtwoobjects

3.6 Some transitive verbs also allowyou tomention a personwhobenefitsfrom an action or receives something as a result. The verb is thenfollowedbybothadirectobjectandanindirectobject.Handmemybag.HisunclehadgivenhimbooksonIndia.Shesendsyouherlove.Shepassedhimhiscup.Verbs that can take an indirect object as well as a direct object areexplainedinparagraphs3.73to3.82.

phrasalverbs,compoundverbs

3.7 Some verbs have two or three parts. These are phrasal verbs andcompound verbs. Phrasal verbs are explained in paragraphs 3.83 to3.116,andcompoundverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.117to3.125.

Intransitive verbs: talking about events that involve only thesubject

3.8 When you are talking about an action or event that does not have anobject,youuseanintransitiveverb.Herwholebodyached.Suchpeoplestillexist.Myconditiondeteriorated.Many intransitive verbs describe physical behaviour or the making ofsounds.Bobcoughed.Vickiweptbitterly.Thegatesqueaked.

3.9 Here isa listofverbs thatarenormallyusedwithoutanobjectand thatusuallyoroftenhavenoadverborprepositionalphraseafterthem:

acheadvancearisearrivebleedblushceasecollapsecoughcracklecrydecaydepartdeterioratediedigressdinedisappeardisintegratedozedroop

economizeelapseensueeruptevaporateexistexpirefaintfallfalterfidgetflinchflourishfluctuategleamgrowlhappenhesitatehowlitchkneellaughmoanoccurpausepersistprosperquiverrecederelentriseroarscreamshineshiversigh

sleep

slipsmilesnarlsneezesnoresnortsobsparklespeaksqueaksquealstinksubsidesulksurrenderswimthrobtinglevanishvaryvibratewaitwaverweepwiltworkyawn

A few of these verbs are used with an object in idioms or with veryspecificobjects,buttheyareintransitiveinalltheircommonmeanings.

intransitiveverbsfollowedbyphrasesthatbeginwithapreposition

3.10 Many intransitive verbs always or typically have an adverb or

prepositional phrase after them.With some, only a prepositional phrasebeginning with a particular preposition is possible. This use of aprepositionallowssomethingaffectedby theaction tobementioned,astheobjectofthepreposition.Everythingyouseeherebelongstome.Landlordsoftenresortedtoviolence.Isympathizedwiththem.I’mrelyingonBill.Hestrivesforexcellenceinallthings.

3.11 Hereisalistofverbsthatalwaysortypicallyhaveaparticularprepositionafterthemwhentheyareusedwithaparticularmeaning:

raveabout~insureagainstplotagainstreactagainst~hintat~alternatebetweendifferentiatebetweenoscillatebetween~appealforatoneforcareforclamourforhopeforlongforoptforpayforqualifyforstriveforyearnfor

~detractfromemanatefromemergefromradiatefromshrinkfromstemfromsufferfrom~believeinconsistinculminateindabbleinindulgeininvestinresultinwallowin~lapseinto~complainofconceiveofconsistofdespairoflearnofsmackofthinkoftireof~betonfeedoninsistonspyontrampleon~adhereto

alludeto

amounttoappealtoaspiretoassenttoattendtobelongtobowtoclingtodefertodictatetoleadtolistentoobjecttorefertorelatetoresorttoreverttostoopto~alternatewithassociatewithconsortwithcontendwithflirtwithgrapplewithsympathizewithteemwith

Hereisalistofverbsthatcanhaveeitheroftwoprepositionsafterthemwiththesameorverysimilarmeaning:

aboundinaboundwithcaterfor

catertoconformtoconformwithcontributetocontributetowardsdependondependupondoteondoteuponembarkonembarkuponendinendwithengageinengageonenthuseaboutenthuseovergravitatetogravitatetowardshungerafterhungerforimproveonimproveuponliaisebetweenliaisewithlustafterlustforprevailonprevailuponprofitbyprofitfromrelyonrelyuponrevolvearoundrevolveroundspringfrom

springoutof

Notethatsomeintransitiveverbscanbeusedinthepassivewhentheyarefollowedbyapreposition.Seeparagraph9.23.

intransitiveverbsfollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase

3.12 Otherverbscanbefollowedbyavarietyofprepositionalphrases,oranadverb,oftenrelatingtotimeorplace.Verbsofmovementareusuallyoroften followedbyadverbsorphrasesrelatingtodirection.Hewentbacktohisownroom.Itravelledsouth.Hereisalistofverbsofmovement:

comecrawlcreepdriftflowgallopglidegohurtleplungerunsoarspringstrolltravelwalk

Look, gaze, glance, and stare are also followed by adverbs or phrasesrelatingtodirection.

Verbsofpositionareusually followedbyadverbsorphrases relating toposition.Donaldwaslyingonthebed.ShelivesinLausanne.Iusedtolivehere.Hereisalistofverbsofposition:

bebelonghanglielivebelocatedremainsitbesituatedstandstay

Verbs such as extend or stretch are followed by adverbs or phrasesrelatingtoextent.…anareastretchingfromLondontoCambridge.Thereareafewverbsthatarealwaysfollowedbyothertypesofadverborphrase.Itbehavesratherlikeasquirrel.Mybrotheragreedtoactasago-between.Ihopedthattheabsorptionofpoisonhadn’tprogressedtoofar.Hereisalistofverbsthatarealwaysfollowedbyothertypesofadverborphrase:

actbehavecampaign

progress

verbsthatareoccasionallytransitive

3.13 There are a few verbs that are usually intransitive but that can betransitive when they are used with one particular object. The object isusually directly related to the verb. For example, smile is usually usedwithoutanobject,butyoucanuseitwiththenounsmile.Forexample,Hesmiled a patient smile is a literary alternative to saying He smiledpatiently. The focus is on the type of smile rather than on the act ofsmiling.Stevesmiledhisthin,cruelsmile.Heappearstohavelivedthelifeofanyotherrichgentleman.Alicelaughedascornfullaugh.Ioncedreamedaverynicedreamaboutyou.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanonlybeusedwithanobjectwhentheobjectisdirectlyrelatedtotheverb:

dance(adance)die(adeath)dream(adream)laugh(alaugh)live(alife)sigh(asigh)smile(asmile)

Amorecommonwayoffocusingonthenounphraseistouseadelexicalverb such as give, take, or have, as inMary gave him a really lovelysmile.Seeparagraphs3.32to3.45formoreinformationabouttheuseofdelexicalverbs.

Transitiveverbs: involvingsomeoneorsomethingother thanthesubject3.14 Manyverbsdescribeeventsthatmust,inadditiontothesubject,involve

someoneorsomethingelse.Someoftheseverbscanonlybeusedwitha

followingobject.Theextraprofitjustifiestheinvestment.Hehadcommittedadisgracefulaction.Theyareemployingmorestaff.Thismeansthattheyarefollowedbyadirectobject.Shehadfriends.Childrenseekindependence.Thetrialraisedanumberofquestions.

differenttypesofobject

3.15 Manyverbs that areonlyusedwith anobject can take a large rangeofobjects.Forexample,therearemanythingsyoucanwant:money,arest,success,andsoon.Shewantedsomehelp.Iputmyhandonthedoor.Shedescribedherbackground.Istillsupportthegovernment.HehadalwayslikedMrPhillips.Japanhasapopulationofaboutahundredmillion.Sometransitiveverbshavearestrictedrangeofobjects,becauseoftheirmeaning.Forexample,theobjectoftheverbkillmustbesomethingthatis alive. The object of the verbwaste must be something you can use,suchastime,money,orfood.Theykilledhugeelephantswithtinypoisoneddarts.Whywastemoneyonthem?

3.16 Hereisalistofverbsthataretransitive:

achieveaddressadmireaffectaffordavoid

bearbelieveblamebuildbuycalmcarrycatchclaimcommitcompleteconcernconsidercontrolconvincecorrectcovercreatecutdamagedefydemanddescribedesigndesiredestroydiscoverdiscussdisplaydodreadenjoyequalexchangeexpectexperience

express

favourfearfillfindfreegetgivegrantguardhandlehatehavehearheathirehitincludeinfluenceintroduceissuejustifykeepkillknowlacklikelistlovelowermaintainmakemeanmentionname

needown

plantpleasepreferpreventprocessproducepronounceprotectprovideraisereachreceiverecommendrecordreleaserememberremoverentreportrespectrevealriskseeseeksellshockspecifyspotsupporttaketeasetestthreaten

trustupsetuse

valuewantwastewearwelcome

Note that do andhave are also very often used as auxiliaries. See theReferencesectionforthisuse.Havegotandhasgotareoftenusedinsteadof thepresent tenseofhavewhentalkingaboutpossession.Theformsofhavebehavelikeauxiliarieswhenusedlikethisbeforegot.I’vegotanumbrella.She’sgotadegree.Measureandweigharesometimesconsideredtobetransitiveverbswhenused to state measurements and weights. This use is explained inparagraph2.252.Costisusedtostatethecostofsomething,asinAnadultticketcosts90p.

humanobjects

3.17 Whenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthataffectsapersonratherthanathing,itisnormalinEnglishtosaywhothatpersonis.Therefore,verbssuchasanger, thank,andwarn,which involve affecting people, usuallyhaveahumanobject.Itriedtocomforther.Hersuddendeathhadsurprisedeverybody.Bluesuitsyou.Moneydidnotinteresthimverymuch.LebelbriefedCaronontheeventsoftheafternoon.

3.18 Hereisalistofverbsthatusuallyhaveahumanobject:

angerbriefcomfortcontactfrighteninterestsuitsurpriseteasethanktroublewarn

transitive verbs that need to be followed by an adverb or prepositionalphrase

3.19 Withsometransitiveverbs,youhavetogiveadditionalinformationaboutwhat is going on by using an adverb or prepositional phrase after theobject.Some verbs typically have a prepositional phrase beginning with aparticularprepositionaftertheirobject.Thejudgebasedhisdecisiononconstitutionalrights.Hehadsubjectedmetothepressureoffinancialruin.Myparentsstillviewmeasalittleboy.Hereisalistofverbsthatalwaysorusuallyhaveaparticularprepositionaftertheirobject:

regardasviewas~mistakeforswapfor~dissociatefrompreventfrom

~depriveofremindofridofrobof~accustomtoascribetoattributetocomparetocondemntoconfinetoconsigntodedicatetoentitletolikentoowetoreturntosubjecttosubordinateto~acquaintwithassociatewithconfrontwithengravewithpeltwithplywithtrustwith

Withthefollowingverbs,thereisachoiceofpreposition:

dividebydivideinto~incorporatein

incorporateinto~baseonbaseuponlavishonlavishupon~entrusttoentrustwithequatetoequatewithpresenttopresentwithsupplytosupplywith

3.20 Otherverbsare typicallyfollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase,butnotonecontainingaparticularpreposition.Theadverborphraseoftenrelatestoplace.Heplacedthebabyonthewoman’slap.Ipositionedmychairoutsidetheroom.Heneverputsanythingaway.Hetreatedhislabourerswithkindness.Here is a list of verbs that usually have some kind of adverb orprepositionalphraseaftertheirobject:

bringchuckconveycramdirectdragescortflinghoist

jabjotlayleadplacepointpositionpropputripsendsetshovesmearstickstorethrowthrusttietreat

Formoreonadverbsandphrasesthatfollowverbs,seeChapter6.

transitiveverbsofpositionandmovement

3.21 Note that some verbs of movement and position are transitive, notintransitive;theyarefollowedbynounsreferringtoplacesratherthanbyadverbs or prepositional phrases. This is because the verbs themselvesshowthatyouaretalkingaboutmovementorpositionofaparticularkind.For example, enter implies movement into a place and occupy impliespositioninaplace.Heapproachedthehousenervously.Itwasdarkbythetimetheyreachedtheirhouse.Asmallornamentalpooloccupiedthecentreoftheroom.Everyonehadlefttheroom.

Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsofmovement:

approachenterleavenearreachround

Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsofposition:

covercrowdfillinhabitoccupythrong

Someverbsofmovementcanbefollowedeitherbyanounphraseorbyaprepositionalphrase.Seeparagraph3.58.

USAGENOTE

3.22 Note that even verbs that are almost always followed by an object canoccasionallybeusedwithoutanobject.Thisispossibleinveryrestrictedcontexts. For example, if you are contrasting two actions, it is notnecessarytosaywhatelseisinvolved.Moneymarketsaretheplaceswherepeoplewithmoneybuyandsell.Somepeoplebuildwhileothersdestroy.Wegave,theytook.Ifyouusealistofdifferentverbsforemphasis,youdonotneedtonametheobject.Theysetouttoberude;todefy,threaten,ortease.If you repeat a verb in order to contrast it with a similar action, or to

emphasizeit,theobjectcanbeomitted.Shehadceasedtoloveasshehadonceloved.

3.23 Verbsthatdescribefeelingsandattitudesaresometimesusedwithoutanobject,particularlyintheto-infinitiveform.Thisisbecausetheobjectisassumedtobepeopleingeneral.Forexample,pleaseusuallyrequiresanobject, but you can sayHe likes to please, meaning he likes to pleasepeople.Helikestoshock.Shewasanxioustoplease.Hemustbeconvincedifheistoconvince.Ihaveatendencytotease.

reportingverbs

3.24 Thereisalargegroupofverbs,suchassay,suggest,andthink,whichareusedtoreportwhatpeoplesayorthink.Theyarecalledreportingverbs.Theyarefollowedbyathat-clausewhichiscalledthereportedclause.Shesaidthatshewouldcome.The reportedclause isoften thoughtofasbeinganobject, andso theseverbsareusuallysaidtobetransitiveverbs.Inthisbook,reportingverbsareexplainedinChapter7.Reportingverbssuchasadviseandpersuade,whichhaveanobject thatreferstothepersonbeingaddressed,areexplainedinparagraphs7.75and7.76.Somereportingverbscantakeastheirobjectanounsuchasquestionorstorythatreferstosomethingthatissaidorwritten.Theseverbsarelistedinparagraph7.82.Sometakeanobjectthatreferstoaneventorfact,andisthereforecloselyrelatedtoathat-clause.Thesearelistedinparagraph7.83.Verbssuchasbelieveandknow thatcanbeusedas reportingverbs,butthat are ordinary transitive verbs when used with another commonmeaning,areincludedinthelistsoftransitiveverbsgivenabove.

3.25 Most transitive verbs can be used in the passive. See paragraphs 9.9 to9.21.

Reflexiveverbs:verbswheretheobjectrefersbacktothesubject

BECREATIVE

3.26 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutasituationwherethesamepersonisinvolvedasboththesubjectandtheobjectofanaction,youuseareflexivepronounas theobjectof a clause.Forexample, it is common toblamesomeoneelse if something goes wrong, but you say I blame myself for whathappenedifyouthinkthatthemistakewasyourownfault.Althoughafewverbsaretypicallyusedwithreflexivepronouns,youcanactuallyuseareflexivepronounastheobjectofanytransitiveverb,whenthemeaningallowsyoutodoso.Iblamemyselffornotpayingattention.Shefreedherselffrommyembrace.Afterthemeeting,heintroducedhimselftome.Whynotbuyabookandteachyourself?Don’tdeceiveyourself.Wemustaskourselvesseveralquestions.Everycountryhastherighttodefenditself.Reflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.111to1.118.

truereflexiveverbs

3.27 Notethattheverbsbusy,content,andpridearetruereflexiveverbs:theymustbeusedwithareflexivepronoun.Hehadbusiedhimselfinthelaboratory.Manyscholarscontentedthemselveswithwritingtextbooks.Heprideshimselfonhistidiness.

3.28 Anothersmallgroupofverbsonlytakeanobject thatrefers toapersonwhentheobjectisareflexivepronoun.Forexample,youcanexpressanopinionandyoucanexpressyourself(meaningthatyoucanputideasintowords),butyoucannotexpressaperson.ProfessorBaxendaleexpressedhimselfveryforcibly.Sheenjoyedherselfenormously.HeappliedhimselftolearninghowParliamentworked.

Hereisa listofverbsthat takeareflexivepronounastheirobjectwhenyourefertoaperson:

applycomposedistanceenjoyexcelexertexpressstrain

reflexivepronounsusedforemphasis

3.29 Someverbsthatnormallydonothaveobjects,becausetheyinvolveonlytheperformeroftheaction,canhaveareflexivepronounastheirobjectifyou want to emphasize that the subject is doing something that affectshimselforherself.YoucanthereforesayBillwashedhimself rather thanBillwashed.Ialwayswashfivetimesaday.Childrenwereencouragedtowashthemselves.Istoodinthekitchenwhileheshaved.Hepreferstoshavehimselfbeforebreakfast.Ashtonhadbehavedabominably.Heisoldenoughtobehavehimself.Successfulcompaniesknowhowtoadapttochange.You’vegottobewillingtoadaptyourself.Hereisa listofverbs thathavesenses inwhichyoucanuseareflexivepronounforemphasis:

acclimatizeadaptbehavecommitdress

hidemovereadjustshaveundresswash

BECAREFUL

3.30 NotethatreflexivepronounsarenotusedasmuchinEnglishasinsomeother languageswhen talking about actions that you do to yourself.Asmentionedabove,youwouldusually say Iwashed rather than I washedmyself inEnglish. Sometimes a nounwith a possessive is used instead.For example, you would say I combed my hair rather than I combedmyself.

3.31 Notethatreflexiveverbsarenotusedinthepassive.

Delexicalverbs:verbswithlittlemeaning3.32 There are some very common verbs that are used with nouns as their

objecttoshowsimplythatsomeoneperformsanaction,notthatsomeoneaffectsorcreatessomething.Theseverbshavevery littlemeaningwhentheyareusedinthisway.Forexample,had inShehada shower has very littlemeaning in itself.Mostofthemeaningofthesentenceiscarriedbythenounshower.Wewerehavingajoke.Rogergaveagrinofsheerdelight.HetookasteptowardsJack.

verbsthatareoftendelexical

3.33 This section focuses on the very common verbs that are used in thistransitivestructure.Theyarecalleddelexicalverbs.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedasdelexicalverbs.Thefirstfourareverycommonlyusedinthisway.

givehavemaketake~doholdkeepset

Notethathavegotisnotusedasadelexicalverb.Structures containing delexical verbs are very common in English.Althoughthetotalnumberofdelexicalverbsissmall,itincludessomeofthemostcommonwordsinthelanguage.

3.34 Inmanycases,thereisaverbthathasasimilarmeaningtothemeaningofthedelexicalverb+noun.Forexample,theverblookmeansalmostthesameashavealook.Whenlookisaverb,asinIlookedroundtheroom,youarefocusingontheactionoflooking.Whenyouuselookasanounina delexical structure, you are naming an event, something that iscomplete.This structureoften seems tobepreferred.Note that theverbcorrespondingtothedelexicalstructureisoftenintransitive.Shemadeasignal.Shesignalledforataxi.Acouplewerehavingadrinkatatablebythewindow.Afewstudentsweredrinkingatthebar.Shegaveanamusedlaugh.Theybothlaughed.Hegaveavaguereply.Theyrepliedtohisletter.Therearealsosomeverbsthataretransitive.Fanstriedtogetaglimpseofthesinger.Iglimpsedabrightflashofgoldontheleft.Hegavealittlesniff.Shesniffedtheair.Comistookaphotographofher.

TheyphotographedthepigeonsinTrafalgarSquare.

withsingularnoun

3.36 Thenoun that is theobjectof thedelexicalverb isoften in thesingularandisusuallyprecededbyaoran.Shemadearemarkabouttheweather.ShegaveacrywhenIcamein.Imighttakeastroll.There are some countable nouns that are almost always used in thesingularafteradelexicalverb.Hereisalistofthesenouns:

cryfeelgrousegrumbleneedreadsmelltastetry

Notethatthesewordsaremorecommonlyusedasverbsinthelanguageasawhole.

withpluralnoun

3.36 Youcanalsouseadelexicalverbfollowedbyapluralnoun.Shetooklittlesipsofthecolddrink.HetookphotographsofVitainhersummerhouse.Thenewspapermadeunpleasantremarksabouthiswife.

withuncountablenoun

3.37 It is also occasionally possible to follow a delexical verb with anuncountablenoun.

Wehavemadeprogressinbothscienceandart.Caltookchargeofthissideoftheireducation.

talkingaboutabriefevent

3.38 One difference in meaning between using a structure containing adelexical verb and a verb with a similar meaning is that the delexicalstructurecangivetheimpressionthattheeventyouaredescribingisbrief.Forexample,Shegaveascream suggests that therewasonlyonequickscream,whereasShescreameddoesnotsuggestthattheeventwasbrief.Mr.Suttongaveashoutoftriumph.Zoegaveasighofrelief.Hegavealaugh.

usingadjectives

3.39 Another reason for choosing a delexical structure is that you can addfurther details about the event by using adjectives in front of the noun,rather thanbyusingadverbs. It ismorenatural, for example, to sayHegaveaquickfurtiveglanceroundtheroomthantosayHeglancedquicklyandfurtivelyroundtheroom.HegavealonglectureaboutRoosevelt.Shehadagoodcry.Hewasforcedtomakeahumiliatingapology.TheselegendsholdaromanticfascinationformanyJapanese.

nounswithnoequivalentverb

3.40 Therearesomenounsusedindelexicalstructuresthatdonotcorrespondin form to a verb that has a similarmeaning to the delexical structure.Sometimesthereissuchaverb,buttheformisslightlydifferent.Workexperienceallowsstudentstomakemoreeffectivecareerdecisions.IdecidedIwouldn’tresignafterall.HemadetheshortestspeechI’veeverheard.lainspokecandidlyaboutthecrash.Inothercases, there isnocorrespondingverbwithasimilarmeaningatallandsothereisnootherstructurethatcanbeused.

Hehadbeenoutalldaytakingpicturesofthefighting.Thatisaveryfoolishattitudetotake.Shemadeanumberofrelevantpoints.Trynottomakesomuchnoise.

nounsusedwithhave

3.41 Inmostcases,onlyonedelexicalverbisusedwithanyparticularnoun.Thefollowingexamplesshownounsthatareusedafterhave.Theyhaveadesperateneedtocommunicate.Theyhadafundamentalbeliefintheirownsuperiority.Shehadagoodcry.Let’snothaveaquarrel.Weshouldhaveatalk.Hereisalistofnounsthatareusedafterhave:

argumentbeliefchatcrydancedisagreementfallfightgrousegrumbleneedquarrelrespectsleeptalk

nounsusedwithtake

3.42 Thefollowingexamplesshownounsthatareusedaftertake.

Hetakesnointerestinhischildren.…kidstakingturnstouseaplaygroundslide.Hewastakingnochances.Shewaspreparedtotakegreatrisks.Davistooktheleadinblamingthepilots.TheGovernmentfoughtagainstsuggestionsthatitshouldtakefullblamefortheaffair.Hereisalistofnounsthatareusedaftertake.Thefirstsetofnounsarecountablenouns;thesecondsetofnounsareuncountablenounsoralwayseithersingularorplural:

attitudechancedecisioninterestphotophotographpictureriskturn~blamecarechargeconsequencesformleadoffenceofficepowerresponsibilityshapetimetrouble

nounsusedwithgive

3.43 Manynounscanbeusedaftergive.Someofthesenounsrefertonoisesthatpeoplemake,orexpressionstheymakewiththeirface.Usinggivewithoneof thesenounsoftensuggeststhattheactionisinvoluntaryorthatitisnotnecessarilydirectedatotherpeople.Forexample,Shegaveascreamsuggeststhatshecouldnothelpscreaming.Theyoungcashiergaveapatientsigh.Rogergaveagrinofsheerdelight.Hegaveashrillgaspofshock.Bothofthemgaveaninvoluntarylittlegiggle.Hegaveasoftchuckle.Here is a list of nouns that refer to noises peoplemake, or expressionstheymakewiththeirface:

chucklecrygaspgigglegringroanlaughscowlscreamshoutshrieksighsmilesniffsniggerwhistleyell

Anothergroupofnounsareoftenprecededbyanindirectobject(thatis,

an object that refers to the person or thing that received the action)becausetheydescribeactivitiesthatinvolvesomeoneelse,apartfromthesubject.Theygaveusawonderfullywarmwelcome.Elainegavehimahug.Hegaveherhandasqueeze.Hegavehimagoodkick.Shegavehimalongkiss.Hereisalistofnounsthatcanbeprecededbyanindirectobject:

clueglancehinthugkickkisslookpunchpushringshoveslapsqueezewelcome

Athirdgroupofnounsrefertoactionsinvolvingsomethingbeingsaid.Thepoetryprofessorisrequiredtogivealectureeveryterm.LordYoungwillbegivingafirst-handaccountoftheeconomicdifficultiestheRussiansarestrugglingtoovercome.SenatorBrownhasgivenwarningthatconflictovertheplanscouldleadtoaconstitutionalcrisis.Here is a list of nouns that refer to actions involving something beingsaid:

accountadviceanswerexampleinformationinterviewlecturenewsreasonreportspeechsummarytalkthoughtwarning

nounsusedwithmake

3.44 Manynounscanbeusedaftermake.Thedelexical structuresusinga lotof thesenounsareclosely related toreportingstructures,whichareexplainedinChapter7.Thereisusuallyarelatedverbthatcanbeusedfollowedbyareportedclause.Shemadearemarkabouttheweather.AllenremarkedthatattimeshethoughthewasbackinAmerica.Nowandthenshemakesacommentonsomething.Hecommentedthathewasonlydoinghisjob.Ihaven’tmadeafullconfession,sir.Foxconfessedthathehadstolenthemoney.Thecricketersmadeapublicprotestagainstapartheid.Sheprotestedthathiscommentsweresexist.Imadeasecretsignaltohim.TheBankofEnglandsignalledthattherewouldbenochangeininterestrates.Youmadetherightdecision.Onecandidateresigned,decidingthatbankingwasnotforher.

Here is a list of nouns that are used after make and have a relatedreportingverb:

arrangementclaimcommentconfessiondecisionpromiseprotestremarksignalsuggestion

Othernounsusedwithmake express actions involving something beingsaid,ordescribechange,results,effort,andsoon.I’llmakesomeenquiriesforyou.Theyagreedtomakeafewminorchanges.Theymadeanemotionalappealfortheirdaughter’ssafereturn.Hemadeanattempttocalmdown.Hehasmadeasignificantcontributiontothesuccessofthebusiness.Hereisalistofothernounsthatareusedaftermake:

appealattemptchangechargecontributioneffortenquiryimpressionnoisepointprogress

recoverysoundspeechstartsuccess

Notethat,unliketheothernounsinthislist,progressisuncountable.

nounsusedwithhaveandtake

3.45 Therearesomenounsthatcanbeusedaftereitherhaveortake.Ingeneralhave is more common with these nouns in British English and take ismore common in American English. There is sometimes a slightdifferenceinemphasis:usinghaveputsmoreemphasisontheexperience,andusingtakeputsmoreemphasisontheperformeroftheaction.Onegroupofthesenounsrefertophysicalactivities.I’dratherhaveaswim.Haveadrink.Shedecidedtotakeastrollalongthebeach.Itookabath,mysecondthatday.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertophysicalactivities:

bathbreakdrinkholidayjogpaddlerestrunshowerstrollswimvacation(American)walk

Anothergrouprefertoactionsthatinvolveusingoursenses.Sheshouldletadoctorhavealookatyou.EvenSallyhadalittlesipofwine.AHarvardscientistwasonceallowedintohaveapeep.Marktookabiteofmeat.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertosuchactions:

bitefeellookpeepsipsmellsnifftaste

Verbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject3.46 Thereareseveralreasonswhyyoucanuseverbsbothwithandwithoutan

object.

differentmeanings

3.47 Oneimportantreasonforusingverbsbothwithandwithoutanobjectisthatmanyverbshavemorethanonecommonmeaning.Forexample,theverbrun isusedwithoutanobjectwhen it isused in the sense tomovequickly.Butrunhasanobjectwhenitisusedinthesensetomanageoroperate.Sherunsinordertokeepfit.Sherunsahotel.Shereflectedforamomentandthendecidedtobackout.Thefiguresreflectedthecompany’sattemptstoincreaseitsprofile.Icanmanageperfectlywellonmyown.Icannolongermanagemylife.Shemovedrathergracefully.

Thewholeincidenthadmovedherprofoundly.3.48 Hereisa listofverbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject,

dependingonwhichmeaningyouareusing:

addaimbeatblowcallchangecheatcountdrawdressdriveescapeexercisefitflyfollowhangheadholdhurtleaklosemanagemeetmissmovepassplaypointpresspropose

reflectrunshootshowsinkspreadstandstretchstrikestudytendtouchturnwin

verbsthatdonotalwaysneedanobject

3.49 Manyverbs inEnglish can be usedwith orwithout an object,with thesame basicmeaning. The object is not neededwhen it is obviouswhattypeofthingyouaretalkingabout.Forexample,youcouldsayeitherSheeatsfoodslowlyorSheeatsslowly.It isobvious in this context thatwhat sheeats is food, and soyouonlymentionfoodifyouwanttoemphasizethefact(whichisunlikely),orifyouwanttosaywhatkindoffoodsheeats.Withverbslikethese,younormallyuseanobjectonlywhenyouwanttobespecificorwhenyouwanttocontrastwhathappenedononespecificoccasionwithwhathappensnormally.Forexample,youwouldsay I’vebeenstudyinghistory,asopposedtoI’vebeenstudying,onlyifyouwantor need to mention the subject specifically, or if you normally studysomethingelse.…ahealthypersonwhoeatssensibly.Twiceaweekheeatsanappleforlunch.Heraisedhisownglassanddrank.Hedrankagooddealofcoffee.Hehadwon,andshehadhelped.

Shecouldhelphimtoescape.Icookedforabouteightdirectors.Shehadnevercookeddinnerforanyone.Iwashedandironedforthem.Sheironedmyshirt.Rudolphwavedandwentintothehouse.Shesmiledandwavedherhand.Shesatandtyped.Shetypedalettertothepaperinquestion.Youneedtogivetheobjectwhenitisdifferentfromtheonethatpeoplewouldnormallyassociatewiththeverb.Forexample,towave isusuallyinterpretedasmeaning towaveyourhand, so ifsomethingelse isbeingwaved,youhavetomentionit.Hewavedapieceofpaperinhislefthand.CharliewashedSusan’sfeet.You alsomention the object when you want to say something specificaboutit.Hewashedhissummerclothesandputthemaway.Bondwavedacheerfulhand.Icouldsavequitealotofmoney.

3.50 Here is a list of verbs that can be used without an object when it isobviouswhatsortofthingisinvolved:

borrowchangecleancookdrawdrinkdrivedusteatfilmhelp

ironlearnlendmarrypaintparkpointreadridesavesingsmokespendstealstudytypewashwavewrite

objectalreadymentioned

3.51 Thereisanothergroupofverbsthatusuallyhaveanobjectbutthatcanbeusedwithoutanobjectwiththesamemeaning.Theseareverbswheretheobjectisobviousbecauseithasalreadybeenmentioned.Forexample,ifyou have alreadymentioned the place where something happened, youcansayIleft,withoutnamingtheplaceagain.Atlastshethankedthemandleft.Heturnedawayandwalkedquicklyupthepassage.Ilockedthedoorandfollowed.Iwasinthemiddleofaquietmealwhenthetanksattacked.Shedidnotlookroundwhenheentered.Thesentryfiredatthedoctorandfortunatelymissed.OnlytwoorthreehundredmenbelongedtotheUnionbeforethewar,nowthousandsjoined.

3.52 Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithoutanobjectwhentheobjecthasalreadybeenmentioned:

acceptaimanswerapproachaskattackbeginbiteblowboardcallcheckchooseconsiderdirectdryenterexplainfitfollowforgetgainguessimprovejoinjudgeknowleadleavelosemindmiss

movenoticeobserveofferorderpassphoneplayproducepullpushrememberringrulesearchservesharesignstriketelephoneunderstandwatchwin

3.53 Ifyouthinkthattheobjectmaynotbeobviousfromwhathasbeensaidorifyouparticularlywanttodrawattentiontoit,youmentionit.AllIknowisthatMichaelandIneverleftthehouse.MissLindleyfollowedRoseintotheshop.TheywereunawaretheyhadattackedaBritishwarship.Amanenteredtheshopanddemandedmoney.Shethrewthefirstdartandmissedtheboardaltogether.IhadjoinedanathleticclubinChicago.

speaker’sdecisions

3.54 There are notmany verbs that always have an object or never have an

object.Thedecisionaboutwhetherornot tomentionanobject is left totheusers. If they think that thepeople readingor listening to themwillhavenodifficultyinworkingoutwhatpersonorthingisaffectedbytheaction,thentheycanleaveouttheobject.Iftheythinkthatthiswillnotbeclear, theywill use anobject inorder topreventmisunderstanding.Themain reasons for omitting the object are that it is obvious from themeaningoftheverbitself,orthatitisobviousfromwhathasalreadybeensaid.

Verbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphrase3.55 Thereisasmallgroupofverbsthatcanbefollowedbyeitheranobjector

aprepositionalphrase.Theverb fight is one of these verbs, so that, forexample, you can say He fought the enemy or He fought against theenemy.ThePolishArmyfoughttheGermansfornearlyfiveweeks.Hewasfightingagainsthistory.TheNewZealandrugbyteamplayedSouthAfrica’sSpringboks.Inhisyouth,ThomasplayedagainstGlamorgan.

3.56 Thereisusuallylittledifferenceinmeaningbetweenusingtheverbonitsownandfollowingitwithapreposition.Forexample,thereisverylittledifferenceinmeaningbetweenbrushandbrushagainst,gnawandgnawat,andhissandhissatinthefollowingexamples.Herarmbrushedmycheek.Somethingbrushedagainstthebackoftheshelter.Rabbitsoftengnawthewoodworkoftheircages.Insectshadbeengnawingatthewood.TheyhissedtheMayorattheceremony.Fredericahissedathim.

3.57 Hereisa listofverbs thatcanbeusedwithanobjectoraprepositionalphrase,withlittledifferenceinmeaning:

boo(at)brush(against)check(on)distinguish(between)

enter(for)fight(against)fight(with)gain(in)gnaw(at)hiss(at)infiltrate(into)jeer(at)juggle(with)mock(at)mourn(for)nibble(at)play(against)rule(over)sip(at)sniff(at)tug(at)twiddle(with)

verbsofmovement

3.58 Manyof the verbs that can take anobject or a prepositional phrase areverbs, suchaswander andcross, that describe physicalmovement.Theprepositionisonethatindicatesplace,andsoallowsyoutoemphasizethephysicalpositionofthesubjectinrelationtotheobject.HewanderedthehallsoftheArtInstitute.HewanderedthroughthestreetsofNewYork.IcrossedtheMississippi.ThecarhadcrossedovertherivertoLongIsland.Weclimbedthemountain.Iclimbedupthetree.Here is a list of verbs that describe movement, and examples of theprepositionsthatcanfollowthem:

chase(after)climb(up)cross(over)

jump(over)leap(over)reach(across)roam(over)roam(through)run(across)skirt(round)walk(through)wander(through)

Changingyourfocusbychangingthesubject:Iopened thedoor,Thedooropened3.59 Someverbsallowyoutodescribeanactionfromthepointofviewofthe

performer of the action or from the point of view of something that isaffectedbytheaction.Thismeansthatthesameverbcanbeusedwithanobject, or without an object, and without the original performer beingmentioned.Inthefirstexamplebelow,thedooristheobjectoftheverbopened,butin thesecondexample thedoor is thesubjectofopened and there isnomentionofwhoopenedthedoor.Iopenedthedoorandpeeredintotheroom.Suddenlythedooropened.Anexplosionshooktherooms.Thewholeroomshook.Note that the object of the transitive verb, which is the subject of theintransitiveverb,usuallyreferstoathing,notaperson.Verbsthatcanhavethesamethingastheirobject,whentransitive,ortheirsubject, when intransitive, are called ergative verbs. There are severalhundredergativeverbsinregularuseincurrentEnglish.

changes

3.60 Manyergativeverbsdescribeeventsthatinvolveachangefromonestatetoanother.Hewasslowinghispace.

Shewasawarethattheaircraft’staxiingpacehadslowed.Ishatteredtheglass.Winebottleshadshatteredalloverthepavement.Theyhaveclosedthetown’sonlypub.Thestreetmarketshaveclosed.Thefirmhaschangeditsname.Overthenextfewmonthstheirworkpatternchanged.Thedriverstoppedthecar.Abigcarstopped.

3.61 Hereisalistofergativeverbsthatdescribeeventsinvolvingachangeofsomekind:

agebeginbendbleachbreakburnburstchangeclosecontinuecrackdarkendecreasediminishdispersedoubledrowndryemptyendfadefinishgrow

improveincreaseopenquickenrotshattershrinkshutslowsplitspreadstartstickstopstretchtearthickenwidenworsen

food,movement,vehicles

3.62 There are many other ergative verbs that relate specifically to certainareasofmeaning.Forexample, somerelate to foodandcooking,othersdescribephysicalmovement,andothersinvolveavehicleastheobjectofthetransitiveverborthesubjectoftheintransitiveverb.I’veboiledanegg.Theporridgeisboiling.I’mcookingspaghetti.Thericeiscooking.Thebirdsturnedtheirheadssharplyatthesound.Vorster’sheadturned.Sherestedherheadonhisshoulder.Herheadrestedontheedgeofthetable.Shehadcrashedthecartwice.Pollock’scarcrashedintoaclumpoftrees.

3.63 Hereisalistofverbsrelatingtofood,physicalmovement,andvehicles:

bakeboilcookdefrostfrymeltroastsimmerthicken~balancedropmoverestrockshakespinstandsteadyswingturn~backcrashdriveflyparkreverserunsail

restrictionsonergativesubjects

3.64 Notethatsomeverbsareusedergativelywithoneortwonounsonly.Forexample,youcansayHefiredagunorThegunfired.YoucanalsosayHefiredabullet,butyouwouldnotnormallysayThebulletfired.Irangthebell.Thebellrang.Acarwassoundingitshorn.Ahornsoundedinthenight.Hehadcaughthissleeveonasplinterofwood.Thehatcaughtonaboltandtore.

3.65 Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedergativelywiththenoun,ortypeofnoun,thatisgiven:

catch(anarticleofclothing)fire(agun,rifle,pistol)play(music)ring(abell,thealarm)show(anemotionsuchasfear,anger)sound(ahorn,thealarm)

ergativeverbsthatneedextrainformation

3.66 Thereareafewergativeverbsthatusuallyhaveanadverborsomeotherphrase or clausewhen they are used intransitively. This is because youchoose this structure when you want to emphasize how somethingbehaves when affected in some way, and so the person who does theactionisnotimportant.IlikethenewRangeRover.Ithandlesbeautifully.Woolwasheswellifyoutreatitcarefully.Here is a list of ergative verbs that are usually followed by some extrainformationwhentheyareusedintransitively:

cleanfreezehandle

markpolishsellstainwash

comparisonofpassiveandergativeuse

3.67 Notethatergativeverbsperformasimilarfunctiontothepassivebecausethey allow you to avoid mentioning who or what does the action. Forexample,youcouldsayJanefrozea lotofpeas fromthegarden. Ifyouwerenot interested inwho froze thembut inwhat she froze,youcouldsayAlotofpeaswerefrozen,usingthepassive.Ifyouwereinterestedinhowtheyfroze,youcouldsay,Thepeasfromthegardenfrozereallywell,makinguseofthefactthattheverbisergative.Forinformationaboutthepassive,see9.8to9.24.

Verbs that involve people affecting each other with the sameaction:JohnandMaryargued3.68 Someverbscandescribeprocessesthatinvolvetwopeopleortwogroups

of people doing the same thing to each other. For example, John andMaryarguedmeans that John arguedwithMary andMary arguedwithJohn.Thepairofyouhavearguedaboutthatforyears.Hecameoutandwehugged.Theycompetedfuriously.Theseverbsarecalledreciprocalverbs.

reciprocalverbswithpluralsubject

3.69 Oneofthestructuresinwhichyouusereciprocalverbsiswherethetwogroups are put together in a plural subject and the verb is then usedwithoutanobject.Theirfacestouched.Theirchildrenarealwaysfighting.Theykissed.

emphasizingequalinvolvement

3.70 Whenyouwanttoemphasizethatbothparticipantsareequallyinvolvedintheaction,youputeachotheroroneanotheraftertheverb.Weembracedeachother.Theykissedeachotheringreeting.Theyfoughteachotherdesperatelyforit.Thetwoboysstartedhittingoneanother.Here is a list of reciprocal verbs that are used transitively with thepronounseachotherandoneanother:

consultcuddleembraceengagefighthugkissmarrymatchmeettouch

Withsomeverbsyouneedtouseapreposition,usuallywith, in frontofeachotheroroneanother.You’vegottobeabletocommunicatewitheachother.Third World countries are competing with each other for a restrictedmarket.Thetwoactorsbegantoengagewithoneanother.Hereisalistofreciprocalverbsthatmustbefollowedbywithbeforethepronounseachotherandoneanother:

agreealternate

arguebalanceclashcoincidecollidecombinecommunicateconflictconsultcontendcontrastconverseco-operatedisagreeengageintegratematemergemixquarrelstruggle

Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithaprepositionotherthanwith:

compete(against)compete(with)correspond(to)correspond(with)fight(against)fight(with)part(from)relate(to)separate(from)talk(to)talk(with)

Notethatconsult,engage,andfightcanbeusedeitherwithanobjectorwithapreposition.

showingunequalinvolvement

3.71 In the examples given above, the speaker or writer believes that bothpeopleorgroupsareequally involvedin theevent,becausebothare thesubject.However, theusermaywant to focusononepersonmore thantheother. In thiscase,anoun that refers to thatperson isput in subjectposition.If the verb can be used with an object, a noun referring to the otherparticipantisusedastheobjectoftheverb.Heembracedher.Shemarriedayoungengineer.Youcouldmeetmeatarestaurant.Heisresponsibleforkillingmanypeople.Iftheverbneedsaprepositionafterit,theothernounisusedastheobjectofthepreposition.Ourreturncoincidedwiththearrivalofbadweather.YouthsclashedwithpoliceinBelfast.Thedistributionofaidcorrespondstoneed.

3.72 Peoplesometimesmakeonepersonorgroupthesubjectwhentheeventisaviolentorunpleasantone, inorder tomake themappearaggressiveorresponsiblefortheviolence.Forexample,theheadlinePoliceclashwithyouthsmightsuggestthatthepolicewereresponsiblefortheclash,eventhoughtheyouthsalsoclashedwiththepolice.Paulcollidedwithalargemaninasweat-stainedshirt.Theroleofworkerconflictswiththeroleofparent.Shelikedhimevenwhenshewasquarrellingwithhim.

Verbsthatcanhavetwoobjects:givesomeonesomething3.73 Sometimesyoumaywanttotalkaboutaneventthatinvolvessomeonein

addition to the people or things that are the subject and object of theclause.Thisthirdparticipantissomeonewhobenefitsfromtheactionor

receives something as a result.They become the indirect object of theclause.Thedirectobject,asusual,isthepersonorthingthatsomethingisdoneto.Forexample,inIgaveJohnabook,Johnistheindirectobjectandthebookisthedirectobject.Theindirectobjectisputimmediatelyaftertheverb,infrontofthedirectobject.Dadgavemeacar.Canyoupassmethesugarplease?Shebroughtmeaboiledeggandtoast.HehadlentTimthemoney.Amanpromisedhimajob.Thedistractionprovidedusachancetorelax.(Am)

indirectobjectsinphrasesthatbeginwithapreposition

3.74 Instead of putting the indirect object in front of the direct object, it ispossibletoputitinaphrasebeginningwithtoorforthatcomesafterthedirectobject.Hehandedhisroomkeytothereceptionist.RalphpassedamessagetoJack.Hegaveittome.Thisstructureisusedparticularlyincaseswhereyouwanttofocusontheindirect object.You can use it, for example,when the indirect object issignificantlylongerthanthedirectobject.HehadtaughtEnglishtoalltheyouthofCeylonandIndia.Hecopiedthee-mailtoeverysingleoneofhisstaff.

pronounsasobjects

3.75 Itisnormaltousethisprepositionalstructurewhenthedirectobjectisapronounsuchasitorthem.ItookthebottleandofferedittoOakley.Woodwardfinishedthesecondpageandpassedittotheeditor.Itwastheonlypoundhehadandhegaveittothelittleboy.Godhassentyoutome.

NotethatininformalspokenEnglish,somepeopleputtheindirectobjectinfrontof thedirectobjectwhenbothobjects arepronouns.For example,some people say He gave me it rather than He gave it to me. Bothpronouns are unstressed and both refer to information that is alreadyknown,andsoitdoesnotmatterwhatordertheycomein.

indirectobjectswithto

3.76 If you want to put the indirect object in a phrase that begins with apreposition,youuse thepreposition towith someverbs,especiallyoneswherethedirectobjectissomethingthatistransferredfromonepersontoanother.MrSchellwrotealettertheotherdaytotheNewYorkTimes.Ihadlentmyapartmenttoafriendfortheweekend.Itookouttheblackboxandhandedittoher.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanhaveanindirectobjectintroducedbyto:

accordadvanceawardbringdealfeedforwardgivegranthandleaseleavelendloanmailofferowepass

payplaypostquotereadrentrepaysellsendserveshowsingtaketeachtellwrite

indirectobjectswithfor

3.77 Iftheactionyouaredescribinginvolvesonepersondoingsomethingthatwillbenefitanotherperson,youcanuse thepreposition for to introducetheindirectobject.Heleftanoteforheronthetable.Hepouredmorechampagneforthethreeofthem.Shebroughtpresentsforthechildren.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanhaveanindirectobjectintroducedbyfor:

bookbringbuildbuycashcookcutdesign

fetchfindfixgetguaranteekeepleavemakemixorderpaintpickplaypourpreparereservesavesecuresetsingsparetakewinwrite

USAGENOTE

3.78 Notethattheverbsbring,leave,play,sing,take,andwriteareinbothofthe lists (3.76 and3.77).That is because there are a fewverbs that cantake either to or for in front of the indirect object, depending on themeaningyouwant toexpress.Forexample,Karenwrotea letter toherboyfriendmeansthattheletterwasaddressedtoherboyfriendandwasforhim to read. Karen wrote a letter for her boyfriend means that herboyfriendwantedtosendsomeoneelsealetterandKarenwasthepersonwhoactuallywroteit.

USAGENOTE

3.79 There are some verbs that take two objects where the indirect objectalmost always comes in front of the direct object rather than beingintroducedbytoorfor.Forexample,yousayHebegrudgedhisdaughterthe bread she ate andShe allowed her son only two pounds aweek. ItwouldbeveryunusualtosaySheallowedtwopoundsaweektoherson.Here is a list of verbs that do not usually have their indirect objectintroducedbytoorfor:

allowaskbegrudgebetcausechargecostdenydrawenvyforgivegrudgepromiserefuse

Notethatwishcanbeusedasthissortofverbwhenitsdirectobjectisawordorphraselikeluck,goodluck,orhappybirthday.

3.80 Whenyouuseapassiveformofaverbwithtwoobjects,eitherthedirectobject or the indirect object can become the subject. See 9.20 for fullinformation.

USAGENOTE

3.81 Whenthesubjectandtheindirectobjectrefertothesameperson,youcanuseareflexivepronounastheindirectobject.

I’mgoingtobuymyselfsomenewclothes.Hehadgothimselfacar.Hecookedhimselfanomelette.Reflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.111to1.118.

verbsthatusuallyhavebothadirectobjectandanindirectobject

3.82 Mostoftheverbslistedaboveasverbsthattaketwoobjectscanbeusedwiththesamemeaningwithjustadirectobject.Heleftanote.Shefetchedajugfromthekitchen.However,thefollowingverbsalwaysorusuallyhavebothadirectobjectandanindirectobject:

accordadvanceallowdenygivehandlendloanshowtell

Afewverbscanbeusedwiththepersonwhobenefitsfromtheaction,orreceivessomething,asthedirectobject.Ifedthebabywhenshewoke.Iforgiveyou.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

askenvyfeed

forgivepayteach

Phrasalverbs:Isatdown,Shewokemeup3.83 Thereisaspecialgroupofverbsthatconsistoftwoorthreewords.These

arecalledphrasalverbs.Theyconsistofaverbfollowedbyanadverb:

Hesatdown.Thenoisegraduallydiedaway.Thecoldweathersetin.a verb followed by a preposition (sometimes called a prepositional

verb):Shelookedafterherinvalidmother.Shesailedthroughherexams.Shefelldownthestepsandbrokeherankle.oraverbfollowedbyanadverbandapreposition:

Youmaycomeupagainstunexpecteddifficulties.Ilookforwardtoreadingit.Famehascreptuponheralmostbyaccident.Bycombiningaverbandanadverborpreposition in thisway,youcanextendtheusualmeaningoftheverborcreateanewmeaning,differentfromanythattheverbhasonitsown.Youcannot,therefore,alwaysguessthemeaningofaphrasalverbfromtheusualmeaningsoftheverbandtheadverborpreposition.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysIgiveuptheydonotgiveanythingtoanyone,noristhereanyupwardmovementinvolved.Inthecaseofafewphrasalverbs,thefirstpartisnotfoundindependentlyasaverbatall.Forexample,therearephrasalverbssumup,tamperwith,andzeroinon,butnoverbssum,tamper,orzero.Note that phrasal verbs are never written as a single word or with ahyphen.

3.84 Mostphrasal verbs consist of twowords.These are explainedbelow inparagraphs 3.85 to 3.110. Three-word phrasal verbs are explained in

paragraphs3.111to3.113.

intransitivephrasalverbswithadverbs

3.85 Somephrasalverbsareusedwithoutanobject.Thesephrasalverbsaregenerallyverbplusadverbcombinations.Rosamundwentawayforafewdays.Theboyswerefoolingaround.Shemusthavedozedoff.

3.86 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatconsistofaverbandanadverbwithnoobject:

backawaybackdownbackoffbalanceoutbargeinbearupboiloverbouncebackbowdownbowoutbranchoutbreakawaybreakoutbuttincampoutcastaboutcatchonchangedownchangeupcheckupchipinclimbdownclosein

cloudoverclubtogethercomeaboutcomealongcomeapartcomeawaycomebackcomedowncomeforwardcomeincomeoncomeoutcomeroundcometocomeupcooloffcreepincropupcryoffcuddleupcurlupcutindieawaydiedowndieoutdineoutdoublebackdozeoffdragondropbackdropbydropouteaseupebbawayendupfadeaway

fadeout

fallapartfallawayfallbackfallbehindfalloutfalloverfallthroughfightbackfizzleoutflareupfoolaroundforgeaheadgetaboutgetaheadgetalonggetbygetupgiveinglazeovergoaheadgoalonggoaroundgoawaygobackgodowngoongooutgoundergoupgrowuphangbackhangtogetherhitoutholdon

landuplashout

letupliebackliedownliveinlookaheadlookbacklookinloomupmakeoffmeetupmeltawaymountupmoveoffmoveovernodoffoptoutownuppassawaypayuppineawayplayaroundpopuppressaheadpressonpushaheadpushonrearuprideupringoffriseuprollaboutrollinrollover

rotawayrunawayrunout

rushinseizeupsellupsetinsettledownsettleinsettleupshoparoundsimmerdownsinkinsitaroundsitbacksitdownslipupspeakupsplashoutspringupstandbackstanddownstandinstandoutstartoutstayinstayonstayupsteamupstepasidestepbackstepdownstepinstickaroundstockup

stopbystopoffstopovertagalong

tailawaytailofftaperofftickovertouchdowntuneinwadeinwaitaboutwaitupwalkoutwasteawaywatchoutwearoffweighin

intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions:lookafter,callon

3.87 Otherphrasalverbsusedinintransitiveclausesareverbplusprepositioncombinations.Thesearesometimescalledprepositionalverbs.Skitripsnowaccountfornearlyhalfofallschoolvisits.I’mjustaskingforinformation.…theargumentsthatstemfromgossip.Note that thenounsat theendof theaboveexamples(nearlyhalfofallschoolvisits,information,andgossip)areobjectsoftheprepositionsandnotdirectobjectsoftheverbs.

3.88 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatconsistofaverbwithnoobjectandapreposition:

abidebyaccountforallowforanswerforaskafteraskforbankonbargainforbreakintobreakwithbroodonbumpintoburstintocallforcalloncareforcomeacrosscomebetweencomebycomeforcomefromcomeintocomeundercomeuponcountoncutacrossdawnondealwithdisposeofdrawondrinktodwellon

eatintoembarkonenterintoexpandonfallforfallintofallonfeelforflickthroughfrownupongetatgetintogetovergoaboutgoagainstgoforgrowonhangontoheadforhitonholdwithjumpatkeeptolaughatlaunchintolayintoleapatlevelwithliebehindliveforliveofflivewithlookafterlookintolooktomakefor

meetwith

partwithpickatpickonpitchintoplanforplanonplayatplayonpokeatporeoverprovideforpuzzleoverrattlethroughreasonwithreckononreckonwithreckonwithoutriseaboverompthroughrunacrossrunintoruntosailthroughseetoseizeonsetaboutsettleforsettleonskateoversmileonstandforstemfromstickatstickby

stumbleacrossstumbleon

takeaftertakeagainsttamperwithtanglewithtriflewithtumbletowadethroughwaitonwalkintowatchforworryat

preposition or adverb:We looked around the old town,Would you like tolookaround?

3.89 In thecaseof some intransitivephrasalverbs, the secondword (across,around,down,etc)isaprepositionifthesecondthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,or canbeanadverb if the second thing involved is clearfromthecontext.Icouldhangaroundyouroffice.We’llhavetohangaroundforawhile.Theyallcrowdedaroundthetable.Everyonecrowdedaroundtoseehimjumpintothewater.

3.90 Here is a list of intransitive phrasal verbs whose second word is apreposition if the other thing involved needs to be mentioned, or anadverbifitdoesnot:

askaroundbendoverbreakthroughbustleaboutcomeacrosscomeafter

comealongcomebycomedowncomeincomeoffcomeoncomeovercomethroughcomeupcrossovercrowdarounddowithoutfallbehindfalldownfalloffgatheraroundgetingetoffgetongetroundgoaboutgoalonggodowngoingoroundgothroughgoupgowithouthangaroundjoininknockaboutlagbehindleanoverlieaboutlookroundlookthrough

loungeabout

moveaboutpassbypassoverpushbypushpastpushthroughrallyroundrunaroundrundownrunupscrapethroughseeroundshinethroughshowthroughsitaroundspilloverstandaroundstopbytripover

transitivephrasalverbs:looksomethingup,letsomeonedown

3.91 Somephrasalverbsarenearlyalwaysusedwithanobject.Weputourdrinksdownonthebar.IfinishedmymealoffasquicklyasIcould.Shereadthepoemoutquietly.

3.92 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of a transitive verb and anadverb:

addonbeatupblotoutboardupbringabout

bringalongbringbackbringdownbringforwardbringinbringoffbringoutbringroundbringupbuyoutbuyupcalloffcallupcarryoffcarryoutcastasidecatchoutchaseupchatupcleanoutconjureupcountoutcrossoffcrossoutcutbackcutdowncutoffcutupdealoutdigupdoupdragindragoutdragupdreamupdrinkin

driveoutdrumupeatawayeatupexplainawayfightofffillinfillupfilteroutfindoutfixupfollowupfrightenawaygatherupgiveawaygivebackgiveoffhammerouthanddownhandinhandonhandouthandoverhandroundhaveonhireoutholddownholduphuntdownhushupkeepbackkickoutknockdownknockoutknockoverlapup

laydownlayonlayoutleavebehindleaveoutletdownletinletoffletoutliftuplivedownmeltdownmessupmixupnaildownnotedownorderaboutpackoffpassdownpassoverpassroundpatchuppaybackpayoutphaseinphaseoutpickoffpickoutpiecetogetherpindownpinupplaybackplaydownpluginpointoutprintout

pullapartpulldownpushaboutpusharoundpushoverputaboutputacrossputaroundputawayputdownputforwardputoffputonputoutputthroughputtogetherputupreadoutreasonoutreeloffrinseoutripoffripupropeinropeoffrubinruboutruleoutrushthroughscaledownscreenoffsealoffseeoffseekoutselloffsendup

setapartsetasidesetbacksetdownshakeoffshakeupshootdownshrugoffshutawayshutinshutoffshutoutsizeupsmoothoversnapupsoakupsortoutsoundoutspelloutspinoutstampoutstepupstickdownsummonupswitchontakeaparttakeawaytakebacktakedowntakeintakeontakeuptalkovertalkroundtearapartteardown

tearuptellaparttelloffthinkoverthinkthroughthinkupthrashoutthrowawaythrowoffthrowonthrowouttidyawaytiedowntieuptipofftipuptireouttonedowntopuptrackdowntradeintryontryoutturndownturnonuseupwarnoffwashawayweedoutweighoutweighupwhipupwinbackwinoverwipeawaywipeout

wipeup

Phrasal verbs that consist of a transitive verb and a preposition areexplainedinparagraphs3.107to3.110.

phrasal

3.93 A large group of phrasal verbs can be used both with and without anobject.Often this is because a phrasal verb has more than one meaning. Forexample,breakindoesnothaveanobjectwhenitisusedinthesenseofgetintoaplacebyforce.Butbreakindoestakeanobjectwhenitisusedinthesenseofgetsomeoneusedtoanewsituation.Ifthedoorislocked,Iwilltrytobreakin.Hebelievesinbreakinginhisstaffgradually.Aplanetookoff.Gretchentookoffhercoat.Theenginecutout.Shecutoutsomecolouredphotographsfromamagazine.

3.94 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject,dependingonwhichmeaningisbeingused:

addupbailoutblackoutbreakincallincarryonclearoutcutoutdrawondrawoutdrawupdressupdropoff

droproundfightbackfinishupgetdowngetingetoutgettogethergiveuphangoutholdoffholdoutjoinupkeepawaykeepdownkeepinkeepoffkeeponkeepoutkeepupkickoffknockaboutknockofflayoffleaveofflookoutlookupmakeoutmakeupmessaboutmissoutpassoffpassonpayoffpickuppullinputin

rollup

rundownrunoffrunoversetforthsetoffsetoutshowoffshowupsplitupstickoutstickupstowawaystrikeoutstringalongsumupswitchofftakeofftearoffthrowuptuckinturnawayturnbackturninturnoutturnroundturnupwinddownwindupworkoutwrapup

3.95 Thereareafewphrasalverbsthathaveonlyonemeaning,butthatcanbeusedeitherwithorwithoutanobject.Itispossibletousethemwithoutanobject because the object is either obvious or can be guessed in a

particularcontext.Itwon’ttakemeamomenttoclearaway.I’llhelpyouclearawaythedishes.

3.96 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthathaveonlyonemeaningbutthatcanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject:

answerbackbreatheinbreatheoutcallbackclearawayclearupcoverupdrinkuphelpoutopenuptakeovertidyawaywashup

ergativephrasalverbs

3.97 Justaswithordinaryverbs,somephrasalverbsareergativeverbs; thatis, you can use the object of the transitive verb as the subject of theintransitiveverb.Theguerrillasblewuptherestaurant.Thegasworksblewup.Iwon’twakehimupjustyet.Hewokeupinthemiddleofthenight.Seeparagraphs3.59to3.67forinformationaboutergativeverbs.

3.98 Hereisalistofergativephrasalverbs:

backupblockup

blowupbookinbreakoffbreakupbuckupbuildupburnupcheckincheckoutcheerupclosedowndryupgetoffheatuphurryuplineupmoveonopenuppeeloffpullthroughruboffshutupsignupslowdownspreadoutstartoffthawoutwakeupwarmupweardownwearout

3.99 In the case of some ergative phrasal verbs, the second word can be aprepositioniftheotherthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,orcanbeanadverbiftheotherthinginvolvedisclearfromthecontext.

…leavesthathadbeenblownoffthetrees.Myhatblewoff.

3.100 Here is a list of ergative phrasal verbs whose second word can be aprepositionoranadverb:

blowoffchipoffgetdowngetthroughgetupmovedownmoveuppeeloffpokethroughstickinstickon

positionoftheobject

3.101 When you are using a phrasal verbwith an object that is a short nounphrase,youusuallyhaveachoiceastowhereyouputtheobject.Itcanbeplacedeither after the secondwordof thephrasalverbor after the firstwordandbeforethesecondword.Hefilleduphiscarwithpetrol.Shefilledmyglassup.Hehandedoverthebox.MrsKaulhandedtheflowersovertoJudy.

3.102 However,whentheobjectconsistsofalongnounphrase,itismorelikelytocomeafterthesecondwordofthephrasalverb,sothatthetwopartsofthe phrasal verb are not separated too widely. In this way, attention isfocusedon the informationcontained in thenounphrase, rather thanonthesecondwordofthephrasalverb.Policehavebeentoldtoturnbackallrefugeeswhotrytocrosstheborder.

whentheobjectisapronoun

3.103 When the object is a pronoun such asme, her, or it, it usually comesbeforethesecondwordofthephrasalverb.Thisisbecauseitisnotnewinformation,andsoitisnotputinapositionofprominenceattheendoftheclause.Iwaiteduntilhehadfilleditup.Hetiedherupandbundledherintothecar.

whentheobjectisanabstractnoun

3.104 If the object of a phrasal verb is an abstract noun such as hope,confidence, or support, it usually comes after the second word of thephrasal verb. So, although you can sayHe built his business up, youusuallysayWeare trying tobuildup trustwith the residents.Similarly,althoughyoucansayHeputmyparentsup for thenight, younormallysayThepeasantsareputtingupalotofresistance.Thenewspaperswhippedupsympathyforthem.Theyattemptedtodrumupsupportfromthestudents.Hedidn’tholdoutmuchhopeforthem.

caseswheretheobjectisalwaysplacedafterthefirstwordoftheverb

3.105 With a small number of phrasal verbs, the object is always placedbetweenthefirstandthesecondwordsoftheverb.Forexample,youcansayIcan’ttellyourbrothersapartbutnotIcan’ttellapartyourbrothers.CaptainDeanwasstillorderingeverybodyabout.Iansweredmyfatherbackandtookmychances.Notethatmostoftheseverbstakeahumanobject.Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatalwaysbelonginthisgroupwhentheyareusedwithanobject:

answerbackaskinbashaboutbindoverbookin

bringroundbringtobrushoffcallbackcarrybackcatchoutchurnupcountindragdowndressdowndroproundfeeloutgetawayhearouthelpalonginviteininviteoutinviteoverjollyalongkeepunderknockaboutmessaboutmoveaboutmuckaboutorderaboutplayalongplaythroughpullaboutpulltopushaboutpusharoundpushtorunthroughseethroughsendaheadsendaway

sendup

shutupsitdownslaparoundstandupstareoutstringalongtalkroundtearaparttellaparttipofftrussupturfout

Somephrasalverbshavemorethanonetransitivesense,butbelonginthisgroupwhentheyareusedwithoneparticularmeaning.Forexample,takebackbelongs in thisgroupwhenitmeansremindsomeoneofsomethingbutnotwhenitmeansregainsomething.Thesmellofchalktookusallbacktoourschooldays.…hisambitionoftakingbackdisputedterritory.Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatbelonginthisgroupwhenusedwithaparticularmeaning:

bowloverbringdownbringoutbuoyupcutoffdooverdrawoutgetbackgetoutgiveuphaveon

hurryupkeepupkickaroundknockoutknockupnaildownpassonpindownpullapartpusharoundputdownputoutseeoutsetupshakeupshowaroundshowupstartoffstraightenouttakebacktakeintakeoffthrowabouttossabouttripupturnonwardoffwindup

objectswithprepositions

3.106 Remember that when a phrasal verb consists of an intransitive verbfollowed by a preposition, the noun phrase always comes after thepreposition,evenwhenitisapronoun.

Anumberofreasonscanaccountforthischange.Theyhaddealtwiththeproblemintelligently.IfIwentawayandleftyouintheflat,wouldyoulookafterit?There isa listofphrasalverbs thatconsistofan intransitiveverbandaprepositioninparagraph3.88.

transitivephrasalverbswithprepositions:Shetalkedmeintobuyingit

3.107 Somephrasal verbs consist of a transitive verb and a preposition.Theyhaveonenounphraseafterthefirstword,astheobjectoftheverb,andasecond noun phrase after the second word, as the object of thepreposition.Theyagreedtolethimintotheirsecret.Thefarmerthreatenedtosethisdogsonthem.They’llholdthatagainstyouwhenyouapplynexttime.

3.108 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that consist of a transitive verb and apreposition:

buildintobuildondrawintodrumintofrightenintoholdagainstkeeptolaybeforeleaveoffletintolumberwithmakeofputonputontoputthroughreadintosetagainst

setbacksetontalkintothrustuponwriteinto

prepositionoradverb:I’llcrossyouoff,I’llcrossyouoffthelist

3.109 In the case of some transitive phrasal verbs, the second word is aprepositionifthethirdthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,butitisanadverbifthethirdthinginvolvedisclearfromthecontext.Rudolphshowedthemaroundthetheatre.Rudolphshowedthemaround.

3.110 Here is a list of transitive phrasal verbs whose second word can be aprepositionoranadverb:

crossoffdabonhawkaroundhurlaboutkeepoffknockofflopoffpusharoundscruboffshowaroundshutinsinkin

intransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:lookforwardto,catchupwith

3.111 Mostphrasalverbsconsistoftwowords:averbandanadverb,oraverbandapreposition.However,somephrasalverbsconsistofthreewords:averb,anadverb,andapreposition.Thistypeofverbissometimescalledaphrasal-prepositionalverb.

Mostthree-wordphrasalverbsareintransitive.Theprepositionattheendisfollowedbyitsownobject.Hisgirlfriendwalkedoutonhim.You’renotgoingtogetawaywiththis!Shesometimesfindsithardtokeepupwithherclassmates.Thelocalpeoplehavetoputupwithalotoftourists.TerryHolbrookcaughtupwithme.

3.112 Hereisalistofintransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:

beinforbeontobeardownonboildowntobreakoutofbrushuponbumpupagainstburstinoncalloutforcatchupwithchimeinwithclampdownoncleanupaftercomeacrossascomedownoncomedowntocomedownwithcomeinforcomeontocomeoutincomeoutofcomeoutwithcomeupagainstcomeuptocomeupwithcrackdownon

creepuponcrowdinoncryoutagainstcryoutforcutbackondatebacktodoawaywithdoublebackonfaceuptofallbackonfallinwithgetawaywithgetdowntogetinongetoffwithgetontogetonwithgetroundtogetuptogiveupongoalongwithgobackongodownwithgoinforgooffwithgoovertogothroughwithgrowoutofkeepinwithkeeponatkeepupwithkickoutagainstleaduptoliveuptolookdownonlookforwardto

lookoutfor

lookuptomakeawaywithmakeoffwithmakeuptomatchuptomeasureuptomissoutonmonkeyaboutwithplayalongwithplayaroundwithputupwithreaduponrunawaywithrunoffwithrunupagainstshyawayfromsitinonsnapoutofstickoutforstickupforsuckuptotakeupwithtalkdowntotieinwithwalkawayfromwalkawaywithwalkoffwithwalkoutonwriggleoutofzeroinon

transitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:Hetalkedmeoutofbuyingthecar

3.113 A few three-word phrasal verbs are transitive. The direct object of theverbcomesimmediatelyaftertheverb.Asecondnounphraseisputafterthepreposition,asnormal.I’llletyouinonasecret.Krooptriedtotalkheroutofit.Theyputtheirsuccessdowntohardwork.Hereisalistoftransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:

dooutoffrightenoutofletinforletinonplayoffagainstputdownasputdowntoputuptotakeoutontakeupontalkoutof

BECAREFUL

3.114 InstandardwrittenEnglishitisnotpossibletohaveindirectobjectswithphrasalverbs.Theonlyobjectsyoucanhavearedirectobjectsoftheverbandobjectsofprepositions.IninformalspokenEnglish,however,afew phrasal verbs do have both a direct and an indirect object. In suchcases,theindirectobjectisplacedbetweentheverbandtheparticle,andthedirectobjectfollows.Wouldyoubreakmeoffapieceofchocolate,please?WebroughtherbacksomespecialcookiesfromGermany.

phrasalverbsinquestionsandrelativeclauses

3.115 There is one way in which a preposition that is part of a phrasal verbbehavesdifferentlyfromanordinarypreposition.

Normally,when the object of a preposition is put at the beginning of aquestion or a relative clause, it can be preceded by the preposition,especially in formal speech orwriting. For example, you can sayFromwhichstudentdidyougetthebook?andthedocumentonwhichheputhissignature.However, if the preposition is part of a phrasal verb, it cannot be putbeforeitsobjectinsuchstructures.YouhavetosayWhatareyougettingat? notAt what are you getting?, and the difficulties which he ran upagainstnotthedifficultiesagainstwhichheranup.Whoweretheylaughingat?Thiswasonecomplicationhehadnotbargainedfor.

3.116 Most phrasal verbs that contain a transitive verb can be used in thepassive.Socanafewphrasalverbsthatcontainanintransitiveverbandapreposition.Seeparagraphs9.17and9.23.

Compoundverbs:ice-skate,baby-sit3.117 Someverbs,suchascross-examineandtest-drive,consistof twowords.

Theyaresometimescalledcompoundverbs.Hewouldhavebeencross-examinedonanyevidencehegave.Heaskedtotest-driveatop-of-the-rangevehicle.Itisnotwisetohitch-hikeonyourown.

BECAREFUL

3.118 It is important to realize thatyoucannotalwaysguess themeaningofacompound verb if you are not already familiarwith it. For example, tosoft-soap does not mean to use soap that is soft; it means to flattersomeoneinordertopersuadethemtodosomethingforyou.

writtenformsofcompoundverbs

3.119 Compoundverbsareusuallywrittenwithahyphen.Noonehadcross-referencedtheformsbefore.Childrenice-skatedonthesidewalks.However,somecompoundverbsmaybewrittenwithaspacebetweenthewordsandsomemaybewrittenassinglewords.Forexample,bothroller-

skateandrollerskateareused,asarebaby-sitandbabysit.

formsofcompoundverbs

3.120 Manycompoundverbsconsistofanounplusaverb.It may soon become economically attractive to mass-produce hepatitisvaccines.Othersconsistofanadjectiveplusaverb.Somebodyhadshort-changedhim.

3.121 A fewcompoundverbsconsistofwords that seemstrangebecausethey are not normally used as single words on their own, for examplepooh-pooh and shilly-shally. These verbs are usually used in informalconversationratherthanformalwriting.Sallyhadpooh-poohedtheideaofthreegoodmealsaday.Comeon,don’tshilly-shally.Iwantananswer.Other compound verbs look strange because they have been borrowedfromforeignlanguages,forexamplead-libandkow-tow.Theyad-libbedsomuchthatthewritersdespairedofthem.Heresentshavingtokow-towtoanyoneoranything.

intransitivecompoundverbs

3.122 Somecompoundverbsdonothaveanobject.Manypeoplewindow-shoppedintheglassofthegreatstore.Ifyoukeeptotherules,youmayroller-skate.Hehaslearnedtolip-read.I’mlearningtowater-ski.Hereisalistofcompoundverbsthatdonothaveanobject:

baby-sitback-pedalhitch-hikeice-skatejack-knife

kow-towlip-readname-dropplay-actroller-skateshilly-shallytouch-typewater-skiwindow-shopwolf-whistle

transitivecompoundverbs

3.123 Othercompoundverbstypicallyhaveanobject:Youcanspin-dryitanditwillstillretainitsshape.Ididn’thavetimetoblow-drymyhair.Atfirstwecold-shoulderedhim.Theyill-treatedourancestors.Hereisalistofcompoundverbsthattypicallyhaveanobject:

back-combblow-drycold-shouldercourt-martialcross-checkcross-examinecross-questioncross-referencedouble-crossdouble-glazedry-cleanfield-testforce-feedfrog-marchghost-write

ill-treatpooh-poohproof-readrubber-stampshort-changeshort-weightsoft-soapspin-dryspoon-feedstage-managetape-recordtoilet-trainwrong-foot

transitiveorintransitivecompoundverbs

3.124 Athirdgroupofcompoundverbsmaybeusedwithorwithoutanobject.Katehadtodouble-parkoutsidetheflat.Murraydouble-parkedhiscarandjumpedout.Itriedtoad-libajoke.Thecommentatordecidedtoad-lib.Hereisalistofcompoundverbsthatcanbetransitiveorintransitive:

ad-libbottle-feedbreast-feedbulk-buychain-smokecriss-crossdeep-frydouble-checkdouble-parkmass-produceshort-circuitsight-read

spring-cleanstir-frytie-dye

inflectingcompoundverbs

3.125 Only the secondpart of a compoundverb inflects. If the secondpart isusedonitsownasaverb,thecompoundverbusuallyinflectsinthesamewayastheverbonitsown.SeetheReferencesectionforanexplanationofhowtoinflectverbs.

Linkingverbs3.126 Ifyouwanttodescribesomeoneorsomething,forexampletosaywhoor

whattheyareorwhatqualitiestheyhave,youuseoneofaspecialsetofverbs.Theseverbsarecalledlinkingverbs.Cigarettesmokingisdangeroustoyourhealth.Thestationseemedaverysmallone.HelookedEnglish.Ibecameenormouslyfondofher.Themostcommonlinkingverbsarebe,become,look,remain,andseem.

adjectivesandnounsafterlinkingverbs

3.127 Alinkingverblinksasubjectandanadjectiveoranounphrase(calledacomplement).Thesubject,asusual,comesfirstandtheadjectiveornounphrase comes after the verb. The adjective or noun phrase describes oridentifiesthesubject.Hergeneralknowledgeisamazing.Thechildrenseemedfrightened.That’saverydifficultquestion.She’stheheadofalargeprimaryschool.SuleimanSallebecamethefirstPresidentofEritrea.Linkingverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.154.Some other intransitive verbs are sometimes used in a similar way to

linkingverbs.Seeparagraphs3.155to3.160.

verbswithobjectcomplements:Thefilmmademesad

3.128 Someverbs,suchasmakeandfind,areusedwithanobjectcomplement,thatis,bothanobjectandanadjectiveoranounphrase.Theadjectiveornounphrasedescribestheobject.Thelightsmademesleepy.Ifoundtheforestquitefrightening.Theseverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.161to3.171.

phrasesthatbeginwithapreposition

3.129 Youcanoftenuse aphrasebeginningwith apreposition after a linkingverb.Thefirst-aidboxisonthetopshelf.Ibegantogetinapanic.Formore information about phrases and clauses that can be used afterlinkingverbs,seeparagraphs3.172to3.181.

itwithbe

3.130 Beisoftenusedwithitasanimpersonalsubject.Thisstructureisusedtocommentonplaces,situations,actions,experiences,andfacts.Itwasveryquietinthehut.ItwasawkwardkeepingmynewsfromTed.It’sstrangeyoushouldcometoday.Someotherlinkingverbsareoccasionallyusedinasimilarway.Theuseofitasanimpersonalsubjectisexplainedinparagraphs9.31to9.45.

therewithbe

3.131 Be is often used with there as its subject to indicate the existence ofsomething.Thereisanotherexplanation.

Thereisarearbathroomwithapanelledbath.Thisuseofthereisexplainedinparagraphs9.46to9.55.

Adjectivesafterlinkingverbs:Heseemshappy,I’mtired3.132 Manyadjectivescanbeusedafterlinkingverbs.

Iamproudofthesepeople.Theyseemedhappy.Youdon’twantthemtobecomesuspicious.TheyhaveremainedloyaltotheGovernment.They can be modified in various ways or have various structures afterthem.Wewereveryhappy.Yoursuspicionsareentirelycorrect.Theirhallwaslargerthanhiswholeflat.Hewascapableofextraordinarykindness.Adjectivesusedafterlinkingverbs,andthestructuresusedwiththem,areexplainedinparagraphs2.41to2.53.

3.133 Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedaslinkingverbswithafollowingadjective:

be~appearfeellookproveseemsmellsoundtaste~becomecomefall

getgogrowkeepremainstayturn

Notethattheverbsinthirdgrouprefertochangingortostayingthesame.

USAGENOTE

3.134 Someverbsinthesecondgrouplistedabovehavespecialfeatures.Appear, prove, and seem are often followed by to be and an adjective,insteadofdirectlybyanadjective.Marywasbreathingquietlyandseemedtobeasleep.Somepeopleappearedtobeimmunetothevirus.Seeparagraph3.192 for information on using a to-infinitive after theseverbs.

3.135 Withsomeverbsinthesecondgroup,especiallyfeel,look,andseem,youcanusethe-edparticipleofaverbasanadjective.Theotherchildlookedneglected.Thequarrelofthenightbeforeseemedforgotten.

3.136 When you are using the second group of verbs to say what qualitiessomeone or something seems to have, you may want to mention thepersonwhoseviewpointyouaregiving.Youcandothisbyusingaphrasebeginningwiththeprepositionto.Itusuallycomesaftertheadjective.Theylookedallrighttome.Itsoundsunnaturaltoyou,Iexpect.

BECAREFUL

3.137 Youcannotusealladjectiveswithalllinkingverbs.Someverbs,suchasbeandlook,areusedwithawiderangeofadjectivesandsomeareusedwith a restricted range. For example, taste is used onlywith adjectives

thatdescribethetasteofsomething;goisusedmainlywithadjectivesthatindicatecolouroranegativestate;andfallisusedmainlywithasleep,ill,andsilent.Seawatertastesnasty.Ittastedsweetlikefruitjuice.Jackwentred.Itallwenthorriblywrong.Theworldhasgonecrazy.Hefellasleepatthetable.Thecourtroomfellsilent.

Nounsafterlinkingverbs:Sheisateacher,Itremainedasecret3.138 Nounscanbeusedafterthefollowinglinkingverbs:

bebecomeremain~feellookproveseemsound~constitutemakerepresent~compriseform

qualities

3.139 Youcanusedescriptivenounsornounphrasesafterbe,become,remain,feel, look, prove, seem, sound, constitute, and represent to say what

qualitiessomeoneorsomethinghas.Theirpolicyonhighereducationisanunmitigateddisaster.Healwaysseemedacontrolledsortofman.Ifeelabitofafraud.Theresultsoftheseexperimentsremainasecret.Anychangewouldrepresentaturnaround.Make is only used as a linkingverbwith a noun that indicateswhethersomeoneisgoodataparticularjob.He’llmakeagoodpresident.

usingone:That’saniceone

3.140 Withbe,become,remain,feel,look,prove,seem,andsound,youcanuseanounphrasebasedonone.Thenounphraseconsistsofaoranfollowedbytheadjectiveandone,ifthesubjectissingular.Forexample,insteadofsayingTheschoolislarge,youcansayTheschoolisalargeone.Thesoundisafamiliarone.Theimpressiontheregiongivesisstillaruralone.Ifthesubjectisplural,youcanusetheadjectivefollowedbyones.MymemoriesofaLondonchildhoodarehappyones.Onecanalsobefollowedbyaprepositionalphraseorarelativeclause.Theirstorywasindeedoneofpassion.The problem is one that always faces a society when it finds itselfthreatened.

size,age,colour,shape

3.141 Ifyouwant tomakeastatementabout thesize,age,colour,orshapeofsomething,youcanuseanounphrasebasedonsize,age,colour,orshapeafter the linking verbs mentioned in the previous paragraph. The nounphrasebeginswithadeterminerandhasanadjectiveinfrontofthenounortheprepositionofafterit.It’sjusttherightshape.

Theopposingforcewouldbeaboutthesamesize.Thewallsareadelicatepalecreamcolour.Hisbodywasthecolourofbronze.Itisonlythesizeofamouse.

typesofpeopleandthings

3.142 Youcanusenounphrasesbeginningwithaoran,orpluralnounphraseswithoutadeterminer,afterbe,become,remain,comprise,andform,tosaywhattypeofpersonorthingsomeoneorsomethingis.Heisageologist.I’mnotanunreasonableperson.Heisnowateenager.Theairmovedalittlefasterandbecamealightwind.Theybecamefarmers.PromisesbyMPsremainedjustpromises.Thesearchesformedabarriertothetide.

talkingaboutidentity

3.143 You can use names or noun phrases referring to a particular person orthingafterbe,become,remain,constitute,represent,comprise,andformtotalkaboutexactlywhoorwhatsomeoneorsomethingis.ThisisDesiree,myfather’ssecondwife.He’snowtheDirectoroftheOfficeofManagementandBudget.ThewinnerofthecompetitionwasRossLambertofForestHillPrimarySchool.Thedownstairstelevisionroombecamemyroomforreceivingvisitors.…thefouryoungmenwhocomprisedtheTVcrew.

USAGENOTE

3.144 When you use a noun indicating a unique job or position within anorganization,youdonothavetoputadeterminerinfrontofthenoun.AtonetimeyouwantedtobePresident.Hewentontobecomeheadofoneofthecompany’slargestdivisions.

pronounsafterlinkingverbs

3.145 Personal pronouns are sometimes used after linking verbs to indicateidentity. Note that the object pronouns are used, except in very formalspeechorwriting.It’smeagain.Possessivepronounsarealsousedafterlinkingverbs,toindicateidentityortodescribesomething.Thisoneisyours.Thisplaceismine.Indefinitepronouns are sometimesused todescribesomething,usuallywithaqualifyingstructureafterthem.It’snothingserious.You’resomeonewhodoeswhatshewants.Whenpronouns are used after linkingverbs, the linkingverb is usuallybe.

otherstructuresthatfollowlinkingverbs

3.146 The use of noun phrases containingmeasurement nouns after be andotherverbsisexplainedinparagraphs2.252to2.254.

combinationsofverbsandprepositions

3.147 Some verbs function as linking verbs when they are followed by aparticularpreposition.The object of the preposition describes or classifies the subject of theverb.Hisfearturnedintounreasoningpanic.Taylor’sfascinationwithbeesdevelopedintoanobsession.Anautobiographyreallyamountstoawholeexplanationofyourself.Hereisalistofverbandprepositioncombinationsthatfunctionaslinkingverbs:

amountto

changeintochangetodevelopintogrowintomorphintoturnintoturnto

Theseallhavethesamebasicmeaningasbecome,exceptforamount to,whichhasasimilarmeaningtoconstitute.Thephrasalverbmakeupalsofunctionsasalinkingverb.Woodmadeup65%oftheCongo’sexports.

Commenting3.148 Thereareseveralwaysinwhicha to-infinitivecanbeusedtocomment

onsomeoneorsomethinginrelationtoanaction.

commentingonbehaviour:You’recrazytodothat

3.149 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneshowsaparticularqualitywhentheydosomething,youcanusethestructure:subject+linkingverb+adjectiveornounphrase+to-infinitive.MostpeoplethinkIambravetodothis.Ithinkmyfatherwasabravemantodowhathedid.

commentingonsuitability:She’stherightpersontodothejob

3.150 Youcanuseasimilarstructuretosaythatsomeoneorsomethingwoulddoaparticulartaskbetterthananyoneoranythingelse.HewasabsolutelytherightmantogotoParisandnegotiate.Shemaybeanidealpersontolookafterthechildren.Heisjustthemantocalmeveryonedown.Youcannotuseadjectivesalone inconstructionsof thiskind.Youuseanounphrasecontaininganadjectivesuchasright, ideal,orbest, or justthefollowedbythenounperson,man,orwoman.Forexample,youcan

sayHewastheidealpersontoleadtheexpedition,butyoucannotsayHewasidealtoleadtheexpedition.Insteadofato-infinitive,youcansometimesuseaphrasebeginningwiththeprepositionfor.Inthisstructure,anadjectivecanbeusedalone.He’snottherightmanforit.Theyareidealforthisjob.

commentingonanevent:Thatwasanawfulthingtohappen

3.151 If you want to express your feeling about an event, you can use a to-infinitiveafteranounphrasethatfollowsalinkingverb.Itseemedsuchaterriblethingtohappen.Theto-infinitiveconsistsoftoandanintransitiveverb,usuallyhappen.You cannot use an adjective alone in constructions of this type. Forexample,youcansayItwasawonderfulthingtohappen,butyoucannotsayItwaswonderfultohappen.

commentingonwillingness:Chrisisanxioustomeetyou

3.152 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneiswillingorunwillingtodosomething,youcanuseato-infinitiveafteranadjectivethatfollowsalinkingverb.Theywerewillingtorisklosingtheirjobs.IamanxioustomeetMrsBurton-Cox.Sheiseagertosucceed.Heisunwillingtoanswerquestions.Iwasreluctanttoinvolvemyselfinthisprivatefight.Youcannotusenounsinconstructionsofthistype.Forexample,youcansayHewaswillingtocome,butyoucannotsayHewasawillingpersontocome.

commentingonsomething:Thiscaseiseasytocarry

3.153 If youwant to showyour opinionof somethingbydescribingwhat theexperience of doing something to it is like, you can use a to-infinitiveafteranadjectiveornounphrasethatfollowsalinkingverb.Silkiscomfortabletowear.

It’sanicethingtohave.Tellingsomeonetheysmellisahardthingtodo.Shewaseasytotalkto.Notethattheto-infinitivemustbetheto-infinitiveofatransitiveverborofanintransitiveverbfollowedbyapreposition.

commentingonanaction:Thatwasasillythingtodo

3.154 Ifyouwanttoshowyouropinionofanaction,youcanuseato-infinitivethathasanobject.Theythoughtthiswasasensiblethingtodo.Thisisaveryfoolishattitudetotake.Theto-infinitiveisusuallytodo,tomake,ortotake.You cannot use an adjective alone in constructions of this kind. Forexample,youcansayItwasasillythingtodo,butyoucannotsayItwassillytodo.

Otherverbswithfollowingadjectives:Hestoodstill3.155 Someintransitiveverbscanbefollowedbyadjectivesinthesamewayas

linkingverbs.Georgestoodmotionlessforatleastaminute.Pugindiedinsaneattheearlyageofforty.However, it is clear that these verbs are not just linking verbs.Georgestoodmotionless doesnotmean the sameasGeorgewasmotionless. InthesentenceGeorgestoodmotionless, theverb stand is performing twofunctions:itistellingusthatGeorgewasstanding,anditisalsoactingasalinkingverbbetweenGeorgeandtheadjectivemotionless.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

hangliesitstand~

gazestare~emergeescapegopasssurvive~blushflamegleamglowrun~beborndiereturn

Ways in which these verbs can be used with following adjectives arediscussedinthefollowingparagraphs.Adjectivesare sometimesused incombinationwithotherverbs,but areseparated from the main clause by a comma. This use is dealt with inparagraph8.147.

USAGENOTE

3.156 Youcanuseadjectivesdescribingstatesafterhang,lie,sit,andstand.Iusedtolieawakewatchingtherainseepthroughtheroof.Asparrowliesdeadinthesnow.FrancisMarrouxsatashen-facedbehindthewheel.Shestoodquitestill,facinghim.Gaze and stare can be used in a similar way with a limited set ofadjectives.Shestaredathimwide-eyed.

3.157 You can use some combinations of verbs and adjectives to say thatsomething does not happen to someone or something, or that someonedoesnothavesomething.Go,pass,emerge,escape,andsurviveareoftenusedincombinationslikethese.Theadjectivestheycombinewithareoftenformedbyaddingun-to-edparticiples.Youreffortswon’tgounnoticed.Theguiltywentunpunished.Somehow,hisreputationemergedunblemished.Fortunatelyweallescapedunscathed.Mostly,theygounarmed.Thechildrenalwayswentbarefoot.

3.158 Verbssuchasblush,flame,gleam,glow,andruncanbeusedwithcolouradjectives after them to saywhat colour something is orwhat colour itbecomes.Theyblewintothecharcoaluntilitglowedred.Thetreesflamedscarletagainstthegrass.

3.159 Die, return, and the passive verb be born can be followed by eitheradjectivesornounphrases.Shediedyoung.Hediedadisappointedman.Attheendofthewar,hereturnedaslightlydifferentman.Hewasbornaslave.

fixedphrases

3.160 Somecombinationsofverbandadjectiveare fixedphrases.Youcannotusetheverbinfrontofanyotheradjective.Iwantedtotravellight.Thechildrenranwild.Thejokewaswearingthinwithuse.

Describingtheobjectofaverb3.161 You can put an adjective after the object of some transitive verbs.This

adjectivedescribestheobject,andisoftencalledanobjectcomplement.

Willie’sremarksmadeheruneasy.IfindtheBritishlegalsystemextremelycomplicated.Someoftheseverbsareusedtosaythatsomeoneorsomethingischangedorthatsomeoneisgivenanewjob.Othersareusedtodescribeaperson’sopinionofsomeoneorsomething.For informationonhowtouse theseverbs in thepassive,seeparagraph9.21.

verbsthatrelatetocausingsomethingtohappen:Theircommentsmademeangry

3.162 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneorsomethingcausesapersonorthingtohaveaparticularquality,youcanuseoneofagroupoftransitiveverbs,followedbyanadjective.Hesaidwaltzesmadehimdizzy.They’redrivingmecrazy.Thenhiscaptorhadknockedhimunconscious.Shepaintedhereyelidsdeepblue.Hewipedthebottledry.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

cutdrivegetknockmakepaintpatpickplanerenderrubsendshootsweep

turnwipe

Mostoftheseverbscanbefollowedbyonlyoneadjectiveoraverysmallrangeofadjectives.Howevermakeandrender canbeusedwithawiderangeofadjectives.

keep,hold,leave

3.163 You can also use keep, hold, and leave with an object followed by anadjective, to say that someone or something is caused to remain in aparticularstate.Thelightthroughthethincurtainshadkeptherawake.Leavethedooropen.Holditstraight.

verbsthatrelatetogivingsomeoneajoborrole

3.164 Ifyouwant tosay that someone isgivenan important job,youcanusemake,appoint,crown,orelectwithanobjectfollowedbyanounphrasereferringtothejob.In1910Asquithmadehimajuniorminister.The noun used in thisway does not usually have a determinerwhen itreferstoauniquejob.RamsayMacDonaldappointedhimSecretaryofStateforIndia.

verbsofopinion

3.165 Sometransitiveverbswiththegeneralmeaningconsidercanbeusedwithanadjectiveornounphrasetosaywhatsomeone’sopinionofapersonorthingis.Theyconsiderhimanembarrassment.DoyoufindhisviewofAmericainteresting?Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

accountbelieveconsiderdeemfindholdjudgepresumereckonthink

Provecanalsobefollowedbyanobjectcomplement,althoughitmeansshow,notconsider.Hehadprovedthemwrong.

3.166 Theseverbsareoftenusedinthepassive.Believe,presume,reckon,andthinkarenearlyalwaysusedinthepassiveinthesestructures.Herbodywasneverfoundandshewaspresumeddead.30bomberswerebelievedshotdown.

3.167 All theverbs listed inparagraph3.165exceptaccount can alsobeusedwithato-infinitiveclauseaftertheirobjectshowingwhatsomeonethinksapersonorthingislikeordoes.Webelievedhimtobeinnocent.See paragraph 3.206 for information about using a to-infinitive clauseaftertheobjectoftheseverbs.

3.168 Youcanusetheverbslistedin3.165withitastheirobjectfollowedbyanobjectcomplementanda to-infinitiveclausetoshowsomeone’sopinionofanaction.Forexample,insteadofsayingShefoundbreathingdifficult,youcansayShefounditdifficulttobreathe.Gretchenfounditdifficulttospeak.Hethoughtitrighttoresign.Heconsideredithisdutytogo.These are examples of it being used in an impersonal way. For moreinformationabouttheimpersonaluseofit,seeparagraphs9.31to9.45.

describingandnaming

3.169 Ifyouwanttosaythatpeopleuseaparticularword,wordgroup,ornametodescribeorrefertosomeoneorsomething,youcanusetheword,wordgroup,ornameafteroneofagroupoftransitiveverbs.Peoplewhodidnotlikehimcalledhimdull.Theycalledhimanidiot.EveryonecalledherMolly.Hewasdeclaredinnocent.TheynamedtheplaceTumboKutu.Here is a list of verbs that can be used in this way. The first group isfollowedbyanadjective;thesecondgroupisfollowedbyanounphrase;andthethirdgroupisfollowedbyaname.

callcertifydeclarelabelpronounceterm~brandcalldeclaredesignatelabelproclaimterm~callchristendubnamenickname

titles

3.170 Thepassiveverbsbeentitled,beheaded,andbe inscribed are followedbyatitleorinscription.Thedraftdocumentwasentitled‘Awayforward’.

describingstates

3.171 A few transitive verbs can be followed by an adjective to say thatsomeoneorsomethingisinaparticularstatewhensomethinghappenstothem,orispreferredtobeinthatstate.Morethanfortypeoplewereburnedalive.…asoupthatcanbeservedcold.Theyfounditdead.Doyouwantitwhiteorblack?Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

burneatfindleavelikepreferserveshowwant

Sometimesan-edparticipleoran-ingparticipledescribingastateisused.Shefoundherselfcaughtinastrongtidalcurrent.MaureencameinandfoundKatesittingonachairstaringatthewindow.

Usingaprepositionalphraseafteralinkingverb3.172 When you want to give information about someone or something by

describing their circumstances, you can sometimes use a prepositionalphraseafteralinkingverb.

useafterbe

3.173 Youcanusemanykindsofprepositionalphraseafterbe.Hewasstillinastateofshock.IwalkedhomewithBill,whowasinaverygoodmood.Shehadanolderbrotherwhowasinthearmy.I’mfromDortmundoriginally.…peoplewhoareunderpressure.Yourcommentsareofgreatinteresttome.Thisbookisforanywomanwhohasachild.

useafterotherverbs

3.174 Some other linking verbs can be used with a more restricted range ofprepositionalphrases.Heseemedinexcellenthealth.Wedoaskpeopletokeepintouchwithus.Thesemethodshavegraduallyfallenintodisuse.Hegotintotroublewiththepolice.Here is a list of other linking verbs that are used with prepositionalphrases:

appearfallfeelgetkeepremainseemstay

referringtoplace

3.175 Someverbsthatarealwaysoroftenfollowedbyanadjectivecanalsobeusedwithprepositionalphrasesrelatingtoplace.

She’sinCalifornia.I’llstayherewiththechildren.Thecatwasnowlyingonthesofa.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

bekeepremainstay~hangliesitstand

Formoreinformationaboutprepositionalphrasesandadverbsrelatingtoplace,seeparagraphs6.73to6.92and6.53to6.72.

referringtotime

3.176 Becanbeusedwithtimeexpressionstosaywhensomethingtookplaceorwilltakeplace.Thatfinalmeetingwason3November.For more information about time expressions, see paragraphs 4.85 to4.111.

useintransitivestructures

3.177 Prepositionalphrasescanalsobeusedintransitivestructurestosaythatsomeoneorsomethingiscausedtobeinaparticularstate.They’llgetmeoutoftrouble.Thefearofbeingdiscoveredkeptmeonthealert.

Talkingaboutwhatrolesomethinghasorhowitisperceived:theprepositionas

3.178 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithascanbeusedaftersomeverbs.

useinintransitivestructures

3.179 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithasareusedaftercertainintransitiveverbstoshowwhatroleorfunctionthesubjecthas,orwhatidentitytheypretendtohave.Bleachremovescolourandactsasanantisepticanddeodoriser.HeservedasKennedy’sambassadortoIndia.Thesittingroomdoublesasheroffice.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbefollowedbyasinthisway:

actcomedoublefunctionpassposeserve

Workcanalsobeusedinthisway,whenithasahumansubject.SheworksasacounsellorwithanAIDScharity.

useintransitivestructures

3.180 Anumberoftransitiveverbscanbeusedwithasaftertheirobject.With some, a noun phrase is used afteras.Theas phrase describes theroleoftheobjectorwhatitisthoughttobe.Iwantedtousehimasanagent.Itreatedbusinessasagame.Here is a list of transitive verbs that can be used with as and a nounphrase:

brand

castcategorizecertifycharacterizechooseclasscondemnconsiderdefinedenouncedepictdescribediagnoseelectestablishgivehailidentifyintendinterpretlabelnameperceiverecognizeregardscornseesuggesttaketreatuseview

With others, an adjective is used after as. The adjective indicates whatqualityorcharacteristictheobjectisthoughttohave.

Partymembersandofficialsdescribedhimasbrilliant.Theyregardedmanualworkasdegrading.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwithasandanadjective:

brandcategorizecertifycharacterizeclasscondemndefinedenouncedepictdescribediagnoseestablishlabelperceiveregardscornseeview

3.181 Lookupon,referto,andthinkofarealsousedwithasinthisway.Asmustbefollowedbyanounwhenusedwithreferto.Insomehouseholdsthemanwasreferredtoasthemaster.

Talking about closely linked actions: using twomainverbstogether3.182 Thissectiondescribesthewaysinwhichyouusetwomainverbstogether

totalkabouttwoactionsorstatesthatarecloselylinked.Thesetwoactionsmaybeperformedbythesameperson.Seeparagraphs3.189to3.201.

Shestoppedspeaking.Davislikestotalkabouthorses.Alternatively, the actionsmaybeperformedbydifferentpeople. If theyare,theperformerofthesecondactionistheobjectofthefirstverb.Seeparagraphs3.202to3.212.Idon’twantthemtofeelI’veslightedthem.Oneofthegroupbeganpumpingherchesttohelpherbreathe.

3.183 Notethatthefirstverbneedsthesecondverbafteritbecauseitdoesnotgiveenough informationon itsown.Forexample, Iwant doesnotgiveenough information to be a useful statement, but I want to talk to youdoes.Someoftheverbsdealtwithbelow,forexamplewantandlike,canalsobe ordinary transitive verbs, with a noun phrase after them. Transitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.14to3.25.

3.184 Ifyouwanttotalkabouttwoactionsthatarelesscloselylinked,youreferto each action in a separate clause. Ways of combining clauses areexplainedinChapter8.

verbforms

3.185 The first verb involved in this type of structure is themain verb of thestructure. It usually inflects for tense and agrees in number with thesubject;itisfinite.Iwantedtocomehome.Lonniewantstosaysorry.More and more people are coming to appreciate the contribution thatthesepeoplemaketooursociety.

3.186 Thesecondverbin thecombinationdoesnot inflectfor tenseorchangeitsformatall;itisnon-finite.Shetriedtoread.Theyhadbeentryingtoread.Information about finite and non-finite forms can be found in theReferencesection.

3.187 Therearefournon-finiteverbformsthatareusedforthesecondverbin

thistypeofstructure:

the-ingparticipletheto-infinitivetheinfinitivewithouttothe-edparticiple

Notethattheinfinitivewithouttoandthe-edparticipleformoftheverbareusedinonlyafewcombinations.Otherkindsof-ingformandinfinitivearealsosometimesused.Thoseveryclosetotheblastriskbeingburnt.NeitherRitanorIrecalledeverhavingseenher.Shewantedtobereassured.Theyclaimedtohaveshotdown22planes.

3.188 The position of not in negative structures of this type is explained inparagraphs5.59and5.60.

Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebythesameperson3.189 Whenyouaretalkingabouttwoactionsthataredonebythesameperson,

youusethesecondverbdirectlyafterthefirst.Childrenenjoyplayingalongsideeachother.Youdeservetoknowthetruth.

verbsfollowedbyan-ingparticiple

3.190 Someverbsarealwaysfollowedbyan-ingparticipleclauseinstructuresofthiskind.Sheadmittedlyingtohim.Haveyoufinishedreadingthepaper?Hemissedhavingsomeonetodislike.Irecallbeingveryimpressedwiththeofficialanthems.Hereisa listofverbsthatareusedwithan-ingparticiple,butnota to-infinitive:

admit

adoreappreciateavoidcelebratecommenceconsidercontemplatedeferdelaydenydescribedetestdiscontinuedislikedreadendureenjoyfancyfinishgoimaginekeeplieloathementionmindmisspostponepractiserecallreportresentresistrisksitstand

stop

suggest

Theseverbsarealsosometimesusedwithapassive-ingform.Theyenjoybeingpraised.Admit, celebrate, deny,mention, and recall are quite often used with aperfect-ingform.Carmichaelhaddeniedhavingseenhim.

USAGENOTE

3.191 Note thatneed can be usedwith an -ing participle after it, but the -ingparticiple then has the same meaning as a passive to-infinitive. Forexample,ThehouseneedscleaningmeansthesameasThehouseneedstobecleaned.Require andwant are also occasionally used in the sameway, althoughsomepeopledonotlikethisuseofwant.

verbsfollowedbyato-infinitive

3.192 Otherverbsareusedwithato-infinitive.MrsBabcockhadalwayslongedtogotoIreland.Sheforgottobringasuitcase.Shewishestoaskafavourofyou.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwithato-infinitive,andrarelyorneverwithan-ingparticiple:

acheaffordagreeaimappeararrangeask

attemptcarechooseclaimconsentdaredecidedemanddeservedesiredisdainendeavourexpectfailfightforgetgrowhappenhelphesitatehopeintendlearnlivelongmanagemeanneedneglectofferoptpayplanpledgepreparepretend

promise

provereckonrefuseresolvescornseekseemsurvivesweartendthreatentroubleventurevolunteervotevowwaitwantwish

Mostoftheseverbscanbeusedwithapassiveinfinitive.Sherefusedtobephotographed.Hedeservestobeshot.The following verbs from the above list are not usually used with apassiveinfinitive,becauseoftheirmeanings:

claimdareforgetintendlearnmanagemean

neglectpretendthreatentroubleventure

Appear,claim,happen,pretend,prove,seem,andtendarequiteoftenusedwithaperfectinfinitive.Theyseemedtohavedisappeared.Notethathelpisalsofollowedbytheinfinitivewithoutto.Coffeehelpedkeephimalert.

USAGENOTE

3.193 Notethataffordisalwaysprecededbyamodal,andthatcareisnormallyusedwithanegative.Canweaffordtoignore thissourceofpowerasothersourcesofenergyarediminishing?…akitchenforsomeonewhodoesn’tcaretocook.

3.194 The use of have followed by a to-infinitive clause is explained inparagraph5.244.

verbsusedwitheitherform

3.195 Afewverbs canbeusedwith either an -ing participle or a to-infinitivewithoutchangingthemeaningoftheverb.Itstartedraining.Averycoldwindhadstartedtoblow.Webothlovedancing.Helovestotalkabouthiswork.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbefollowedeitherbyan-ingparticipleorato-infinitivewithoutgreatlychangingthemeaning:

attempt

beginbotherceasecontinuedeservefearhatelikelovepreferstart

Notethatbotherisoftenusedwithanegativeorabroadnegative.Hedidn’tbothercomplainingaboutit.Wehardlyevenbothertocleanit.

USAGENOTE

3.196 Withafewverbs, themeaning isaltereddependingonwhetheryouusean -ing participle or a to-infinitive. These verbs are come, go on,remember,try,andregret.Ifsomeonecomesrunning, flying,orhurtling somewhere, theymove inthatway.Ifyoucometodosomething,yougraduallystartdoingit.WhentheyheardIwasleaving,theybothcamerunningout.Peoplecametobelievethatallthingswerepossible.Ifyoutrytodosomething,youattemptit,toseeifyoucandoit.Ifyoutrydoingsomething,youdoitinordertofindoutifitiseffective.Shetriedtothinkcalmly.Trylyingdowninadarkroomforawhile.Thatusuallyhelps.Withtheotherverbs,thedifferenceinmeaningrelatestothetimingoftheaction.Ifyougoondoingsomething,youcontinuetodoit,butifyougoontodosomething,yousubsequentlystartdoingit.Theywentonarguingintothenight.

Shewentontotalkaboutthepoliticalconsequences.If you remember doing something, you did it in the past, but if youremembertodosomething,youdoitatthepresenttime.IrememberpromisingthatIwouldtry.Wemustremembertosaythankyou.Similarly,ifyouregretdoingsomething,youhavealreadydoneit,butifyouregrettodosomething,youhavetodoitatthepresenttime.Shedidnotregretacceptinghisoffer.Iregrettosayrentswentup.Regretisonlyusedwiththeto-infinitiveofasmallnumberofverbsthatsharethemeaningofgivingorreceivinginformation.Theseverbsare:

announceinformlearnsayseetell

BECAREFUL

3.197 When you have a choice between an -ing participle and a to-infinitive,youdonotusethe-ingparticipleifthefirstverbisinaprogressiveform.TheThirdWorldisbeginningtoexporttotheWest.Thebigcloudswerestartingtocoverthesun.Educationalbudgetsarecontinuingtoincrease.Withverbsthatcannotbefollowedbyato-infinitive,younormallyuseanounphraseinsteadofthe-ingparticiple.IknewMissHeadwouldjustbefinishinghercellopractice.

3.198 Notethatafewverbs,principallyneed,want,have,buy,andchoose,areused with an object and a to-infinitive when talking about two actionsperformedby thesameperson.The to-infinitivemustbe transitive. It isunderstood as relating to the noun, rather than being closely connected

withthefirstverb.Ineedacartodrivetowork.Shechosethecorrectonetoputinherbag.

to-infinitiveshowingpurpose

3.199 Notethatverbsthatrefertoadeliberateactionaresometimesfollowedbyaclauseexpressingpurpose.Here,tomeansinorderto.Severalwomenmovedtohelpher.Thecaptainstoppedtoreloadthemachine-gun.Note that the first verb has a completemeaning of its own; the secondverbisgivingareasonforthefirstaction,notcompletingtheinformationaboutit.Seeparagraphs8.43to8.46formoredetailsonexpressingpurpose.

USAGENOTE

3.200 Whenthebaseformoftryisused,forexampleasanimperativeorwithamodal,itissometimesusedwithandfollowedbythebaseformofthesecondverb,ratherthanwitha to-infinitive.Thetwoactionsseemtobeseparate,becauseoftheand,butareinfactverycloselylinked.Tryandgetatorchoralight,it’sterriblydarkdownhere.I’lltryandanswerthequestion.Somespeakersconsiderthistobeinformalorincorrect.Comeandgoareoftenusedinasimilarwaywithand,insimpleformsaswellasinthebaseform.Theverbafterandcanalsoinflect.Comeandseemewheneveryoufeeldepressed.Iwentandfetchedanotherglass.

getwithan-edparticiple

3.201 In informal spoken English, get is sometimes used with an -edparticipledirectlyafterit,inastructurewithapassivemeaning.Thenhegotkilledinaplanecrash.

Whengetisusedtoformpassivesinthepastandpresentperfect,American

Englishnormallyusestheparticiplegotten,ratherthangot.Herfoothadgottencaughtbetweensomerocks.(Am)

Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebydifferentpeople3.202 Ifyouwanttotalkabouttwocloselylinkedactionsthatareperformedby

differentpeople,youfollowthefirstverbwithanobject.Thisobjectthenfunctions as the subject of the second verb. For example, inShe askedGinny tocollect thebook,Ginny is thepersonwho is asked, and she isalsothepersonwhoperformstheactionofcollectingthebook.Isawhimlookingatmynameonthedoor.Youcan’tstopmeseeinghim!

useofpossessivedeterminer

3.203 Note that when the second verb is an -ing participle, a possessivedeterminerissometimesusedinfrontofit,insteadofapronoun.Thisisratherformal.These professional ethics prevent their discussing their clients with thepublic.ShedidnotlikemylivinginLondon.Note that a possessive determiner is only used in this way when thesecondverbcanhaveahumansubject.

transitiveverbswithan-ingparticiple

3.204 Someverbsareusedwithanobjectandan-ingparticiple.HecaughtHooperlookingathim.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwithanobjectandan-ingparticiple:

catchdescribefeelfindhearimagine

keepleavelikenoticeobservepicturepreventsaveseesendspotstopwantwatch

Listentoalsobelongsinthisgroup.Theobjectafteritistheobjectoftheprepositionto.IlistenedtoKaspartalking.Theseverbsaresometimesusedwithapassive-ingform,butnotusuallywithaperfect-ingform.Shefeltherselfbeingspunaround.

verbswithaninfinitivewithoutto

3.205 Some of the verbs in the above paragraph can also be used with aninfinitivewithoutto.ShefeltherhairriseonthebackofherneckDrHochstadtheardhergasp.Thereisaslightchangeofmeaningdependingonwhichformisused.Ifyou choose the -ing participle, you emphasize that the action continuedhappeningforaperiodoftime.ButIstayedthere,listeningtohersinging.IlookedoverandsawJoestaringatme.Ifyouchoosetheinfinitivewithoutto,youemphasizethattheactionwas

completed.WelistenedtoJennyfinishthesonnet.Itwasthefirsttimeshehadheardhimspeakofhislife.Here is a list of verbs that can be used with an -ing participle or aninfinitivewithoutto,withthechangeofmeaningdescribedabove:

feelhearlistentonoticeobserveseewatch

Note that these verbs can be used in the active only when they arefollowedbyaninfinitivewithoutto.Seealsoparagraph3.208.

transitiveverbswithato-infinitive

3.206 Otherverbsareusedwithanobjectandato-infinitiveclause.Hissisterhadtaughthimtosew.Iencouragestudentstodotheseexercisesathome.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwithanobjectandato-infinitive:

adviseallowaskbegcausechallengechoosecommandcompeldare

defyenableencourageexpectforbidforcegethelpinduceinspireinstructintendinviteleadleavelikemeanmoveobligeorderpaypermitpersuadepreferpressprogrammepromptrecruitremindteachtelltraintrusturgeusewant

warn

Notethatsomeoftheverbsintheabovelistareusedforreportingorders,requests, and advice. For more information on this use, see paragraph7.39.Hereisalistofverbsthatarealwaysorusuallyusedinthepassivewhenfollowedbyato-infinitive:

allegeassumebelieveclaimconsiderdeemdiscoverestimatefeelfindknowlearnprovereckonreportrequirerumoursayseethinkunderstand

They refer to saying, thinking, or discovering. The to-infinitive thatfollowsthemismostcommonlybeorhave,oraperfectinfinitive.Thehousewasbelievedtobehaunted.Hewasprovedtobewrong.

usingthepassive

3.207 Ifyoudonotknowwhothesubjectofthesecondverbis,oryoudonotwanttomentionthem,youcanuseapassiveconstruction.Agardenerwasimmediatelysackedifhewascaughtsmoking.Iwasaskedtocomeforafewdaystohelpthem.Thefollowingverbsarenotusuallyusedinthepassivewhenfollowedbyan-ingparticiple:

feelimaginelikelistentopreventsavestopwant

Thefollowingverbsarenotusuallyusedinthepassivewhenfollowedbyato-infinitive:

defygetlikepreferwant

USAGENOTE

3.208 Hear, observe, and see are not used with a to-infinitive when they areactivebuttheycanbeusedwitheitheran-ingparticipleorato-infinitivewhentheyarepassive.You use themwith an -ing participle when you want to show that theactiondescribedbythesecondverbtookplaceoveraperiodoftime.

Aterroristwasseenstandinginthemiddleoftheroad.Hercompanionscouldbeheardplayinggames.Ifato-infinitiveisused,youareimplyingthattheactionwascompleted.Shecoulddistinctlybeseentohesitate.Thebabywasseldomheardtocry.Seealsoparagraph3.205.

verbsfollowedbyforandato-infinitive

3.209 Therearesomeverbsusedwithanotherverbwithato-infinitivethatarefollowed by the preposition for and its object, rather than by a directobject.Theobjectofforistheperformerofthesecondaction.Theycalledforactiontobetakenagainsttheunions.Iwaitedforhimtospeak.Notethattheto-infinitiveisoftenapassiveone.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

appealapplyarrangeaskcallclamourlongoptpaypleadpressvotewaitwishyearn

transitiveverbswithaninfinitivewithoutto

3.210 Afewverbsarefollowedbyanobjectandaninfinitivewithoutto,notan-ingparticipleorato-infinitive.Theyarelet,make,andhaveinthesenseofcausetohappenorexperience.Jennylethimtalk.Myfathermademegofortheinterview.Helayinadarkenedroomandhadherbringhimmealsontrays.Verbsthatcanbeusedeitherwithaninfinitivewithouttoorwithan-ingparticipleareexplainedinparagraph3.205.

haveandgetusedforshowingcause

3.211 A special use of have when used with another verb is to say that thesubjectcausessomething tobedealtwithbysomeoneelse. In thiscase,haveisfollowedbyanobjectreferringtothethingdealtwith,andthenbythe-edparticipleofatransitiveverborofanintransitiveverbfollowedbyapreposition.Ihavemyhaircuteverysixweeks.Thisstructureisalsousedtosaythatsomethingbelongingtothesubjectofhaveisaffectedinsomeway.She’djustlostherjobandhadsomemoneystolen.If youwant tomention the performer of the second action, you usebyfollowedbyanoun.Hehadtohavehislegmassagedbyhistrainer.Get can also be usedwith an object and an -ed participle to talk aboutcausingsomethingtobedealtwithoraffectedinsomeway.Wemustgetthecarrepaired.

wantandneedwithan-edparticiple

3.212 Want isalsousedwithanobjectandan-edparticiple, toshowthatyouwouldlikesomethingtobedone.Iwantthewholeapproachchanged.Idon’twantyouhurt.Need isusedinasimilarway,usuallywhentheobjectissomethingthat

belongstothesubject.Youneedyoureyestested.

Chapter4Expressingtime:tensesandtimeadverbials

4.1–4.6 Introduction

4.7–25 Thepresent4.8–16 Thepresentingeneral:thepresentsimple4.17–20 Thepresentprogressive4.21–25 Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepresent

4.26–51 Thepast4.27–30 Statingadefinitetimeinthepast:thesimple4.31–32 Actionsinprogressinthepast:thepastprogressive4.33–36 Thepastinrelationtothepresent:thepresentperfect4.37–39 Eventsbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast:thepastperfect4.40–51 Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepast

4.52–63 Expressingfuturetime4.53–57 Indicatingthefutureusingwill4.58–59 Otherwaysoftalkingaboutthefuture4.60–63 Timeadverbialswithreferencetothefuture

4.64–69 Otherusesofverbforms4.65 Vividnarrative

4.66–68 Forwardplanningfromatimeinthepast4.69 Referringtostatesratherthanactivities

4.70–84 Usingtimeadverbialstoindicatepast,present,orfuture4.76–84 Emphasizingtheunexpected:continuing,stopping,ornothappening

4.85–112 Timeadverbialsandprepositionalphrases4.85–99 Specifictimes

4.100–111 Non-specifictimes4.112 Extendedusesoftimeadverbials

4.113–144 Frequencyandduration4.114–122 Talkingabouthowfrequentlysomethinghappens4.123–134 Talkingabouthowlongsomethinglasts4.135–136 Talkingaboutthewholeofaperiod4.137–142 Showingthestartorendofaperiod4.143–144 Usingtimeexpressionstomodifynouns

4 Expressing time: tenses and timeadverbials

Introduction4.1 When you are making a statement, you usually need to make it clear

whetheryouare talking about a situation that existsnow, existed in thepast, or is likely to exist in the future. There are different ways ofexpressingtime:tenseisone;theuseoftimeadverbialsisanother.Atenseisaverbformthatindicatesaparticularpointintimeorperiodoftime.The form belonging to a particular tense is obtained by the addition ofinflectionstothebaseformoftheverb.InEnglish,timeisalsoindicatedbytheinclusionofauxiliariesormodalsintheverbphrase.smile…smiledwassmiling…hasbeensmiling…hadsmiledwillsmile…maysmileSomeverbshaveirregularformsforpasttenses.fight…foughtgo…wentForinformationaboutalltheseforms,seetheReferencesection.

4.2 Sometimes thepoint in time is clear from the tenseof theverb, andnoothertimereferenceisrequired.However,ifyouwanttodrawattentiontothetimeoftheaction,youuseatimeadverbial.Atimeadverbialmaybe(i)anadverb(e.g.afterwards,immediately), (ii)aprepositionalphrase(e.g.ateighto’clock,onMonday),or(iii)anounphrase(e.g.thenextday,lastweek).She’smovingtomorrow.

HewasbetterafterundergoingsurgeryonSaturday.Recordprofitswereannouncedlastweek.For more general information about adverbials, see the beginning ofChapter6.

positionoftimeadverbial

4.3 Timeadverbialsnormallycomeat theendofaclause, after theverborafter its object if there is one. You can putmore focus on the time byplacingtheadverbialatthebeginningoftheclause.We’regettingmarriednextyear.Nextyear,themuseumisexpectingevenmorevisitors.Iwasplayinggolfyesterday.Yesterdaytheatmosphereatthefactorywastense.Ifthetimeadverbialisanadverb,itcanalsocomeimmediatelyafterbeorafterthefirstauxiliaryinaverbphrase.Sheisnowprettywell-knowninthiscountry.Cooperhadoriginallybeenduetoretirelastweek.Publicadvertisementsforthepostwillsoonappearinthenationalpress.

durationandfrequency

4.4 Someverb formsareused tosay thatanevent takesplacecontinuouslyoveraperiodoftime,orisrepeatedseveraltimes.Youmayalsowanttosay how long something lasts, or how often it happens. To do this,adverbials of duration (e.g. for a long time) and adverbials offrequency(e.g.often,everyyear)areused.Americahasalwaysbeenhighlyinfluential.Peoplearesometimesscaredtosaywhattheyreallythink.Hundredsofpeoplearekilledeveryyearinfires.Theywouldgoontalkingforhours.Adverbialsof frequencyare explainedand listed inparagraphs4.114 to4.122.Adverbialsofdurationareexplainedandlistedinparagraphs4.123to4.144.

4.5 Thefollowingparagraphsdescribethewaysinwhichyoucantalkabout

thepresent,thepast,andthefuture.Aftereachofthese,thereisasectiononthewaysinwhichyouusetimeadverbialswitheachtense.Therearesometimeadverbialsthatareusedmainlywiththepasttenses.Theseareexplainedinparagraph4.41.Timeadverbialsthatareusedwithfutureformscanbefoundinparagraphs4.60to4.62.

subordinateclauses

4.6 Thischapterdealsonlywiththechoiceoftenseinmainclauses.Sometimes,thepointintimeisnotindicatedbyatimeadverbial,butbyasubordinate clause. Subordinate clauses of time are introduced byconjunctionsthatrefertotime,suchassince,until,before,andafter.Forinformationaboutthetenseoftheverbinthesubordinateclause,seeparagraph8.9.

Thepresent4.7 Insituationswhereyouarediscussinganexistingstateofaffairs,youuse

averbthatisinthepresenttense.Usually,theverbtenseissufficienttoshowthatyouarereferringtothepresent.Younormallyonlyuseatimeadverbial for emphasis, or to refer to something that is unrelated to thepresentmoment.

Thepresentingeneral:thepresentsimple

thepresentmoment

4.8 If you want to talk about your thoughts and feelings at the presentmoment, or about your immediate reactions to something, you use thepresentsimple.I’mawfullybusy.Theybothtastethesame.Gosh,helooksawful.Iwantabreathoffreshair.Youcanalsousethepresentsimpletotalkaboutaphysicalfeelingthatisaffectingyouorsomeoneelse.

Ifeelheavy.Ido.Ifeeldrowsy.Mystomachhurts.Note,however,thatifyouaretalkingaboutphysicalperceptionssuchasseeingandhearing,younormallyusethemodalcan,althoughthepresentsimpleisoccasionallyused.Icanseethefishingboatscomingin.Icansmellit.Can’tyou?Iseeaflatstretchofground.Ihearapproachingfeet.

generalpresentincludingpresentmoment

4.9 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutasettledstateofaffairsthatincludesthepresentmomentbutwheretheparticulartimereferenceisnotimportant,youusethepresentsimple.MydadworksinSaudiArabia.HelivesintheFrenchAlpsneartheSwissborder.Heisaverygoodbrother.Welovehim.She’sadoctor’sdaughter.Meanwhile,AtlanticCityfacesanotherdilemma.

generaltruths

4.10 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingisalwaysorgenerallytrue,youusethepresentsimple.Neartheequator,thesunevaporatesgreaterquantitiesofwater.Amoleculeofwaterhastwoatomsofhydrogenandoneofoxygen.Achemicalreactionoccursinthefuelcell.

regularorhabitualactions

4.11 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutsomethingthataparticularpersonorthingdoesregularlyorhabitually,youusethepresentsimple.Doyousmoke?Igetupearlyandeatmybreakfastlisteningtotheradio.

usedinreviews

4.12 Youusuallyusethepresentsimplewhenyouarediscussingwhathappensinabook,play,orfilm.InthefilmheplaysthecentralcharacterofCharlesSmithson.Inthoseearlychapters,hekeepshimselfverymuchinthebackground.

USAGENOTE

4.13 Youcanusethepresentsimpleof theverbsaywhenyouaredescribingsomethingyouhavereadinabook.Thecriminaljusticesystem,theauthorsays,hasfailedtokeeppacewiththedrugproblem.TheBiblesaysloveofmoneyistherootofallevil.

usedincommentaries

4.14 Onradioandtelevision,commentatorsoftenusethepresentsimplewhentheyaredescribinganeventsuchasasportsmatchoraceremonyatthetimethatitishappening.Heturns,heshoots,hescores!

usedinreporting

4.15 Whenyouarereportingwhatsomeonesaidtoyouatapointintherecentpast,youcanuse thepresentsimpleofareportingverbsuchashearortell.I’veneverbeenparaglidingmyself,but they tellmeit’sareallyexcitingsport.Tamsin’sagoodcook,Ihear.Gracesaysyoutoldhertocomeoverhere.Formoredetailedinformationaboutreportingverbs,seeChapter7.

usedincommenting

4.16 Whenyouarecommentingonwhatyouaresayingordoing,youusethepresent simple of a verb such asadmit, promise, reject, or enclose. Formoreinformationonthistypeofverb,seeparagraphs7.64to7.67.

This,Iadmit,wasmyfavouriteactivity.Iencloseasmallchequewhichmaycomeinhandy.Ileaveitforyoutodecide.

Thepresentprogressive

themomentofspeaking

4.17 If you want to talk about an activity that is in progress, you use thepresentprogressive.We’rehavingameeting.Comeandjoinin.WhatamIdoing?I’mlookingoutofthewindow.Myheadisaching.I’malreadyfeelingtense.

emphasizingthepresentmoment

4.18 If you want to emphasize the present moment or to indicate that asituationistemporary,youusethepresentprogressive.Onlyonehospital,atAngal,isfunctioning.We’retryingtocreateamoredemocraticsociety.She’sspendingthesummerinEurope.I’mworkingasaBritishCouncilOfficer.

progressivechange

4.19 You also use the present progressive to talk about changes, trends,development,andprogress.Thevillageischangingbutitisstillundisturbed.Hishandwritingisimproving.Worldenergydemandisincreasingatarateofabout3%peryear.

habitualactions

4.20 If you want to talk about a habitual action that takes place regularly,especiallyonethatisnewortemporary,youusethepresentprogressive.You’regoingoutalotthesedays.

Doyouknowifshe’sstillplayingthesedays?She’sseeingalotmoreofthem.

Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepresent4.21 Youdonotnormallyneedtouseanadditionaltimeadverbialwithpresent

formsofverbs,butyoucanaddtheminordertoemphasizetheimmediatepresent or general present, or to contrast the present with the past orfuture.They’regettingonquitewellatthemoment.We’resafenow.What’sthematterwithyoutoday,Marnie?Ihaven’tgotagrantthisyear.

generaltruths

4.22 Ifyouareusingthepresentsimpletotalkaboutsomethingthatisalwaysorgenerallytrue,youcanreinforceorweakenyourstatementbyusinganadverb.Babiesnormallyloseweightinthebeginning.Theattitudeisusuallyoneofridicule.Traditionally,theJapaneseprefergoodqualityclothes.Here is a list of common adverbs that can be used to modify yourstatementinthisway:

alwaysgenerallymainlynormallyoftentraditionallyusually

Theuseofthepresentsimpletotalkaboutgeneraltruthsisexplainedinparagraph4.10.

regularactions

4.23 When you use the present simple to say that an action takes placeregularly, you can use an adverbial of frequency such as often orsometimestobemorespecificabouthowoftenithappens.Severalgroupsmeetweekly.Ivisitheraboutonceeverysixmonths.Itseldomrainsthere.Ineverdrinkalone.Theuseofthepresentsimpletotalkaboutregularactivitiesisexplainedinparagraph4.11.More information about adverbials of frequency, including a list of themostcommonones,canbefoundinparagraphs4.114to4.122.

frequentactions

4.24 Thepresentprogressive isalsousedwithwords likealwaysand foreverwhenyouwant toemphasizehowoften theaction takesplace.Thisuseexpresses disapproval or annoyance. The adverb is placed after theauxiliaryverb.You’realwayslookingforfaults.It’salwaysraining.Andshe’salwaystalkingtohimonthetelephone.Theyareforeverbeingknockeddownbycars.Theuseofthepresentprogressivetotalkaboutfrequent,habitualactionsisexplainedinparagraph4.20.

timeadverbialswithpresentverbforms

4.25 Note that some adverbs that refer to the present time, such asnow andtoday, are also used to express past time. However, there are a fewadverbs and other time adverbials that are almost always used withpresentverbforms.I’mnotplanningonhavingchildrenatpresent.…thecampingcrazethatiscurrentlysweepingAmerica.Nowadaysfitnessisbecomingagenerallyacceptedprincipleoflife.

Thefollowingisalistoftimeadverbialsthatarenormallyonlyusedwithpresentverbforms:

atpresentcurrentlyinthisdayandagenowadayspresentlythesedays

Notethatinthislistthewordpresentlymeansnow.

Thepast4.26 When you are talking about the past, a time adverbial is necessary to

specify the particular time in the past you are referring to. The timereference can be established in a previous clause, and the verbs in thefollowingclausesarethereforeputinthepasttense.Itwasverycoldthatnight.Overmyheadwasagapinthereedmattingoftheroof.Thehousewasdamagedbyfireyesterday.No-onewasinjured.

Statingadefinitetimeinthepast:thepastsimple4.27 Ifyouwanttosaythataneventoccurredorthatsomethingwasthecase

ataparticulartimeinthepast,youusethepastsimple.TheIsraeliPrimeMinisterflewintoNewYorkyesterdaytostarthisvisittotheUS.OurregularwindowcleanerwentofftoCanadalastyear.On1February1968heintroducedtheIndustrialExpansionBill.Theygavememedicationtohelpmerelax.

pastsituations

4.28 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationexistedoveraperiodoftimeinthepast,

youalsousethepastsimple.HelivedinParisduringhislastyears.Throughouthislifehesufferedfromepilepsy

4.29 If you are talking about something that happened in the past, and youmentionasituationthatexistedatthattime,youusethepastsimple.Youcandothiswhetherornotthesituationstillexists.AllthestreetsinthispartofWatfordlookedalike.AboutfiftymilesfromtheuniversitytherewasoneofIndia’smostfamousandancientHindutemples.

habitualandregularactions

4.30 If you want to talk about an activity that took place regularly orrepeatedlyinthepast,butthatnolongeroccurs,youusethepastsimple.WewalkedagreatdealwhenIwasaboy.Eachweekwetrekkedtothebighouse.Would and used to can also be used to say that something happenedregularly in the past but no longer does so. See paragraphs 5.114 and5.255formoreinformation.

Actionsinprogressinthepast:thepastprogressive

repeatedactions

4.31 If you want to focus on action in progress or repeated actions thatoccurredinthepast,youusethepastprogressive.Hertoothwasaching,herburntfingerwashurting.Hewaslookingill.Everyonewasbeggingthecaptaintosurrender.Iwasmeetingthousandsofpeopleandgettingtoknownoone.

contrastingevents

4.32 Ifyouwanttocontrastasituationwithaneventthathappenedjustafterthat situation existed, you use the past progressive to describe the firstsituation.Youthenusethepastsimpletodescribeanddrawattentionto

theeventthatoccurredafterit.Wewereallsittinground the firewaiting formybrother tocomehome.Hearrivedaboutsixintheevening.IwaswaitingangrilyonMondaymorningwhenIsawMrs.Miller.

Thepastinrelationtothepresent:thepresentperfect4.33 Ifyouwant tomentionsomething thathappened in thepastbutyoudo

notwanttostateaspecifictime,youusethepresentperfect.Theyhaveraised£180foraswimmingpool.Ihavenoticedthistraitinmanyphotographers.

BECAREFUL

4.34 Youcannotusetimeadverbialsthatplacetheactionatadefinitetimeinthepastwiththepresentperfect.Forexample,youcannotsayIhavedoneityesterday.Youcan,however,useanadverbialofduration.Thesettlershaveleftthebayforever.I ate brown rice, which I have always hated, and vegetables from mygarden.Adverbials of duration are explained and listed in paragraphs 4.123 to4.142.Youcanalsousesinceandforwiththepresentperfectbecausewhentheyareusedinthiswaytheyrefertoadefinitetime.Theyhavebeenbackeveryyearsincethen.Shehasworkedforhimfortenyears.Formoreinformationonsinceseeparagraph4.137.Otherusesofforareexplainedinparagraphs4.125to4.128.

situationsthatstillexist

4.35 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutanactivityorsituationthatstartedatsometimein the past, continued, and is still happening now, you use the presentperfectorthepresentperfectprogressive.AllmyadultlifeIhavewaitedfortheemergenceofastrongcentreparty.

She’salwaysfeltthatfilmsshouldbeentertaining.Nationalproductivityhasbeendeclining.IhavebeendancingsinceIwasachild.

emphasizingdurationofevent

4.36 If you want to emphasize the duration of a recent event, you use thepresentperfectprogressive.She’sbeencrying.Somepeoplewillsay thatwhat Ihavebeendescribing isnotacrisisofindustry.The Department of Aboriginal Affairs has recently been conducting asurveyofAustralianAborigines.

Eventsbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast:thepastperfect4.37 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutapasteventorsituationthatoccurredbeforea

particulartimeinthepast,youusethepastperfect.Onedayhenoticed that a cultureplate hadbecome contaminated by amould.Beforethewar,hehadworkedasabankmanager.Shehadlostherjobasarealestateagentandwasworkingasawaitress.Idetestedgamesandhadalwaysmanagedtoavoidchildren’sparties.

emphasizingtimeandduration

4.38 Ifyouwanttoemphasizetherecentnessandthedurationofacontinuousactivity that tookplace before a particular time in the past, youuse thepastperfectprogressive.Until now the rumours that had been circulating were exaggeratedversionsofthetruth.Thedoctorhadbeenworkingalone.Hediedinhospitalwherehehadbeenreceivingtreatmentforcancer.Theyhadbeenhittingourtrucksregularly.

expectationsandwishes

4.39 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingwasexpected,wishedfor,orintended

before aparticular time in thepast, youuse thepast perfect or thepastperfectprogressive.Shehadnaturallyassumedthatoncetherewasatheatreeverybodywouldwanttogo.Itwastheremainsofaten-rupeenotewhichshehadhopedwouldlasttilltheendoftheweek.ItwasnotasniceontheterraceasClarissahadexpected.Ihadbeenexpectingsomemiraculousobviouschange.

Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepast4.40 Whenyouareusingpastverbforms,younormallyuseatimeadverbialto

indicatethatyouaretalkingaboutthepast.Atonetimetheartsofreadingandwritingwereclassedamongthegreatmysteriesoflifeforthemajorityofpeople.I’vemadesomepoordecisionslately,butI’mfeelingmuchbetternow.Itwasverysplendidonce,butit’sonlyaruinnow.It’sMarkwholosthiswife.AyearlastJanuary.Itwasterriblyhotyesterday.

typesoftimeadverbial

4.41 Timeadverbialscan refereither toaspecific time,or toamoregeneralindefiniteperiodoftime.Thelistsbelowgivethemostcommonindefinitetimeadverbialsthatareusedmainlywithpastverb forms.With theexceptionofsinceandeversince,whichcomeattheendofaclause,youputthemaftertheauxiliaryormodalinaverbphrasethathasmorethanoneword;ifyouusethemwiththepastsimpleyouputtheminfrontoftheverb.Thewordsinthefollowinglistcanbeusedwithallpastverbforms:

againalreadyearliereversincefinally

firstinthepastjustlastpreviouslyrecentlysince

The words in the following list can be used with all past verb formsexceptthepresentperfect:

afterwardsatonetimeeventuallyformerlyimmediatelynextonceoriginallysubsequently

Note thatonce heremeansat some time in the past. For its uses as anadverboffrequency,seeparagraph4.115.For theuses of since as a preposition in time adverbials, see paragraph4.137.Sometimeadverbialsusedwithpastverbformsaremorespecific.Theyincludewordslikeyesterday,ago,other,andlast.Notethatagoisplacedafterthenounphrase.Isawhimyesterdayevening.Weboughtthehousefromherthedaybeforeyesterday.ThreeweeksagoIwasstayinginSanFrancisco.Isawmygoddaughtertheotherday.Itallhappenedalongtimeago.

BECAREFUL

4.42 Yousaylastnight,notyesterdaynight.

usedforemphasis

4.43 There are some caseswhere you have to specify the time reference. Inothercases,youmaysimplywanttomakethetimingoftheactionclear,oremphatic.Thesecasesaredescribedbelow.

usedwiththepastsimple

4.44 Whenyouuse the past simple to describe habitual or regular activities,you can use an adverbial of frequency to indicate the regularity orrepetitionoftheactivity.Heoftenagreedtoworkquitecheaply.Sometimeshereadsomuchthathebecameconfused.EttaphonedGuppyeveryday.The use of the past simple to describe habitual actions is explained inparagraph4.30.

usedwiththepastprogressive

4.45 Ifyouareusing thepastprogressive to talkabout repeatedactions,youcan add an adverb of frequency such as always or forever after theauxiliary to emphasize the frequency of the action or to express yourannoyanceaboutit.In the immense shed where we worked, something was always goingwrong.Shewasalwaysknitting–makingsweatersorbabyclothes.Ourbuilderwasforevergoingonskiingholidays.Theuseof thepastprogressivetodescriberepeatedactionsisexplainedinparagraph4.31.

usedwiththepresentperfect

4.46 When you use the present perfect to mention something that is stillrelevanttothepresent,youcanaddanadverboffrequencytoshowthat

theactionwasrepeated.I’veoftenwonderedwhywedidn’tmoveyearsago.Politicaltensionshavefrequentlyspilledoverintoviolence.Theuseofthepresentperfecttotalkaboutsituationsthatarestillrelevantisexplainedinparagraph4.33.

4.47 Note that if you are talking about a quality, attitude, or possession thatstillexistsorisstillrelevant,youneedtousethepresentperfectwithanadverbialofduration.We’vehaditforfifteenyears.He’salwayslikedyou,youknow.Ihaveknownhimforyears.Mypeoplehavebeenatwarsince1917.

4.48 If you use the present perfect and the present perfect progressive tomention a continuing activity that began in the past, you can add anadverbialofdurationtoshowhowlongithasbeengoingon.Foraboutaweekhehadbeencomplainingofabadheadache.Theyhavebeenmeetingregularlyfortwoyears.Hehaslookedaftermewellsincehismotherdied.Theuseofthepresentperfectandthepresentperfectprogressivetotalkaboutactivitiesthatbeganinthepastisexplainedinparagraph4.35.

usedwiththepastperfect

4.49 Whenyouusethepastperfecttodescribearepeatedeventthattookplacebeforeaparticulartimeinthepast,youuseanadverbialoffrequencytoshowhowoftenitwasrepeated.Posyhadalwayssoughtherouteventhen.Thehousekeepermentioned that thedoghadattacked itsmistressmorethanonce.The use of the past perfect to describe events that occurred before aparticulartimeinthepastareexplainedinparagraph4.37.

4.50 If you are using the past perfect to talk about a situation that did notchange in the past, you use an adverbial of duration to emphasize thelengthoftimeduringwhichitexisted.

Theyweren’treallyourauntanduncle,butwehadalwaysknownthem.Allthroughthosemanyyearshehadnevereverlosttrackofmyfather.Hisparentshadbeenmarriedfortwelveyearswhenhewasborn.

4.51 If you are using the past perfect progressive to mention a recent,continuousactivity,youcanspecifywhenitbegan.TheHomeOfficehaduntilnowbeeninsistingongivingtheofficersonlytendaystoreachasettlement.Sincethen,themotherhadbeenlivingwithherdaughter.Adverbialsoffrequencyordurationcanalsobeaddedforemphasis.Thedriveincreasedthefatigueshehadbeenfeelingforhours.Therainhadbeenpouringallnight.Theuseofthepastperfectprogressivetotalkaboutarecent,continuousactivityisexplainedinparagraph4.38.

Expressingfuturetime4.52 It isnotpossible to talkwithasmuchcertaintyabout the futureas it is

aboutthepresentorthepast.Anyreferenceyoumaketofutureeventsisthereforeusuallyanexpressionofwhatyouthinkmighthappenorwhatyouintendtohappen.

Indicatingthefutureusingwill4.53 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingisplannedtohappen,orthatyouthink

itislikelytohappeninthefuture,youusethemodalwillinfrontofthebaseformoftheverb.Nancywillarrangeit.Thesewillbedealtwithinchapter7.‘Iwillcheck,’saidBrody.WhenwillIseethem?WhatdoyouthinkSallywilldo?Youwillcomeback,won’tyou?IfthesubjectisIorwe,themodalshallissometimesusedinsteadofwilltotalkaboutfutureevents.IshalldoeverythingIcantohelpyou.

YouwillstayathomeandIshallgotoyouroffice.‘Weshallgivehimsometea,’Naomisaid.

ThisisnotcommoninmodernAmericanEnglish.Themodalswill and shall are used in several otherways, usuallywithsomeelementoffuturetime.Formoreinformation,seeChapter5.

generaltruths

4.54 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutgeneraltruthsandtosaywhatcanbeexpectedtohappenifaparticularsituationarises,youusewill.Whenpeaceisavailable,peoplewillgoforit.Anattackofmalariacankeepamanoffworkforthreedays.Hewillearnnothingandhisfamilywillgohungry.

indicatingcertainty

4.55 If you are sure that something will happen because arrangements havebeenmade,youcanusethefutureprogressive.I’llbeseeingthemwhenI’vefinishedwithyou.She’llbeappearingtomorrowandSundayattheRoyalFestivalHall.I’llbewaitingforyououtside.Iunderstandyou’llbemovingintoourareasoon.They’llspoilourpicnic.I’llbewonderingallthetimewhat’shappening.Ourpeoplewillbegoingtotheircountrymore.Note that a time adverbial or an adverbial of frequency is normallyrequiredwiththefutureprogressive.

4.56 If you are referring to something that has not happened yet but willhappen before a particular time in the future, you can use the futureperfect.Bythetimeyougettotheschool,theconcertwillhavefinished.Maybebythetimewegettherehe’llalreadyhavestarted.Bythen,maybeyou’llhaveheardfromyoursister.Notethatyoumustindicatethespecificfuturetimereferredtobyusingatimeadverbialoranotherclause.

indicatingduration

4.57 Ifyouwant to indicate thedurationofaneventataspecific timein thefuture,youcanusethefutureperfectprogressive.By the time theseasonends, Iwillhavebeenplaying for fifteenmonthswithoutabreak.TheregisterwillhavebeenrunningforayearinMay.Notethatyouneedtouseatimeadverbialtoindicatethefuturetimeandanadverbialofdurationtostatehowlongtheeventwilllast.

Otherwaysoftalkingaboutthefuture

begoingto

4.58 Ifyouarestatinganintentionthatsomethingwillhappen,orifyouhavesomeimmediateevidencethatsomethingwillhappenfairlysoon,youcanusebegoingtofollowedbyaninfinitive.I’mgoingtoexploretheneighbourhood.Evansknowslotsofpeople.He’sgoingtohelpme.He’sgoingtotakemethere.You’regoingtohaveaheartattackifyou’renotcareful.We’regoingtoseeachangeinthelawnextyear.

plannedevents

4.59 Youcanusebedue toandbeabout to to refer toplannedfutureeventsthatyouexpecttohappensoon.Theyarefollowedbyinfinitiveclauses.Heisduetostartasacouriershortly.Theworkisduetobestartedinthesummer.Another385peopleareabouttolosetheirjobs.Areweabouttobetakenoverbythemachine?

Timeadverbialswithreferencetothefuture

firmplansforthefuture

4.60 Thepresentsimpleisusedtotalkabouttimetabledorscheduledevents.

Thepresentprogressiveisusedtostatefirmplansthatyouhaveforthefuture.Atimeadverbialisnecessaryunlessyouaresurethatthehearerorreaderknowsthatyouaretalkingaboutthefuture.MylasttrainleavesEustonat11.30.TheUNGeneralAssemblyopensinNewYorklaterthismonth.Tomorrowmorningwemeetuptoexchangecontracts.I’mleavingattheendofthisweek.Mymumiscomingtohelplookafterthenewbaby.

vaguetimereference

4.61 Whenyouwanttomakeageneralorvaguereferencetofuturetime,youuseanadverbialthatreferstoindefinitetime.I’lldropbysometime.Soonerorlaterhe’llaskyoutojoinhimthere.Infutureshe’llhavetotakesedentaryworkofsomesort.Hereisalistofindefinitetimeadverbialsthatareusedmainlywithfutureforms:

infutureinthefutureoneofthesedayssomedaysometimesoonerorlater

tomorrow

4.62 Adverbials that include the word tomorrow are mainly used withreferencestofuturetime.We’lltrysomewhereelsetomorrow.ShallIcometomorrownight?He’llbeherethedayaftertomorrow.ThistimetomorrowI’llbeinNewYork.

next

4.63 Some adverbials that are mainly used with reference to future timeinclude thewordnext. Ifyouareusinga specificdayormonth suchasSaturday orOctober, you can putnext either before or after the day ormonth.Otherwise,nextisplacedinfrontofthetimereference.NextweekMichaelHallwillbetalkingaboutmusic.Nextsummeryourcropswillbeverymuchbetter.Ithinkwe’lldefinitelybegoingnextyear.WillyouraccommodationbeavailablenextOctober?ThebootswillbereadybyWednesdaynext.ApostmortemexaminationwillbeheldonMondaynext.Shewon’tbeabletodoittheweekafternext.

InAmericanEnglish,nextisalwaysplacedinfrontofthetimereference.

Otherusesofverbforms4.64 So far in this chapter, the commonest and simplest uses of the various

verb forms have been dealt with. However, there are also some lesscommonusesoftenses.

Vividnarrative

thepresent

4.65 Storiesarenormallytoldusingthepast.However,ifyouwanttomakeastory seemvivid, as if itwerehappeningnow,youcanuse thepresentsimpleforactionsandstatesandthepresentprogressiveforsituations.There’saloudexplosionbehindus.ThenIhearChrisgiggling.Sylviaisupset.Thehelicopterclimbsoverthefrozenwasteland.Chrisiscryinghardandotherslookoverfromtheothertables.He sits down at his desk chair, reaches for the telephone and dials anumber.

Forwardplanningfromatimeinthepast4.66 Thereareseveralwaysoftalkingaboutaneventthatwasinthefutureata

particular time in the past, or that was expected to occur. These aredescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.

eventsplannedinthepast

4.67 Thepastprogressivecanbeusedtotalkabouteventsplannedinthepast,especiallywithsomecommonverbssuchascomeandgo.FourofthemwerecomingforSundaylunch.Herdaughterwasgoingtoasummercamptomorrow.Mywifewasjoiningmelaterwiththetwochildren.

4.68 Thepastsimple ofbe can be used in structures used to express futureevents,suchasbegoingto,beaboutto,andbedueto.Theimplicationisusuallythattheexpectedeventhasnothappenedorwillnothappen.Formoreinformationonbegoingto,seeparagraph5.233.Ithoughtforamomentthatshewasgoingtocry.Hewasabouttoraisehisvoiceatmebutstoppedhimself.Theshipwasduetosailthefollowingmorning.

Referringtostatesratherthanactivities4.69 Certainverbsaremainlyusedinthepresentsimpleorpastsimplerather

thanthepresentprogressiveorpastprogressive.Thesearecalledstativeverbs.ThemostcommonstativeverbsarelistedintheReferencesection.Theyincludeverbsthatrefertolastingemotionsandmentalstates,suchaslove,like,wantandknow;verbsthatrefertothesenses,suchasseeandhear; and verbs that refer to permanent states, such as keep, fit andbelong.Doyoulikefootball?Iwanttocomewithyou.Wheredoyoukeepyourkeys?ThenIheardanoise.Generally, thesesentencescannotbeexpressedas, forexample,Areyouliking football?, I’mwanting to comewith you,Where are you keepingyourkeys?orThenIwashearinganoise.

However, a fewof these verbs are sometimes usedwith present and pastprogressive forms,particularly in informal spokenEnglish.Youcanuse

theprogressiveformwiththeseverbswhenyouwanttoemphasizethatastate is new or temporary, or when you want to focus on the presentmoment.Rachelislovingonebenefitofthejob–thenewclothes.I’mlikinggrapesthesedaystoo.I’mwantingthefilmtobedeliberatelyold-fashioned.Some people think this usage is incorrect, and it is usually avoided informaltexts.Hereisalistofverbsthataretraditionallyconsideredtobestativeverbs,butthataresometimesusedwithpresentandpastprogressiveforms:

forgetguessimaginelacklikeloverememberwant

You can use the present perfect progressive or past perfect progressivewithsomestativeverbsinbothformalandinformalcontexts.I’vebeenwantingtospeaktoyouaboutthisforsometime.Johnhasbeenkeepingbirdsforaboutthreeyearsnow.Thensheheardit.Thesoundshehadbeenhearinginherheadforweeks.

Using time adverbials to indicate past, present, orfuture4.70 Inmanystatements,itisthetimeadverbialratherthantheverbformthat

carriesthetimereference.Forexample,acommonuseistoputtimeadverbialsthatnormallyreferto future timewith the present simple or present progressivewhen it isused to refer to futureactions.Theycanalsobeusedwithreferences to

thefuturethataremadeinthepast.Thecompanycelebratesits50thanniversarythisyear.Afterall,you’recomingbacknextweek.Thefarmerjustlaughedandrodeaway.SothenextweekItriedmyluckatanotherfarm.Wearrangedtomeetinthreeweeks’time.Theadverbsnow,today,tonight,andexpressionsinvolvingthisrefertoaperiod of time that includes the present moment. They are used fairlycommonlywith all verb forms.This is because an event canbe locatedbefore,during,orafterthetimespecifiedbytheverbform.IwasnowinaScottishregiment.Your boss will now have no alternative but to go to his superiors andexplainthesituation.Oneofmychildrenwrotetometoday.Iwillskinomoretoday.It’sdarktoday.‘Iwenttothedoctorthismorning,’shesaid.Hewon’tbeabletofightthisFriday.I’mdoingmyironingthisafternoon.

referringtoanearlieroralatertime

4.71 If youwant to refer to time that follows a particular event or periodoftime,youuseanadverbsuchassoonorlater.Youcanuseanadverbsuchasbeforehandorearliertorefertotimethatprecededaparticularperiodoftimeoranevent.Sitawasdelightedwiththehouseandsoonbegantolookonitashome.It’llhavetobereplacedsoon.HelatersettledinPeddle,asmalltownnearGrahamstown.I’llexplainlater.Iwasverynervousbeforehand.You’llbehavingabathandgoingtothehairdresser’sbeforehand.Shehadseenhimonlyfivehoursearlier.This typeof time reference is commonwithpastand future forms. It issometimesusedwithpresent formswhen they areused to refer topast,future,orhabitualactions.

SometimesIknowbeforehandwhatI’mgoingtotalkabout.Irememberthenextdayatschoolgoingroundaskingtheboysif they’deverseenaghost.Butafterwards,asyoureadon,yourelatebacktoit.Hereisalistofadverbialsthatareusedtorefertotimeinarelativeway:

afterwardsatoncebeforelongeventuallyfinallyimmediatelyinamomentinstantlylaterlateronpresentlyshortlysoonsuddenlywithinminuteswithinthehour~thenextdaythenextweekthenextmonththenextyearthefollowingdaythefollowingweekthefollowingmonththefollowingyearthedayaftertheweekafterthemonthaftertheyearafter

~beforehandearlyearlierearlieroninadvancelateonedayontimepunctually

Notethatinthislistpresentlymeanssoon.Youcanuseearlytoshowthatsomethinghappensbeforetheexpectedorplannedtime,andlatetoindicatethatithappensafterthattime.Ontimeandpunctually are used to show that somethinghappens at theplannedtime.Theseadverbscomeaftertheverborattheendoftheclause.Tiredout,hehadgonetobedearly.Ifyougettoworkearly,youcangetalotdone.Hehadcometothepoliticalarenalate,attheageof62.Wewentquitelateintheafternoon.If Atkinson phoned on time, he’d be out of the house in well under anhour.Hearrivedpunctually.Withearlyand late youcanalsouse thecomparative formsearlier andlater.Iwokeearlierthanusual.Later,thedealersawthatithadbeensold.Notethatearly,late,andontimearealsousedafterlinkingverbs.Thedoorbellrang.Barbarawasappalled.‘They’reearly.’TheParistrainwasslightlylate.Whattimeisitnow?Thisbusisusuallyontime.Formoreinformationonlinkingverbs,seeparagraphs3.126to3.181.

4.72 Youcanalsospecifyatimebyrelatingittoanevent,usingaqualifyingexpressionorarelativeclauseafterthetimeadverbial.Ididn’tsleepwellthenightbeforetheprosecution.IcalledhimthedayIgotback.

4.73 Youcanalsouse someprepositions to relate events toeachother,or toparticular periods of time. These prepositions are listed in paragraph4.100,andthereisafullexplanationinparagraphs4.103to4.108.Afterthewar,hereturnedtoteaching.JosephhadbeenmarriedpriortohismarriagetoMary.Wageshavefallenduringthelasttwomonths.

necessarytime

4.74 Ifyouwanttorefertoanecessarytime,beyondwhichaneventwillnolongerberelevant,useful,orsuccessful,youcanuseintime.Ihadtowalkfasttoreachtherestaurantintime.Heleaptback,intimetododgethetrain.If something happens before the necessary time, you can use too early,andifithappensafterthenecessarytime,youcanusetoolate.Todaytheygrowuptooearly.It’smuchtooearlytoassessthecommunityservicescheme.Theyarrivedtoolatefortheinformationtobeanygood.It’stoolatetochangethatnow.

previouslymentionedtime

4.75 If the time you are referring to in the past or future has already beenmentioned,youcanusetheadverbthen.Wekeptthreemonkeysthen.Wewereallsopatrioticthen.It’llbetoolatethen.To bemore specific, you can use that with the name of a day, month,season,andsoon,orwithageneraltimeword.Williamdidn’tcomeinthatTuesday.Somanypeoplewillbepursuingotheractivitiesthatnight.

Emphasizing the unexpected: continuing, stopping, or nothappening4.76 Ifyouwanttocommentontheexistenceoftherelationshipbetweenpast,

present,andfuturesituations,youcanuseoneofthefollowingadverbials:

alreadyanylongeranymoreasyetnolongersofarstilluptillnowuptonowyet

stillforexistingsituations

4.77 Ifyouwant tosaythatasituationexistsuptothepresent time,youusestill.Ifyouusebeasamainverboranauxiliaryverb,youputstillafterbeortheauxiliary.Ifyouuseanysimpleverbexceptbeyouputstill infrontoftheverb.Stilloftensuggeststhatthecontinuationofthesituationissurprisingorundesirable.It’samarvelthatI’mstillalivetotellthetale.Maleprejudicestillexistsincertainquarters.Yearshadpassedandtheywerestillpayingofftheirdebts.Innegativestatementsthatusethen’tcontraction,still isplaced in frontofbeortheauxiliary.We’vebeenworkingonitforovertwoyearsnow.Anditstillisn’tfinished.Westilldon’tknowwherewe’regoing.

stillforexpectedsituations

4.78 Youcanalsousestillinfrontofato-infinitivetosaythatsomethinghasnothappenedyet,althoughitisexpectedto,oryoufeelthatitshould.

TheGovernmenthadstilltoagreeontheprovisionsofthebill.Theproblemswerestilltocome.Therearemanyotherquestionsstilltobeanswered.Stillisnotusedinnegativestatementsinthisway;seeparagraph4.79forasimilaruseofyet.

yetforexpectedsituations

4.79 Ifyouwanttoindicatethatsomethinghasnothappeneduptothepresenttime,butislikelytohappeninthefuture,youuseyetwithanegative.Yetusuallycomesattheendoftheclause.Wedon’tknowthetermsyet.Ihaven’tsetanyworkyet.IsupposeIshallsomeday.Theyhaven’theardyet.Ifyouwanttosoundmoreemphatic,youcanputyetbeforeasimpleverboraftertheauxiliaryandnegativeword.Nooneyetknowsexactlywhatitmeans.Herstylehadnotyetmatured.Yetcanalsobeusedinquestions,whereitisusuallyputattheendoftheclause.Hasshehadthebabyyet?HasMr.Harrisarrivedyet?InAmericanEnglish,whenaskingwhethersomethinghashappened,itismoreusualtousethepastsimplewithyet.Didyoueatyet?Didthekidsseethatmovieyet?

4.80 Youcanalsouseyetinaffirmativestatementstosaythatsomethingthatisexpected has not happened up to the present time. In this case, yet isfollowedbyato-infinitiveclause.Thetruehistoryofartinpost-warAmericaisyettobewritten.Hehadyettoattempttoputprinciplesintopractice.

4.81 Yet is alsoused in affirmative statementswith superlatives to show thatthestatementappliesup to thepresent,butmaynotapply in the future.Yetnormallycomesattheendoftheclause.

Thisisthebestmuseumwe’vevisitedyet.Mr.FowlersaidthatFebruaryhadproducedthebestresultsyet.Thisisthebiggestandbestversionyet.

likelychange

4.82 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationthathasexisteduptothepresenttimemaychangeinthefuture,youcanuseasyet,sofar,uptonow,orup tillnow.Theyarenormallyplacedeitherat thebeginningor theendof theclause.Theyarealsooccasionallyplacedafteranauxiliaryverb.Asyet,nogrouphasclaimedresponsibilityfortheattack.OnlyMotherknowsasyet.So far, the terms of the treaty have been carried out according toschedule.You’vedonewellsofar,MrsRutland.Uptillnow,themostextraordinaryremarkIrememberwasmadebyyou.…somethinghehaduptonowbeenreluctanttoprovide.It’sbeenquietsofar.Youhaven’tonceuptillnowcomeintorealcontactwithourauthorities.Note that these expressions can be used in affirmative and negativestatements.

apastsituationthathasstoppedexisting

4.83 Ifyouwanttosaythatapastsituationdoesnotexistinthepresent,youcanusenolonger,oranegativewithanylongeroranymore.Shewasnolongercontentwithahandfulofcoins.Theydidn’tknowanylongerwhatwasfunnyandwhatwasentertaining.Theydon’tlivetogetheranymore.

alreadyforemphasizingoccurrence

4.84 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatasituationexists,ratherthannotyethavingoccurred, you usealready. It is usually put in front of any simple verbexceptbe,orafterbeasamainverb,orfollowinganauxiliaryverb.Theenergyalreadyexistsintheground.Senegalalreadyhasawellestablishedfilmindustry.

Hewas just a year younger thanRudolph, butwasalready as tall andmuchstockier.Mywatchsaysnineo’clock.Andit’salreadytoohottosleep.Britainisalreadyexportingalittlecoal.Wehavealreadyadvertisedyourpostinthepapers.In American English, when stating that something has happened, it ismoreusualtousethepastsimplewithalready.Wealreadyadvertisedyourpostinthepapers.Thekidsalreadysawthatmovie.You can put already at the beginning or the end of the clause foremphasis.Alreadyrobberiesandlootingshaveincreased.Iwashappyforher;shelookedbetteralready.Already isnotoftenusedwiththepastsimple,exceptwiththeverbsbe,have,andknow.Notethatalreadycannotnormallybeusedinnegativestatements,butcanbeusedinnegativeif-clauses,negativequestions,andrelativeclauses.Refer certain types of death to the coroner if this has not already beendone.Thosewhohavenotalreadyleftarebeingadvisedtodoso.Whatdoesitshowusthatwehaven’talreadyfelt?

Timeadverbialsandprepositionalphrases

Specifictimes4.85 Specifictimeadverbialsareusedaftertheverbbewhenyouwanttostate

thecurrenttime,day,oryear.‘Wellwhattimeisitnow?’–‘It’soneo’clock’.ItwasaperfectMaymorning.Sixweeksisn’tallthatlongago,it’sJanuary.Theyarealsooftenusedinprepositionalphrasestosaywhensomethinghappened,orwhenitisexpectedtohappen.Igotthereatabout8o’clock.

ThesubmarinecaughtfireonFridaymorning.Thattraingetsinat1800hours.

clocktimes

4.86 Clocktimesareusuallyexpressedintermsofhoursandpartsofanhourorminutes, for exampleone o’clock, fiveminutes past one, one twenty,halfpastone.Thedayisusuallydividedintotwosetsoftwelvehours,soitissometimesnecessarytospecifywhichsetyoumeanbyaddinga.m.,p.m.,oraprepositionalphrasesuchasinthemorningorintheevening.Inmanyofficialcontexts,atwenty-fourhoursystemisused.If the hour is known, only the minutes are specified: five past, ten to,quarterto,halfpastandsoon.Middayandnoonareoccasionallyused.

timesoftheday

4.87 The most frequently used words for periods of the day are morning,afternoon,evening,andnight.Therearealsosomewordsthatrefertotherisingandsettingofthesun,suchasduskandsunset,andothersthatrefertomealtimes.Onawarm,cloudyevening,Colinwentdowntotheriver.Theyseemtobeworkingfromdawntodusk.Most of the trouble comes outside the classroom, at break-time anddinnertime.Hereisalistofwordsthatareusedtotalkaboutperiodsoftheday:

morningafternooneveningnight~dawndaybreakfirstlightsunrisedusk

sunsetnightfall~daytimenight-timebreakfast-timebreak-timelunchtimeteatimedinnertimesuppertimebedtime

namingdays

4.88 Thesevendaysoftheweekarepropernouns:

MondayTuesdayWednesdayThursdayFridaySaturdaySunday

SaturdayandSundayareoftenreferredtoas theweekend,and theotherdaysasweekdays.Afewdaysintheyearhavespecialnames,forexample:

NewYear’sDayValentine’sDayPresidents’DayGoodFridayEasterMonday

FourthofJulyLaborDayHalloweenThanksgivingChristmasEveChristmasDayBoxingDayNewYear’sEve

Youcanalsonameadaybygivingitsdateusinganordinalnumber.‘Whendoesyourtermend?’–‘FirstofJuly’.TheGrandPrixistobeheldhereonthe18thJuly.HerseasonoffilmscontinuesuntilOctobertheninth.Youcanomit themonthif it isclearfromthecontextwhichmonthyouarereferringto.SoMondaywillbetheseventeenth.StValentine’sDayisonthefourteenth.ThereismoreinformationaboutordinalsintheReferencesection.

months,seasons,anddates

4.89 Thetwelvemonthsoftheyeararepropernouns:

JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovember

December

Therearefourseasons:spring,summer,autumn(usuallyfallinAmericanEnglish) and winter. Springtime, summertime, and wintertime are alsoused.Some periods of the year have special names; for example,Christmas,Easter,andtheNewYear.

years,decades,andcenturies

4.90 YearsarereferredtoinEnglishbynumbers.Whenyouarespeaking,yourefer to years before 2000 as nineteen sixty-seven (1967), or seventeenhundered(1700),forexample.…theeleventhofJanuary,1967.AsecondconferencewasheldinFebruary1988.Mymotherdiedin1945.Whenyouarespeaking,yourefertoyearsbetween2000and2009astwothousand(2000)ortwothousandandeight(2008),forexample.Years after 2009 are said as either two thousand and ten (2010), twothousandand eleven (2011), etc. or as twenty ten (2010), twenty eleven(2011),etc.Torefertoperiodslongerthanayear,decades(tenyears)andcenturies(ahundred years) are used. Decades start with a year ending in zero andfinishwith a year ending in nine: the 1960s (1960 to 1969), the 1820s(1820to1829).Ifthecenturyisalreadyknown,itcanbeomitted:the20s,thetwenties,theTwenties.Tobemorespecific,forexampleinhistoricaldates,ADisaddedbeforeorafter the numbers for years or centuries after Jesus is believed to havebeenborn:1650AD,AD1650,AD1650–53,1650–53AD.Somewriterswho prefer to avoid referring to religion useCE, which stands for theCommonEra:1650CE.BC(whichstandsforBeforeChrist)isaddedafterthenumbersforyearsor centuries before Jesus is believed to have been born: 1500 BC, 15–1200 BC. An alternative abbreviation that does not refer to religion isBCE,whichstandsforBeforetheCommonEra.

Centuries startwith a year ending in two zeroes and finishwith a yearendingintwonines.Ordinalsareusedtorefertothem.Thefirstcenturywasfrom0ADto99AD,thesecondcenturywas100–199AD,andsoon,so theperiod1800–1899ADwas thenineteenthcenturyand thecurrentcenturyisthetwenty-firstcentury(2000–2099AD).Centuriescanalsobewrittenusingnumbers:the21stcentury.

atforspecifictimes

4.91 Ifyouwanttosaywhensomethinghappens,youuseatwithclocktimes,periodsof theyear,andperiodsof thedayexcept formorning,evening,afternoon,anddaytime.Ourtrainwentat2.25.Igotupateighto’clock.Thetrainshouldarriveataquartertoone.WegotochurchatEasterandChristmas.Iwentdownandfetchedherbackattheweekend.On Tuesday evening, just at dusk, Brody had received an anonymousphonecall.Heregardeditashisdutytocomeandreadtomeatbedtime.Atnightwekeptthemshutupinawireenclosure.Letthefireburnoutnow.Whowouldseesmokeatnight-timeanyway?You can also use at with time and similar words such asmoment andjunctureandwithunitsofclocktimesuchashourandminute.GeneraldeGaulledulyattendedthemilitaryceremonyat theappointedtime.Itwasatthisjuncturethathislucktemporarilydesertedhim.IfIcouldhavedoneitatthatminuteIwouldhavekilledhim.Therewerenolightsatthishour,androads,bungalows,andgardenslayquiet.

atforrelatingevents

4.92 You can also use at when you want to relate the time of one event toanothereventsuchasaparty,journey,election,andsoon.IhadfirstmetKrugeratapartyattheBritishEmbassy.

She represented the Association at the annualmeeting of the AmericanMedicalAssociationinChicago.Itistobereopenedattheannualconferenceinthreeweeks’time.

4.93 At is also used with ages, stages of development, and points within alargerperiodoftime.Attheageoftwenty,shemarriedanotherSpanishdancer.Heleftschoolatseventeen.Atanearly stageof thewar theBritishGovernmentbegan recruitingateamoftopmathematiciansandelectronicsexperts.WewereduetoreturntotheUnitedKingdomatthebeginningofMarch.

inforperiodsoftime

4.94 Ifyouwant tomention theperiodof time inwhichsomethinghappens,youuseinwithcenturies,years,seasons,months,andtheperiodsofthedaymorning,afternoon,andevening.You alsouse inwithdaytime andnight-time.Inthesixteenthcenturytherewerethreetenniscourts.It’struethatweexpectedagreatdealinthesixties.Americans visiting Sweden in the early 1950s were astounded by itscleanliness.If youwere to go on holiday on the continent inwintertimewhat sportcouldyoutakepartin?Tobe inCornwall at any time isapleasure; tobehere insummer is abonus.It’salotcoolerintheautumn.ShewillpresideovertheannualmeetingoftheCourtinDecember.InSeptemberItravelledtoCaliforniatoseethefinishedfilm.I’llringtheagentinthemorning.Well,shedoescomeintocleantheroomsintheday-time.Notethatifmorning,afternoon,andeveningareusedwithamodifierorafollowingphraseorclause,youuseon.Seeparagraph4.96fordetails.

inforspecifictime

4.95 Inisalsousedwhenyouwanttospecifyaperiodoftime,minutes,hours,

days,andsoon,usinganordinal.Vehiclesalesinthefirsteightmonthsoftheyearhaveplungedby24.4percent.…intheearlyhoursofthemorning.In isalsousedwithsomeothernounsreferringtoeventsandperiodsoftime.Myfatherwaskilledinthewar.Everyonedoesunusualjobsinwartime.Inwinter,wetendtogetuplater.Twopeoplecametocheckmyroominmyabsence.Ordinalsareexplainedinparagraphs2.232to2.239.

onforshortperiodsoftime

4.96 Ifyouwanttomentionthedaywhensomethinghappens,youuseon.Youcandothiswithnameddays,withdaysreferredtobyordinals,andwithdaysreferredtobyaspecialtermsuchasbirthdayoranniversary.I’llsendthechequeroundonMonday.EverybodywenttochurchonChristmasDay.IhearyouhavebingoonWednesday.PentonvillePrisonwassetuponBoxingDay,1842.Hewasbornon3April1925at40GrosvenorRoad.…thegreysuitElsahadboughtforhimonhisbirthday.ManyofEisenhower’smostcautiouscommanderswereevenpreparedtoriskattackontheeighthorninth.…addressing Parliament on the 36th anniversary of his country’sindependence.You can use the with named days for emphasis or contrast, and a toindicateanydayofthatname.HediedontheFridayandwasburiedontheSunday.WegetalotofcallsonaFriday.Youalsouseonwithmorning,afternoon,evening,andnightwhen theyaremodifiedorwhentheyarefollowedbyextrainformationintheformofaphraseoraclause.…at2.30p.m.onacalmafternoon.

Therewasanotherimportantopeningonthesameevening.Ticketswillbeavailableonthemorningoftheperformance.It’sterriblygoodofyoutoturnoutonanightlikethis.

onforlongerperiodsoftime

4.97 On is also used with words referring to travel such as journey, trip,voyage,flight,andwaytosaywhensomethinghappened.Butonthatjourney,forthefirsttime,Luce’sfaithintheeventualoutcomewasshaken.Eileenwasaccompanyingher father tovisit friendsmadeonacampingtriptheyearbefore.

onforsubsequentevents

4.98 On can be used in a slightly formal way with nouns and -ing formsreferring to actions or activities to show that one event occurs afteranother.Ishallbringtheremainingsevenhundredpoundsonmyreturninelevendays.

orderingoftimeadverbials

4.99 On the few occasions when people have to specify a time and dateexactly,forexampleinlegalEnglishorformaldocuments,theusualorderis:clocktime,followedbyperiodofday,dayoftheweek,anddate.…ateighto’clockonthemorningof29October1618.…onthenightofThursdayJuly16.

Non-specifictimes

approximatetimes

4.100 Ifyouwanttobelesspreciseaboutwhensomethinghappened,youcanuseawordlikearoundorabout.Ataboutfouro’clockinthemorning,wewereawokenbyanoise.The device that exploded at around midnight on Wednesday severely

damagedthefourth-floorbar.Thesupplyofservantscontinueduntilabout1950,thenabruptlydriedup.Theattackbeganshortlybeforedawn.Hereisalistofwordsandexpressionsthatyoucanuseifyouwanttobelesspreciseaboutwhensomethinghappened:

aboutalmostaroundjustafterjustbeforenearlyroundaboutshortlyaftershortlybeforesoonafterthereabouts

About, almost, around, nearly, and round about are usually used withclock times or years. With about, around, and round about, theprepositionatcanoftenbeomittedininformalEnglish.Thenquitesuddenly,roundaboutmidday,mymoodbegantochange.Aboutnineo’clockhewentouttothekitchen.Itisalsopossibletouseprepositionstorelateeventstolessspecificpointsor periods of time, for examplewhen the exact time of an event is notknown,orwheneventshappengradually,continuously,orseveraltimes.Hedevelopedcentralchestpainduringthenight.For,alsooverthesummer,hisbookhadcomeout.Hereisalistofprepositionsthatareusedtorelateeventstoanon-specifictime:

afterbefore

byduringfollowingoverpriorto

BECAREFUL

4.101 Almostornearlycanonlybeusedaftertheverbbe.4.102 Youcanalsouseorthereaboutsafterthetimeadverbial.

Backin1975orthereaboutssomeonelentmeanarticleabouteducation.…atfouro’clockorthereabouts.

duringforperiodsoftime

4.103 Duringcanbeusedinsteadofinwithperiodsoftheday,months,seasons,years,decades,andcenturies.WetrytokeeppeopleinformedbypostduringSeptember.Sheheatedtheplaceduringthewinterwithahugewoodfurnace.During1973anAnti-ImperialistAlliancewasformed.DuringtheSixtiesvariouslevieswereimposed.Duringtheseventhcenturyincendiaryweaponswereinvented.TheyusedtospendthewholeSundayatchapelbutmostofthembehavedshockinglyduringtheweek.

4.104 Duringisusedwithmosteventnounstoshowthatoneeventtakesplacewhileanotherisoccurring.Duringhisstayinprison,hehaswrittenmanyessaysandpoems.…tryingtoboostpolicemoraleduringaheatedbattlewithrioters.The young princes were protected from press intrusion during theireducation.Somefamiliesliveinthekitchenduringapowercut.DuringthejourneyIcametolikeandrespectthem.

BECAREFUL

4.105 Duringtheweekmeansonweekdays,incontrasttotheweekend.

overforevents

4.106 Overcanbeusedwithwinter,summer,andspecialperiodsoftheyeartoshow that an event occurred throughout the period or at an unspecifiedtimeduringit.…tohelpkeeptheirfamiliesgoingoverthewinter.MyfriendshadamarvelloustimeovertheNewYear.Overisalsousedwhenreferringtoaperiodoftimeimmediatelybeforeorafterthetimeofspeakingorthetimebeingtalkedabout.Thenumberwillincreaseconsiderablyoverthenextdecade.Theyhavebeendoingalltheycanoverthepasttwenty-fourhours.WepackedupthethingsIhadaccumulatedoverthelastfouryears.Over can be used with meals and items of food or drink to show thatsomethinghappenswhilepeopleareeatingordrinking.Davissaidhewantedtoreaditoverlunch.Canwediscussitoveracupofcoffee?

relatingeventsandtimes

4.107 Youcanalsobemoregeneralbystatingtherelationshipbetweenaneventandaperiodoftimeorspecificpointintime.Before,priorto,andafterareusedtorelateeventstoatime.Shegetsupbeforesix.Ifyou’restuck,comebackandseemebeforeThursday.…theconstructionofwarshipsbythemajorpowerspriorto1914.CityMusicHallisgoingtoclosedownafterEaster.Hewillannouncehisplansaftertheholidays.Theycanalsobeusedtorelateoneeventtoanother.Iwasinabankforawhilebeforethewar.ShegavememuchhelpfuladvicepriortomyvisittoTurkey.Jackleftafterbreakfast.Hewaskilledinacaraccidentfouryearsaftertheirmarriage.Aftermuchdiscussion,theyhaddecidedtotakethecointoajeweller.Following,previoustoandsubsequenttocanalsobeusedwithevents.

Hehasregainedconsciousnessfollowingastroke.HesuggeststhatRosswaspromptedprevioustotheparade.Thetestimonyanddescriptionofonewitnesswouldbesuppliedpriortotheinterview;thoseoftheothertwosubsequenttoit.

orderofevents

4.108 Beforeandafter canalsobeused to show theorderofeventswhen thesamepersondoestwoactionsortwopeopledothesameaction.Ishouldhavetalkedaboutthatbeforeanythingelse.HeknewNellwouldprobablybehomebeforehim.Idothefloorafterthewashing-up.Youcanalsosometimesuseearlierthanorlaterthan.Smilingdevelopsearlierthanlaughing.

eventsthathappenatthesametime

4.109 Toindicatethattwoormoreeventshappenatthesametime,theadverbstogether and simultaneously, or the adverbials at the same time and atoncecanbeused:Everythinghadhappenedtogether.Hisfearandhishategrewsimultaneously.Canyoulovetwowomenatthesametime?Ican’tbeeverywhereatonce.

linkingadverbs

4.110 You can also showwhat order things happen in using adverbs such asfirst,next,andfinally.Simultaneouslyandatthesametimeareusedinasimilarwaytolinkclauses.Thisisdealtwithinparagraph10.53.

byforspecifictime

4.111 By is used to emphasize that an event occurs at some time before aspecific time, but not later.By is also used to indicate that a process iscompletedorreachesaparticularstagenotlaterthanaspecifictime.Byeleveno’clock,Brodywasbackinhisoffice.

ThetheorywasthatbyMondaytheirtemperswouldhavecooled.Bynextweek,therewillbenosuppliesleft.Doyouthinkwe’llgettothetopofthiscanyonbytomorrow?Bynowthemoonwasup.Butbythenhewasboredwiththeproject.

Extendedusesoftimeadverbials4.112 Time adverbials can be used after the noun phrase to specify events or

periodsoftime.I’mafraidthemeetingthisafternoonexhaustedme.Thesuddendeathofhisfatheron17November1960wasnotasurprise.…untilIstartedtorecalltheyearsaftertheSecondWorldWar.Noadmissionsarepermittedinthehourbeforeclosingtime.Clocktimes,periodsoftheday,daysoftheweek,months,dates,seasons,specialperiodsof theyear,years,decades,andcenturiescanbeusedasmodifiersbeforethenounphrasetospecifythings.Everymorninghewouldsetoffrightaftertheeighto’clocknews.Castlewasusuallyabletocatchthesixthirty-fivetrainfromEuston.Heboiledthekettleforhismorningtea.HelearnedthathehadmissedtheMondayflight.Ihadsummerclothesandwinterclothes.AshhadspenttheChristmasholidaysatPelhamAbbas.Possessiveformscanalsobeused.…adiscussionoftheday’sevents.ItwasJimGriffiths,whoknewnothingofthemorning’shappenings.Thestorywillappearintomorrow’spaper.Thisweek’sbatchofgovernmentstatisticsaddedtothegeneralconfusionoverthestateoftheeconomy.

Frequencyandduration4.113 Here is a list ofunitsof time that areusedwhenyouare showinghow

oftensomethinghappens,orhowlongitlastsortakes:

moment

secondminutehourdaynightweekfortnightmonthyeardecadecentury

Fortnightisusedonlyinthesingular.Moment isnotusedwithnumbersbecauseitdoesnotrefertoapreciseperiodoftime,soyoucannotsayforexampleIttookfivemoments.

FortnightisnotusedinAmericanEnglish,wheretwoweeksisusedinstead.Wordsforperiodsof theday,daysof theweek,monthsof theyear,andseasonsarealsoused,suchasmorning,Friday,July,andwinter.Clocktimesmayalsobeused.

Talkingabouthowfrequentlysomethinghappens4.114 Some adverbials show approximately how many times something

happens:

againandagainalotallthetimealwaysconstantlycontinuallycontinuouslyeverfrequentlyfromtimetotime

hardlyeverinfrequentlyintermittentlymuchnevernormallyoccasionallyoftenoverandoverperiodicallyrarelyregularlyrepeatedlyseldomsometimessporadicallyusually

Ineverdidmyhomeworkontime.SometimesIwishIwasbackinAfrica.Wewerealwaysbeingsenthome.Helaughedalot.Neverisanegativeadverb.Shenevergoesabroad.Everisonlyusedinquestions,negativeclauses,andif-clauses.Haveyoueverbeentoaconcert?Muchisusuallyusedwithnot.Themendidn’ttalkmuchtoeachother.Someadverbsoffrequencysuchasoftenandfrequentlycanalsobeusedinthecomparativeandsuperlative.Disasterscanbepreventedmoreoftenthaninthepast.Ipreachedmuchmoreoftenthanthat.Theycriedfortheirmotherslessoftenthanmighthavebeenexpected.

…themistakesthatwemakemostfrequently.

USAGENOTE

4.115 To show how many times something happens, you can use a specificnumber,several,ormanyfollowedbytimes.Wehadtoaskthreetimes.It’sanexperienceI’verepeatedmanytimessince.Hecarefullyaimedhisrifleandfiredseveraltimes.If the number you are using isone you useonce (notone time) in thisstructure.Ifitistwoyoucanusetwice.I’vebeenoutwithhimonce,that’sall.Thecarbrokedowntwice.Ifsomethinghappensregularly,youcansayhowmanytimesithappenswithinaperiodof timebyaddinga andaword referring toaperiodoftime.Thegroupmetonceaweek.Youonlyhaveamealthreetimesaday.Thecommitteemeetstwiceayear.Youcanalsouseanadverboffrequencysuchasoncewithaunitoftimeprecededbyevery to say that somethinghappensa specifiednumberoftimesregularlywithinthatunitoftime.TheaverageBritonmoveshouseonceeverysevenandahalfyears.WemeettwiceeverySunday.Threetimeseveryday,hewouldcometothekiosktocheckthatwewereallright.Ifaneventhappensregularlyduringaspecificperiodoftheday,youcanusetheperiodofdayinsteadoftimes:Iusedtogointhreemorningsaweek.Hewasgoingoutfivenightsaweek.Aregularrateorquantitycanalsobeexpressedbyaddingaandageneraltime word.Per is sometimes used instead of a, especially in technicalcontexts.Heearnsabout£1000aweek.

Iwasonlygettingthreehoursofsleepanight.…risingupwardsattherateof300feetpersecond.Hehurtlesthroughtheairat600milesperhour.

estimatingfrequency

4.116 Ifyouwant tobe lesspreciseabouthowfrequentlysomethinghappens,you can use one of the followingwords or expressions: almost, about,nearly,orso,orless,andormore.Youcanusealmostandaboutinfrontofevery.Inthelastmonthofherpregnancy,wewentoutalmosteveryevening.Youcanalsousealmostinfrontof-lytimeadverbsderivedfromgeneraltimewords,forexamplemonthly,weeklyanddaily.Smallscaleconfrontationsoccuralmostdailyinmanystates.Orso,orless,andormoreareusedafterfrequencyexpressions,butnotafteradverbsoffrequency.Everyhourorso,myshoulderswouldtighten.Ifthedelayistwohoursormore,thewholecostofthejourneyshouldberefunded.

regularintervals

4.117 If youwant to say that somethinghappens at regular intervals, you canuseeveryfollowedbyeitherageneraloraspecificunitoftime.Each issometimesusedinsteadofevery.We’llgohuntingeveryday.Yougetalumpsumandyougetapensioneachweek.SomepeoplewriteoutanewaddressbookeveryJanuary.Everycanalsobeusedwithanumberandthepluraloftheunitoftime.Everyfiveminutesthephonewouldring.The regular or average rate or quantity of something can also beexpressedusingeveryandeach.Onefighterjetwasshotdowneveryhour.…the300,000garmentsthefactoryproduceseachyear.

USAGENOTE

4.118 If somethinghappensduringoneperiodof timebutnotduring thenextperiod,thenhappensagainduringthenext,andsoon,youcanuseeveryotherfollowedbyaunitoftimeoraspecifictimeword.Everysecondissometimesusedinsteadofeveryother.Wewrotetoourparentseveryotherday.Theirlocalcommitteesareusuallyheldeveryothermonth.HeusedtocomeandtakethemouteveryotherSunday.Itseemedeasiertoshaveonlyeverysecondday.Prepositionalphraseswithalternate and a plural timeword can also beused.OnalternateSundaynights,Itelltheyoungerchildrenastory.Justdosomeexercisesonalternatedaysatfirst.

particularoccurrencesofanevent

4.119 Theadverbs first,next,and last are used to show the stage atwhich aneventtakesplace.First,thefirsttime,andforthefirsttimecanindicatethefirstoccurrenceofanevent.Hewas,Ithink,inhisearlysixtieswhenIfirstencounteredhim.Theyhadseeneachotherfirstaweekbefore,outsidethishotel.…thetacticalwargameswhichwerefirstfoughtinAncientGreece.ItrainedheavilytwicewhileIwasout.ThefirsttimeIshelteredunderatree,butthesecondtimeIwalkedthroughit.ForthefirsttimeAnneMariefeltfrightened.The repetitionof an event or situation that hasnot happened for a longtime can be indicated by using for the first time with in and the pluralformofageneraltimeword.Hewashappyandrelaxedforthefirsttimeinyears.Afutureoccurrenceisindicatedbynexttimeorthenexttime.Don’tdoitagain.Imightnotforgiveyounexttime.ThenexttimeIcomehere,I’mgoingtobebetter.

The use of next with statements referring to the future is described inparagraph4.63.Themostrecentoccurrenceofaneventcanbeindicatedbyusinglastasanadverborthenounphraseslasttimeorthelasttime.Heseemedtohavegrownalotsincehelastworeit.Hecouldnotrememberwhenhehadlasteaten.Whendidyoulastseehim?Youdidsowelllasttime.Thefinaloccurrencecanbeindicatedbyforthelasttime.Forthelasttimehewavedtothethreefriendswhowatchedfromabove.Theuseoflastinstatementsaboutthepastisdescribedinparagraph4.41.Youcanalsousebefore,again,andnounphraseswithanordinalandtimeto saywhether an event is a first occurrence, or one that has happenedbefore.You can use before with a perfect form of a verb to show whethersomething is happening for the first time or whether it is a repeatedoccurrence.I’veneverbeeninapoliceman’shousebefore.He’sdoneitbefore.Theadverbagainisusedtotalkaboutasecondorsubsequentoccurrenceofanevent.Ordinalscanbeusedwith time, innounphrasesor inmoreformalprepositionalphraseswithfor,tospecifyaparticularoccurrenceofarepeatedevent.Someonerangthefrontdoorbell.Hestoodandlistenedandhearditringagainandthenathirdtime.Wehavenoreliable informationabout thatyet,he foundhimself sayingforthethirdtime.

-lytimeadverbs

4.120 Somegeneraltimewordscanbechangedintoadverbsbyadding-lyandusedtoshowthefrequencyofanevent.

hourly

dailyweeklyfortnightlymonthlyquarterlyyearly

Notethespellingofdaily.Theadverbannuallyandtheadjectiveannualhavethesamemeaningasyearly.Itwassuggestedthatwegiveeachchildanallowanceyearlyormonthlytocoverallheorshespends.Shephonesmeuphourly.Thesamewordscanbeusedasadjectives.Tothis,weaddayearlyallowanceof£65.00towardsrepairs.Themediagaveushourlyupdates.Theyhadalong-standingcommitmenttomakingaweeklycashpaymenttomothers.

prepositionalphrases

4.121 Prepositionalphraseswithpluralformsofspecifictimewordscanalsobeusedtoindicatefrequency.Forexample,onisusedwithdaysoftheweek;duringandatareusedwithweekends.We’vehadteachingpracticeonTuesdaysandlecturesonThursdays.Shedoesnotneedhelpwiththechildrenduringweekends.Weseeeachotheratweekends.

In American English, and in informal British English, you can use thepluralformsofspecifictimewordswithouton.SheonlyworksWednesdaysandFridays.ThursdaymorningsIvolunteeratthelocalseniorcenter.HisradioprogrambroadcastsFridaynightsatnine.Inisusedwithperiodsoftheday,exceptnight.Ican’tworkfulltime.Ionlyworkintheafternoons,Ihavelecturesinthemornings.

HarryTrumanlovedtositinanoldrockingchairintheeveningsandfacethelawnsbehindtheWhiteHouse.

developmentandregularoccurrence

4.122 To show that something develops gradually, or happens at regularintervals,youcanuseageneraltimewordwithbyfollowedbythesamegeneraltimeword.Shewasgettingolderyearbyyear,andlonelier,andmoreridiculous.Millionsofcitizensfollow,daybyday,theunfoldingofthedrama.Gradual development can also be indicated by the adverbs increasinglyandprogressively.…the computers and information banks on which our world willincreasinglydepend.Hisconductbecameincreasinglyeccentric.Asdisposable incomerises,peoplebecomeprogressively lessconcernedwithprice.

Talkingabouthowlongsomethinglasts4.123 The following section explains ways of showing how long something

lastsortakes.Some adverbs and adverbial expressions are used to showhow long anevent or state lasts. Here is a list of adverbs that are used to showduration:

alwaysbrieflyforeverindefinitelylongovernightpermanentlytemporarily

SheglancedbrieflyatLucasSimmonds.

Youwon’tliveforever.Thegatesarekeptpermanentlyclosed.Brieflyandpermanentlycanbeusedinthecomparative.This new revelation had much the same outward effect, though morebriefly.ThisissomethingIwouldliketodomorepermanently.Theformlongisonlyusedasanadverbinnegativesandquestions.Ihaven’tbeeninEnglandlong.Howlongdoesittakeonthetrain?Inaffirmativeclauses, it isused inexpressions suchasa long time andprepositionalphrasessuchas fora long time.However, thecomparativeandsuperlativeforms longerand longestcanbeused inaffirmativeandnegativeclauses.Thenofcourseyou’llgowithParry.She’sbeenyourfriendlonger.I’vebeenthinkingaboutitalotlongerthanyou.Sheremainedthelongest.Inaffirmativeandnegativeif-clauses,youcanuseforlong.Ifshe’sawayforlongwewon’tbeabletowait.

prepositionalphrases

4.124 However,prepositionalphrasesaremorecommonlyused.Thefollowingprepositionsareusedinadverbialsofduration:

afterbeforeforfrominsincethroughouttountil

The prepositional object can be a noun phrase referring to a specificperiodoftime.Thiscanbeinthesingularafterthedeterminera(oroneforemphasis),orinthepluralafteranumberorquantityexpression.The noun phrase can also refer to an indefinite period, for exampleexpressionssuchasalongtime,ashortwhile,awhile,orages,orpluraltimewordssuchashours.

forforlengthoftime

4.125 Theprepositionforindicateshowlongsomethingcontinuestohappen.IshestillthinkingofgoingawaytoItalyforamonth?Theinitialbattlecontinuedforanhour.Thisprecioushappytimelastedforamonthortwo.Forthenextweek,shedidnotcontacthim.Weweremarriedforfifteenyears.Ididn’tspeakforalongtime.Shewouldhavelikedtositforawhileandthink.Youusetheinsteadofawhentheperiodoftimeisalreadyknown,withseasons,periodsof theday,andweekend, orwhenyoumodify the timewordwithwordslikepast,coming,following,next,last,oranordinal.TellAuntElizabethyou’reofffortheday.We’vebeenlivingtogetherforthepastyear.ForthefirstmonthortwoIwasbulliedconstantly.Forthenextfewdayshehadtostayinbed.Putthemincoldstorageforthewinter.IsaidI’mofftoBrightonfortheweekend.Remember that youdonotuse adeterminerwith special periodsof theyear.AtleastcomeforChristmas.

4.126 Forcanalsobeusedwithspecifictimeadverbialstoshowthetimewhensomethingistobeused,nothowlongittakesorlasts.EverythingwasplacedexactlywhereIwanteditforthemorning.

4.127 For can alsobeused innegative statementswhenyouwant to say thatsomethingneednotorwillnothappenuntilacertainperiodoftimehas

passed.Yetisoftenadded.

Itwon’tbereadytosailforanotherthreeweeks.Idon’thavetodecideforamonthyet.

forforemphasis

4.128 Forisusedwithapluralnounphrasetoemphasizehowlongsomethinglasts.Settlershavebeencominghereforcenturies.Idon’tthinkhe’spractisedmuchforyears.I’vebeenaskingyouaboutthesedoorsformonths.

USAGENOTE

4.129 You can also use a general timewordwithafter followed by the samegeneral timewordtoemphasizethatastatecontinuesforalongtimeorthatanactionisrepeatedcontinuouslyforalongtime.IwonderedwhatkeptherinParisdecadeafterdecade.Theycangoonmakinglosses,yearafteryear,withoutfearingthattheywillgobust.

inandwithinforendofaperiod

4.130 In is used to indicate that somethinghappensorwill happenbefore theendofacertainperiodoftime.InmoreformalEnglishwithinisused.Canwegettotheairportinanhour?ThatcoatmusthavecostyoumorethanIearninayear.Thefaceofacitycanchangecompletelyinayear.Theyshouldgetthejobfinishedwithinafewdays.

4.131 Inandwithinarealsoused toshowthatsomethingonly tookor takesashorttime.Thecloudsevaporatedinseconds.Whatanexpertcandoinminutesmaytakeyouhourstoaccomplish.Withinafewmonths,thebarnyardhadbeenabandoned.

forandinwithgeneralorspecifictime

4.132 Forandincanbeusedinnegativestatementstosaythatsomethingdoesnothappenduringaperiodof time.Youcanuse them in thiswaywithspecificunitsoftime,andwithmoregeneraltimereferences.Hehadn’thadapropernight’ssleepforamonth.Ihaven’tseenachartforfortyyears!TheteamhadnotheardfromStablerinamonth.Hehasn’tsleptinamonth.Ihaven’tseenhimforyears.Let’shaveadinnerparty.Wehaven’thadoneinyears.Ihaven’tfiredaguninyears.

nounphrasesthatexpressduration

4.133 Notethatwiththeverbslast,wait,andstay,whichhavedurationaspartof their meaning, the adverbial can be a noun phrase instead of aprepositionalphrasewithfor.Thecampaignlastsfourweeksatmost.Hisspeechlastedforexactly14andahalfminutes.‘Waitaminute,’thevoicesaid.Hestayedamonth,fiveweeks,sixweeks.Theverbstakeandspendcanalsoindicatedurationbuttheadverbialcanonlybeanounphrase.Ittookmeamonthtolosethatfeelingofbeingaspectator.Whatoncetookacenturynowtookonlytenmonths.Hespentfiveminuteswashingandshaving.

approximateduration

4.134 Ifyouwant tobe lesspreciseabouthow long something lasts,youcanuse one of the following words or expressions: about, almost, nearly,around,morethan,lessthan,andsoon.They’velivedthereformorethanthirtyyears.Theyhavenotbeenallowedtoformunionsforalmostadecade.Thethreeofustravelledaroundtogetherforaboutamonththatsummer.Inlessthanayear,IlearnedenoughLatintopasstheentranceexam.HehadbeenincommandofHMSChurchillfornearlyayear.

Whenyoumakeageneralstatementaboutthedurationofsomething,youcanindicatethemaximumperiodoftimethatitwilllastortakebyusingupto.Refreshertrainingforuptoonemontheachyearwastheruleforall.You can also use expressions such as or so, or more, or less, and orthereaboutstomakethedurationlessspecific.Hehasbeenwritingabouttennisandgolfforfortyyearsorso.Ourspeciesprobablypractiseditforamillionyearsormore.…hopeswhichhaveprevailedsostronglyforacenturyormore.Almost,about,nearly,and thereaboutsarealsousedwhen talkingaboutwhenaneventtakesplace;seeparagraph4.100fordetailsofthis.

Talkingaboutthewholeofaperiod4.135 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethinglastsforthewholeofaperiodof

time,youcanuseallasadeterminerwithmanygeneraltimewords.‘I’vebeenwantingtodothisallday,’shesaid.I’vebeenhereallnight.Theysaidyouwereoutallafternoon.We’venotseenthemallsummer.Youcanalsousewholeasamodifierinfrontofageneraltimeword.Ittookmethewholeofmyfirstyeartoadjust.…scientistswhoaremonitoringfoodsafetythewholetime.…peoplewhohavenotworkedforawholeyear.Youcanalsouseallthrough,rightthrough,andthroughoutwiththeandmany general time words, or with a specific decade, year, month, orspecialperiod.Discussionsandargumentscontinuedallthroughtheday.Rightthroughthesummermonthstheyarerarelyoutofsight.ThroughouttheSixties,man’sfirstvoyagetootherworldscamecloser.Wordsreferringtoeventsaresometimesusedinsteadofthetimewordstoemphasizethatsomethinghappenedfortheentiredurationoftheevent.Heworeanexpressionofangrycontemptthroughouttheinterrogation.Apatientreportedadreamthathadrecurredthroughoutherlife.

Allthroughthecruellylongjourneyhome,helayutterlymotionless.4.136 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethinghappensallthetime,youcanlist

periodsofthedayorseasonsoftheyear,ormentioncontrastingones.…peoplecominginmorning,noon,andnight.I’vewornthesamesuitsummer,winter,autumnandspring,forfiveyears.Thousands of slave labourers worked night and day to build thefortifications.Tengardenersusedtoworkthisland,winterandsummer.Eachfamilywasfilmed24/7forsixweeks.24/7 is an abbreviation of24 hours a day, 7 days aweek. It is used ininformalEnglishandinjournalism.

Showingthestartorendofaperiod

starttime

4.137 You can also show how long a situation lasts by using prepositionalphrasestogivethetimewhenitbeginsorthetimewhenitends,orboth.If you want to talk about a situation that began in the past and iscontinuingnow,ortoconsideraperiodofitfromatimeinthepasttothepresent,youusetheprepositionsincewithatimeadverbialoraneventtoshowwhenthesituationbegan.Theverbisinthepresentperfect.I’vebeenheresincetwelveo’clock.Ihaven’thadanewcustomerinheresinceSunday.SinceJanuary,therehasn’tbeenanymoretrouble.Ihaven’tbeenoutsinceChristmas.Thesituationhasnotchangedsince2001.Therehasbeennowordofmyfriendsincetherevolution.Sinceisalsousedtoindicatethebeginningofsituationsthatendedinthepast.Theverbisinthepastperfect.I’dbeenworkinginLondonsinceJanuaryatafirmcalledKendalls.Hehadn’tprayedoncesincethemorning.I’donlyhadtwosandwichessincebreakfast.Since can also be used with other prepositional phrases that indicate apointintime.

Ihaven’tseenyousincebeforethesummer.The noun phrase after since can sometimes refer to a person or thingratherthanatimeorevent,especiallywhenusedwithasuperlative,first,oronly,orwithanegative.Theyhadn’tseeneachothersinceMajorca.IhaveneverhadanotherdogsinceJonnie.EversinceLondon,I’vebeenworkingtowardsthis.

4.138 The time when a situation began can also be shown by using theprepositionfromandaddingtheadverbonoronwards.Thenounphrasecanbeadate,anevent,oraperiod.Theverbcanbeinthepastsimpleorinaperfectform.…thehistoryofBritishindustryfromthemidsixtieson.Fromtheeighteenthcenturyon,greatprivatepalaceswentup.Butfromthemid-1960sonwardstherateofpublicwelfarespendinghastendedtoaccelerate.Thefamilysizestartstoinfluencedevelopmentfrombirth.Theyneverperceivedthattheythemselveshadforcedwomenintothisrolefromchildhood.…theguidewhohadbeenwithusfromthebeginning.

4.139 Youcanalsouse theprepositionafter togive the timewhena situationbegan.Theydon’tletanybodyinaftersixo’clock.After1929Iconcentratedoncanvaswork.He’dhaveanumberofboystohelphimthroughthesummertimebutafterOctoberhe’djusthavetheone.

endtime

4.140 Similarly,ifyouwanttosaythatasituationcontinuesforsometimeandthen stops, you can indicate the time when it stops by using theprepositionuntilwithatimeadverbialoranevent.Theschoolwaskeptopenuntilteno’clockfivenightsaweek.Theydancedandlaughedandtalkeduntildawn.Shewalkedbackagainandsatinherroomuntildinner.I’vejustdiscoveredshe’sonlyhereuntilSunday.

Hehadbeenwillingtowaituntilthefollowingsummer.Untiltheendofthe18thcenturylittlehadbeenknownaboutPersia.Untilthatmeeting,mostofusknewverylittleabouthim.Untilcanalsobeusedinnegativeclausestosaythatsomethingdidnotorwillnothappenbeforeaparticulartime.Wewon’tgetthemuntilSeptember.Myplanedoesnotleaveuntiltomorrowmorning.Untilisalsousedwithotherprepositionalphrasesthatindicateapointintime.IdecidedtowaituntilafterEastertovisitJohn.Somepeopleusetillinsteadofuntil,especiallyininformalEnglish.SometimesIlieinbedtillnineo’clock.Uptoanduptillarealsosometimesused,mainlybeforenowandthen.Uptonow,Ihavebeenhappywithhiswork.Itwassomethinghehadneverevenconsidereduptillnow.I had a three-wheel bike up to a few years ago but it got harder andhardertopushitalong.Upto1989,growthaveraged1percent.

4.141 Youcanalsousetheprepositionbeforetoindicatewhenasituationends.Before1716Cheltenhamhadbeenasmallmarkettown.

startandendtimes

4.142 The duration of a situation or event can be shown by saying when itbeginsandwhenitends.Youcanusefromtoshowwhenitbeginsandto,till,oruntiltoshowwhenitends.TheBlitzonLondonbeganwithnightlybombingsfrom7Septemberto2November.TheyareactiveinthelinefromaboutJanuaryuntilOctober.Theyseemtobeworkingfromdawntilldusk.Youcanalsousebetweenandandinsteadoffromandto.ThecarisusuallyinthegaragebetweenSundayandThursdayinwinter.

InAmericanEnglish,throughisoftenplacedbetweenthetwotimes:

Thechatshowgoesoutmidnightthroughsixa.m.Ifyouareusing figures to refer to two timesoryears,youcanseparatethemwithadash,insteadofusingfromandto.…open10–5weekdays,10–6Saturdaysand2–6Sundays.

Usingtimeexpressionstomodifynouns4.143 You can also use time expressions involving acardinal number and a

general timewordtomodifynouns.Notethatanapostropheisaddedtothetimeword.Fourofthoseweresentencedto15days’detention.Theywanttotakeonstaffwithtwoyears’experience.Thisuseofcardinalnumbersisdescribedinparagraph2.231.

4.144 Time expressions are also used as compound adjectives to modifycountablenouns.Theyallhavetostartoffwithasix-monthcourseinGerman.IarrivedattheUniversityforathree-monthstintasavisitinglecturer.Compoundadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.94to2.102.

Chapter5Varying the message: modals, negatives, andwaysofformingsentences

5.2–48 Statements,questions,orders,andsuggestions5.6–9 Makingstatements:thedeclarativeform

5.10–11 Askingquestions:theinterrogativeform5.12–14 Yes/no-questions

5.15 Makingaquestionmorepolite5.16–21 Makingastatementintoaquestion:questiontags

5.22 Either/orquestions5.23–36 Wh-questions5.37–41 Directingotherpeople’sactions:theimperative5.42–48 Otherusesofthedeclarative,theinterrogative,andtheimperative

5.49–93 Formingnegativestatements5.82–89 Broadnegatives:hardly,seldom,etc.5.90–93 Emphasizingthenegativeaspectofastatement

5.94–258 Usingmodals5.96–100 Themainusesofmodals5.101–108 Specialfeaturesofmodals5.109–116 Referringtotime

5.117 Talkingaboutpossibility5.118–121 Talkingaboutability5.122–141 Talkingaboutlikelihood5.142–145 Talkingaboutpermission5.146–153 Sayingthatsomethingisunacceptable5.154–155 Interactingwithotherpeople5.156–172 Givinginstructionsandmakingrequests5.173–181 Makinganofferoraninvitation5.182–189 Makingsuggestions5.190–195 Statinganintention

5.196–201 Expressingunwillingnessorrefusal5.202–210 Expressingawish5.211–215 Indicatingimportance5.216–222 Introducingwhatyouaregoingtosay5.223–247 Expressionsusedinsteadofmodals5.248–258 Semi-modals

5 Varying the message: modals, negatives,andwaysofformingsentences

5.1 This chapter dealswith three differentways inwhich themeaningof asentencecanbevaried,byalteringtheorderofwordsorbyaddingotherwordstotheverbphrase.Paragraphs5.2to5.48explainhowtoformstatements,questions,orders,andsuggestions.Paragraphs 5.49 to 5.93 explain how negative words are used to talkabouttheoppositeofsomethingortheabsenceofsomething.Paragraphs 5.94 to 5.258 explain howmodals are used to talk aboutpossibility,ortoshowtheattitudeofthespeaker.

Statements,questions,orders,andsuggestions5.2 Sentencesareusedtodomanydifferentthings.

Themostcommonuseistogiveinformation.IwenttoGlasgowUniversity.Carolwasoneofmysister’sbestfriends.Sometimesyouuseasentencetoobtaininformation,ratherthantogiveit.Whereismyfather?WhatdidyousaytoMyra?Howlonghaveyoubeenoutofthiscountry?At other times you want to express an opinion, give an order, make asuggestion,ormakeapromise.That’sanexcellentidea.Goaway,allofyou.

Shallwelistentothenews?Ifyouhaveanyquestions,I’lldomybesttoanswerthem.Whensomeonesaysorwritesasentence,theyneedtoshowwhattheyaretrying to do with it, so that it will be clear, for example, that they areaskingaquestionandnotmakingastatement.

wordorder

5.3 Oftenitistheorderofwordsthatindicateswhichwayasentenceisbeingused.Forexample,ifyousayHeisNorwegian,thewordordermakesitclear thatyouaremakingastatement. IfyousayIsheNorwegian?, thewordorderindicatesthatyouareaskingaquestion.Anotherwayofshowingwhichwayasentenceisbeingusedistobeginitwithaverb,ratherthanwiththesubject.Forexample,ifyousayGivethisbook toMichael, it is clear that you are giving an order or instruction,ratherthanmakingastatementoraskingaquestion.

Statements,questions,andorders

5.4 Therearethreemainwaysofshowingwhattypeofsentenceisbeingusedin English. These sentence-types are used for forming statements,questions,andorders.Thedeclarativeformisusedinmostmainclauses.Statementsarealmostalways made using the declarative form. When a clause is in thedeclarative,thesubjectisplacedinfrontoftheverb.Thedeclarativeissometimescalledtheindicative.IwanttotalktoMrCastle.GertrudelookedatAnne.We’llgiveyoufifteenpoundsnow.The interrogative form is usually used in questions. In clauses, thesubjectisoftenplacedafterthemainverborafteranauxiliaryverb.Issheveryupset?Whereismyfather?HaveyoumetHarry?Didyougivehimmyletter?

Theimperativeisusedtotrytodirectsomeone’sactions.Inclauses,thesubjectisusuallyomittedandthebaseformoftheverbisused.Comebackthisminute.Showmethecompletemanuscript.Thereisafourthformcalledthesubjunctive.ThisisafeatureofEnglishverbsthatsometimesoccursinsubordinateclauses.Thesubjunctiveisnotused to distinguish between different uses of language, and is thereforenotdealtwithinthischapter.Clausesinwhichthesubjunctiveoccursareexplainedinparagraphs7.43,8.41,and8.48.

5.5 Thewaysinwhichthesedifferentstructuresareusedareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.Paragraphs 5.6 to 5.9 explain how the declarative is used to makestatements.Paragraphs 5.10 to 5.36 explain how the interrogative is used to askquestions.Paragraphs5.37to5.41explainhowtheimperativeisusedtotrytodirectsomeone’sactions.Otherusesofthedeclarative,interrogative,andimperativeareexplainedinparagraphs5.42to5.48.

Makingstatements:thedeclarativeform

givinginformation

5.6 Whenyouaregivinginformation,youusethedeclarativeform.Weatedinneratsix.Ilikereadingpoetry.Officialshaverefusedtocomment.

expressingopinions

5.7 When you are expressing an opinion, you usually use the declarativeform.Ithinksheisabrilliantwriter.It’sagoodthingFatherisdeaf.Heoughttohaveletmeknowhewasgoingout.

makingpromises

5.8 Whenyoumakeapromise,youusethedeclarativeform.IshalldoeverythingIcantohelpyou.I’llhaveitsentdownbyspecialdelivery.

emphasis

5.9 Youcanemphasizeastatementbyputtingdo,does,ordidinfrontofthebaseformoftheverb.IdofeelsorryforRoger.Alittleknowledgedoesseemtobeadangerousthing.Hehadno time to spend timewithhis family, but hedidbring home aregularsalary.

Askingquestions:theinterrogativeform5.10 Whenyouaskaquestion,youusuallyusetheinterrogativeform.

typesofquestion

5.11 Therearetwomaintypesofquestion.Questionsthatcanbeansweredbyyesornoarecalledyes/no-questions.‘Isheyouronlychild?’–‘Yes.’‘Areyouplanningtomarrysoon?’–‘No.’‘CanIhelpyou?’–‘Yes,I’dliketobookasingleroom,please.’‘Areyouinterestedinracing?’–‘Yes,Iloveit.’‘Areyouasingeraswellasanactress?’–‘No,I’mnotasingeratall.’‘Doyoulikeit?’–‘Yes,Ireallylikeit.’The actual answer to a yes/no-question is not always yes or no. Forexample, if you ask someone Do you read in bed?, they might saySometimesorNever.IfyousaytosomeoneDoyoulikejazz?,theymightsayIthinkit’sgreat.ButthequestionsDoyoureadinbed?andDoyoulike jazz? are still yes/no-questions, because yes andno are the type ofanswersthequestionerexpects.Sometimeswillbe interpretedasaweakyesanswer,neverasastrongnoanswer,andIthinkit’sgreatasastrongyesanswer.

Yes/no-questionsarefullyexplainedinparagraphs5.12to5.22.The other main type of question begins with awh-word such aswhat,where,orwhen.Whenyouaskaquestionofthistype,theanswercannotbeyesorno.‘Whogaveyoumynumber?’–‘Yourmotherdid.’‘Whydidn’tyouaskme?’–‘Iwasafraidto.’‘Whereishenow?’–‘He’satuniversity.’Thistypeofquestioniscalledawh-question.Whenwh-wordsareusedaspronouns or adverbs at the beginning of awh-question, they are calledinterrogativepronounsorinterrogativeadverbs.Wh-questionsareexplainedinparagraphs5.23to5.36.

Yes/no-questions

positionofauxiliaryverbs

5.12 Inayes/no-question,ifthereisanauxiliaryverb,theauxiliaryverbcomesfirst,followedbythesubject,thenthemainverb.Areyoustayinghere,byanychance?Willtheywinagain?Willtheylikemygarden?Canhereadyet?Ifthereismorethanoneauxiliaryverb,thefirstauxiliaryverbcomesatthebeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubject,followedbytheotherverbs.Hadhebeenmurdered?Hasitbeenthrownaway,perhaps?Forinformationaboutauxiliaries,seetheReferencesection.

5.13 Ifthereisnoauxiliaryverb,youputdo,does,ordidatthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject,followedbythebaseformofthemainverb.DoyouunderstandwhatI’msaying?Doesithurtmuch?DidyoumeetGeorgeinFrance?

Note that if the main verb is do, you still put do, does, or did at thebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject.Dotheydotheworkthemselves?DoesDaviddothissortofthingoften?

beandhaveasmainverbs

5.14 If the verb is be, you do not use do. You simply put the verb at thebeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubject.Areyouokay?IssheRicky’ssister?AmIright?Wasitlonelywithoutus?Iftheverbishave,youusuallyputdo,does,ordidatthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject.Dopassengershaverights?Doesanyonehaveaquestion?Didyouhaveagoodflight?However,whenyouusehaveinthesenseofownorpossess,youdonotneedtousedo,does,ordid.Youcansimplyputhave,has,orhadat thebeginningoftheclause.Thisisaslightlyformaluse.Haveweanythingelseweoughttotalkaboutfirst?Hasheanyideawhatit’slike?Ifyouusehavegotorhasgotinayes/no-question,youputhaveorhasatthebeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubject,followedbygot.HaveyougotanybrochuresonHolland?Hasshegotacar?Havegotandhasgotareexplainedinparagraph3.15.

Makingaquestionmorepolite5.15 You canmake a question or request softer ormore polite by beginning

with an expression likeDoyou know…orCould you tellme….Thistypeofquestioniscalledanindirectquestion.Herearesomeexpressionsyoucanusetomakequestionsmorepolite:

Couldyoutellme…Doyouknow…Doyouhaveanyidea…Wouldyoumindtellingme…

Whenoneoftheseintroductoryexpressionsisused,thewordorderoftherestofthesentenceisthesameasinanaffirmativestatement.Couldyoutellmewhattimethetrainleaves?Doyouknowwherehelives?Doyouhaveanyideawhat’shappening?Wouldyoumindtellingmehowoldyouare?Whenyouansweraquestionofthistype,theanswerisusuallyyesorno,followedbytheinformationaskedfor.‘Couldyoutellmewhattimethetrainleaves?’—‘Yes,itleavesatthreeo’clock.’‘Doyouknowwherehelives?’—‘Yes,inthefarmuponthehill.’‘Doyouhaveanyideawhat’shappening?’—‘No,I’mafraidnot!’‘Wouldyoumindtellingmehowoldyouare?—‘Notatall.I’m52.’Note that the ‘positive’answer toaquestionbeginningWouldyoumindtellingme… isNo orNotat all. ItmeansNo, Iwouldn’tmind (=Yes,that’sfine).

Makingastatementintoaquestion:questiontags5.16 You can ask for confirmation that something is true by making a

statementinthedeclarative,thenaddinganexpressionsuchasisn’tit?orwasshe?Constructionslikethesearecalledquestiontags.QuestiontagsaremostoftenusedinspokenEnglish.

formingquestiontags

5.17 Question tags are formed using an auxiliary or a form of be or do,followedbyapersonalpronounreferringtothesubject.Ifthemainclauseisintheaffirmative,youuseanegativetag.Negativetags are always contracted, except in old-fashioned or very formal

English.Itisquitewarm,isn’tit?Ifthemainclauseisinthenegative,youuseanaffirmativetag.Youdidn’tknowIwasanartist,didyou?If themain clause of your statement has an auxiliary in it, you use thesameauxiliaryinthetag.Youwillstayintouch,won’tyou?Ifthemainclausehasthepastsimpleorpresentsimpleformofbeasthemainverb,youusethisinthetag.Theyare,aren’tthey?Ifthemainclausedoesnothaveanauxiliaryortheverbbe,youusedo,does,ordidinthetag.Afteracoupleofyearstheheatgetstoomuch,doesn’tit?HeplayedforIreland,didn’the?Note that the negative tag with I is aren’t I, even though am is theauxiliaryormainverbinthemainclause.I’mcontrollingit,aren’tI?

checkingstatements

5.18 Ifyouhaveanopinionorbeliefaboutsomethingandyouwanttocheckthatitistrue,ortofindoutifsomeoneagreeswithyou,youcanmakeastatementandaddaquestiontagafterittomakeitintoaquestion.Ifyouaremakinganaffirmativestatementandyouwanttocheckthatitistrue,youuseanegativequestiontag.YoulikeRalphalot,don’tyou?Theyarebeautifulplaces,aren’tthey?Ifyouaremakinganegativestatementandwanttocheckthatit is true,youuseanaffirmativetag.Itdoesn’twork,doesit?Youwon’ttellanyoneelseallthis,willyou?You can also use an affirmative tag if your statement contains a broad

negative,anegativeadverb,oranegativepronoun.

Thathardlycounts,doesit?You’veneverbeentoBenidorm,haveyou?Nothinghadchanged,hadit?

replyingtotags

5.19 Thepersonyouare speaking to replies to thecontentofyour statementratherthantothetag,andconfirmsanaffirmativestatementwithyesandanegativestatementwithno.‘Itbecamestronger,didn’tit?’–‘Yesitdid.’‘Youdidn’tknowthat,didyou?’–‘No.’

otherusesofquestiontags

5.20 Ifyouaremakingastatementaboutyourselfandyouwanttocheckifthepersonyouaretalkingtohasthesameopinionorfeeling,youcanputatagwithyouafteryourstatement.Ithinkthisisthebestthing,don’tyou?Ilovetea,don’tyou?Question tagscanalsobeused to showyour reaction to something thatsomeonehasjustsaidorimplied,forexampletoshowinterest,surprise,or anger. Note that you use an affirmative tag after an affirmativestatement.Youfellonyourback,didyou?You’vebeentoNorthAmericabefore,haveyou?Oh,hewantsustomakefilmsaswell,doeshe?Whenusinglet’stosuggestdoingsomething,youcanaddthetagshallwetocheckthatthepeopleyouaretalkingtoagreewithyou.Let’sforgetit,shallwe?Ifyouaresuggestingthatyoudosomethingandyouwant tocheckthatthepersonyouarespeakingtoagrees,youcanaddthetagshallI?I’llcallthedoctor,shallI?Ifyouare telling someone todo somethingandyouwant tomakeyour

ordersoundlessforceful,youcandosobyaddingaquestiontag.Thetagisusuallywillyou,butwon’tyouandcan’tyouarealsoused.Comeintothekitchen,willyou?Lookatthat,willyou?Seethatshegetssafelyback,won’tyou?Whenyouareusinganegativeimperative,youcanonlyusewillyouasatag.Don’ttellHoward,willyou?You can also add an affirmative tag such asare you? to an affirmativestatementifyouwanttoshowinterestinapieceofinformation.So,you’releavingus,areyou?He’safriendofyours,ishe?

all-purposequestiontags

5.21 In informal spoken English, you can use a one-word all-purposequestiontagsuchasright?oreh?You’reAmerican,right?He’salawyer,right?Let’stalkaboutsomethingelse,eh?Notgood,eh?InsomevarietiesofEnglish,particularlythosespokeninIndia,SingaporeandMalaysia,isn’tit?isusedasanall-purposequestiontag.We’veseenthatfilmalready,isn’tit?They’rearrivingtomorrow,isn’tit?Informal multicultural British English uses the common all-purposequestion tag innit (ashortenedformof isn’t it),bothwithandwithoutarisingquestionmark.Itmakesyouthinkthough,innit?It’salljustabitoffun,innit?Soeventuallyhegavemethesack,innit.

Either/or-questions5.22 Yousometimesaskaquestioninwhichyoumentiontwoormorepossible

answers.Youlinkthepossibleanswerswithor.Forexample,youmightsayIsheawakeorasleep?orDoyoulikeyourcoffeewhiteorblack?Youexpect the actual answer toyourquestion tobeoneof the answersyouhavementioned.Words,phrases,andclausescanallbelinkedinthisway.Questionslikethesearesometimescalledeither/or-questions.‘Isitaboyoragirl?’–‘Abeautifulboy.’‘Wasithealthyordiseased?’–‘Diseased,I’mafraid.’‘Shallwetakethebusordoyouwanttowalk?’–‘Let’swalk,shallwe?’

Wh-questions5.23 When you ask someone a wh-question, you want them to specify a

particularperson, thing,place, reason,method, time,oramount.Youdonotexpectthemtoansweryesorno.

wh-words

5.24 Wh-questionsbeginwithawh-word.Wh-wordsareasetofpronouns,adverbs,anddeterminerswhichall,withtheexceptionofhow,beginwithwh-.Hereisalistofthemainwh-words:

howwhatwhenwherewhichwhowhomwhosewhy

wh-wordassubject

5.25 Whenawh-word is the subject of a verb, orwhen it forms part of thesubject,thewordorderoftheclauseisthesameasthatofaclauseinthe

declarative,i.e.thesubjectisputfirst,followedbytheverb.Whoinvitedyou?Andthenwhathappened?Whichmattressisbest?

wh-wordasobjectoradverb

5.26 Whenawh-wordistheobjectofaverborpreposition,orwhenitformspartoftheobject,orwhenitisanadverb,thepositionofthesubjectistheusualoneintheinterrogativeform;thatis,itcomesafterthefirstverbintheclause.WhatamIgoingtodowithoutyou?Whichgraphareyougoingtouse?WhywouldStephenlietome?Whenwouldyoubecomingdown?Ifyouareusingthepresentsimpleorthepastsimpleofanyverbexceptbe,youputdo,does,ordidinfrontofthesubject.Whatdoyoureallythink?Whichdepartmentdoyouwant?Wheredoesshelive?Howdoyouknowwhatit’slike?WhendidyoulastseeJohnCartwright?Ifyouareusingthepresentsimpleorthepastsimpleofbe,themainverbgoesinfrontofthesubject.Youdonotusedo,does,ordid.Whereisthestation?Howwasyourmeeting?Whenwasthelasttimeyoucleanedthegarage?

questionswithoutaverb

5.27 In conversation, awh-question sometimes consists of awh-word on itsown.

For example, if you say to someone I’m learning to type, theymight sayWhy?,meaningWhyareyoulearningtotype?‘Hesawasnake.’–‘Where?’

‘IhavetogotoGermany.’–‘When?’‘Iknewyouwerelandingtoday.’–‘How?’Awh-question can also consist of a nounphrase containing awh-word.For example, if you say to someone I gave yourbook to that girl, theymightsayWhichgirl?,meaningWhichgirldidyougivemybookto?‘Heknewmycousin.’–‘Whichcousin?’‘Whowasyourfriend?’–‘Whatfriend?’

whoandwhom

5.28 Thepronounwhoisusedtoaskquestionsaboutaperson’sidentity.Whocanbethesubjectorobjectofaverb.Whodiscoveredthis?Whowereherfriends?WhoisMichaelHoward?Whodidhemarry?Inmore formalEnglish,whom is sometimesused insteadofwhoas theobjectofaverb.Whomshallwecall?Whomdidyousee?Whoandwhomcanalsobetheobjectofapreposition.Whenwhoistheobjectofapreposition,theprepositionisputattheendoftheclause.Whodidyoudancewith?WhodoIpaythisto?Whenwhom is the object of a preposition, the preposition is put at thebeginningoftheclause,infrontofwhom.ForwhomwasheworkingwhileinBaghdad?Towhomisabroadcasterresponsible?

IninformalspokenEnglish,whoissometimesusedafterapreposition.Soyoureporttowho?Thisuseisespeciallycommonwhenyouleaveoutpartofthequestion.‘Theyweresayinghorriblethings.’–‘Really?Towho?’‘Itcouldbedifficult.’–‘Forwho?’

whose

5.29 Whoseisusedasadeterminerorpronountoaskwhichpersonsomethingbelongstoorisassociatedwith.Whosechildrendidyouthinktheywere?Whosecoatwasit?Whoseisthat?

which

5.30 Which is used as a pronounor determiner to ask someone to identify aspecificpersonorthingoutofanumberofpeopleorthings.Whichisthebestrestaurant?Whichisherroom?Whichdoyoulikebest?Whichdoctordoyouwanttosee?Whenwhichisadeterminer,itcanbepartoftheobjectofapreposition.Theprepositionisusuallyputattheendofthequestion.Whichstationdidyoucomefrom?Whichcharacterdidyoulikemost?

whenandwhere

5.31 When is used to ask questions about the time something happened,happens,orwillhappen.Whendidyoufindher?Whendowehavesupper?Ginny,whenareyoucominghome?Whereisusedtoaskquestionsaboutplace,position,ordirection.Wheredoesshelive?Whereareyougoing?Wheredoyougotocomplain?

why

5.32 Whyisusedtoaskaquestionaboutthereasonforsomething.

Whyareyouhere?WhydoesAmywanttogoandseehisgrave?Whydoesshetreatmelikethatwhenwe’resucholdfriends?Why is sometimes used without a subject and with the base form of averb,usuallytoaskwhyanactionisorwasnecessary.Whywakemeup?Whybotheraboutme?Whymakeapointofit?Whynot can be usedwith the base form of a verb, in order tomake asuggestionortoaskwhyaparticularactionhasnotbeentaken.Whynotenditnow?Whynotreadabook?Ifyouhavemoneyinthebank,whynotuseit?

how

5.33 Howisusuallyusedtoaskaboutthemethodusedfordoingsomething,oraboutthewayinwhichsomethingcanbeachieved.Howdoweopenit?Howareyougoingtogetthat?Howcouldheexplainittoher?Howdidheknowwhenyouwerecoming?Howisalsousedtoaskquestionsaboutthewayapersonfeels,abouttheway someone or something looks, or about theway something sounds,feels,ortastes.Howareyoufeelingtoday?‘HowdoIlook?’–‘Verynice.’Howdidyoufeelwhenyoustoodupinfrontoftheclass?

howwithotherwords

5.34 Howcanbecombinedwithotherwordsatthebeginningofquestions.Howmanyandhowmuchareusedtoaskwhatnumberofthingsthereareorwhatamountofsomethingthereis.Howmanyisfollowedbyapluralcountablenoun.

Howmanypeoplearethere?Howmanylanguagescanyouspeak?Howmanytimeshaveyoubeen?Howmuchisfollowedbyanuncountablenoun.Howmuchmoneyhavewegotinthebank?Justhowmuchtimehaveyoubeendevotingtothis?Howmanyandhowmuchcanbeusedwithoutafollowingnounwhenyoudonotneedtomakeitclearwhatsortofthingyouaretalkingabout.Howmanydidyoufind?Howmuchdidhetellyou?Howmuchdoesitcost?Howmuchdotheyreallyunderstand?Howlongisusedtoaskaboutthelengthofaperiodoftime.Howlonghaveyoulivedhere?Howlongwillittake?Howlongcanshelivelikethis?Howlongagowasthat?Howlongisalsousedtoaskquestionsaboutthelengthofsomething.Howlongisthisroad?Howfarisusedinquestionsaboutdistanceandextent.Howfarcanwesee?HowfarisittoMontrealfromhere?Howfarhaveyougotwithyourhomework?You can combine how with an adjective when you are asking to whatextentsomethinghasaparticularqualityorfeature.Howbigisyourflat?Howoldareyourchildren?

Howcome?isaninformalwayofaskingwhy?It isnormallyusedonlyinspeech.HowcomeyouknowsomuchaboutLinda?

what

5.35 What canbe apronounordeterminer, or it canbeused in combinationwithiforfor.What is used as a pronoun to find out various kinds of specificinformation, for example details of an event, themeaning of aword orexpression,orthereasonforsomething.What’swrongwithhismother?Whathashappenedtohim?Whatisobesity?Whatkeepsyouhangingaroundhere?Whatcanbeusedtoasksomeone’sopinionofsomething.Whatdoyouthinkaboutthepresentpoliticalsituation?Whatisoftenusedastheobjectofapreposition.Theprepositionusuallygoesattheendofthequestion.Whatareyouinterestedin?Whatdidhedieof?Whatdoyouwanttotalkabout?What isusedasadeterminer to findout the identityof somethingor toaskwhatkindofthingitis.Whatbooksdoessheread?Whatchurchdidyousayyouattend?Whatifgoesinfrontofaclauseinthedeclarative.Itisusedtoaskwhatshouldbedoneifaparticulardifficultyoccurs.Whatifit’sreallybadweather?Whatiftheydidn’twanttopartwithit,whatwouldyoudothen?Youputwhatatthebeginningofaquestionandforattheendofitwhenyouwanttoknowthereasonforsomethingorthepurposeofsomething.Whatareyoustaringfor?meansthesameasWhyareyoustaring?Whatisthishandlefor?meansWhatisthepurposeofthishandle?Whatareyougoingfor?Whatarethoselightsfor?

IninformalspokenEnglish,youcanalsosayWhatfor?whensomeonesayswhattheyhavedone,orwhattheyintendtodo,andyouwanttoknowthereasonfortheiractions.

‘I’veboughtyouapresent.’–‘Whatfor?’What can also be used in combination with about or of. This use isexplainedinparagraph5.47.

whatever,wherever,andwhoever

5.36 If youwant a question to soundmore emphatic, you can usewhateverinsteadofwhat,whereverinsteadofwhere,orwhoeverinsteadofwho.Whateveristhematter?Whereverdidyougetthis?Whoeverheardofabishopresigning?

Directingotherpeople’sactions:theimperative

ordersandinstructions

5.37 When someonegives avery clear orderor instruction, theyusuallyusetheimperative.Discardanyclothesyouhavenotwornformorethanayear.Putthatgundown.Tellyourmotherassoonaspossible.Writteninstructionsaregivenintheimperative.Boilupalittlewaterwithwashingupliquidinit.Frythechoppedonionandpepperintheoil.

USAGENOTE

Whentheyarefollowedbyasecondverb,theimperativeformsofcomeandgoareusedwithand,followedbythebaseformofthesecondverb,ratherthanato-infinitive.Thetwoactionsseemtobeseparate,becauseoftheand,buttheyareinfactverycloselylinked.Comeandseemewheneveryouneedhelp.

InspokenAmericanEnglish,theimperativeformsofcomeandgocanbefolloweddirectlybythebaseformoftheverb.Comeseewhatthedogdidtothecouch.(Am)Gogetsomesleep.(Am)

Anordercanbemademoreforcefulbyputtingyouinfrontoftheverb.Yougetinthecar.Youshutup!

adviceandwarnings

5.38 Youcanusetheimperativewhenyouaregivingadviceorawarning.Besensible.Youbecareful.Often advice or awarning is expressed in a negative form.You formanegativeimperativebyputtingdon’tordonotinfrontofthebaseformoftheverb.Don’tbeafraidofthem.Don’tbediscouraged.Donotapproachthismanunderanycircumstances.Youcanalsoformanegativeimperativebyputtingnever infrontofthebaseformofaverb.Nevermakeasocialphonecallafter9.30p.m.Anotherwayofgivingadviceor awarning is touseoneof themodalsshouldoroughttoinadeclarativesentence.Youshouldgettoknowhimbetter.Youshouldn’tkeepeggsintherefrigerator.Thisuseisexplainedindetailinparagraph5.215.

appeals

5.39 You use the imperative when you are trying to get someone to dosomething.Comequickly…Comequickly…Hurry!Youcanmakeanappealmoreforcefulbyputtingdoinfrontoftheverb.Ohdostopwhining!DocomeandstaywithusinBarbadosforthewinter.

explanations

5.40 You can use the imperative with some verbs when you are explainingsomethingandyouwantthelistenerorreadertothinkaboutaparticularthingorpossibility,ortocomparetwothings.Take,forinstance,thenewproposalsforstudentloans.Imagine, for example, an assembly line worker in a factory makingchildren’sblocks.Butsupposeforamomentthattheautomobileindustryhaddevelopedatthesamerateascomputers.Forexample,comparea typicalpoorcountry like IndonesiawitharichonelikeCanada.Consider, forexample, thecontrastbetweenthewayschools todaytreatspaceandtime.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedinthisway:

compareconsidercontrastimaginelookatnotepicturesupposetake

let

5.41 Letisusedinimperativesentencesinfourdifferentways:itisusedtogiveanorderorinstruction

LetPhilliphavealookatit.you use it followed by us when you aremaking a suggestion about

whatyouandsomeoneelseshoulddo.LetusisalmostalwaysshortenedtoLet’sLet’sgooutside.Let’screepforwardonhandsandknees.

youuseitfollowedbymewhenyouareofferingtodosomethingLetmetakeyourcoat.inveryformalEnglish,itisusedtoexpressawish.

Letthejoybeuniversal.Letconfusionlive!Letthebestmanorwomanwin.TomakeanegativesuggestionyouuseLet’snotor,ininformalAmericanEnglish,Let’sdon’t.Let’snotstaytilltheend.Let’sdon’taskaboutthemissingbooks.(Am,informal)

Other uses of the declarative, the interrogative, and theimperative

confirming

5.42 You can confirm that something is true by asking a question using thedeclarativeform.Soyouadmitsomethingiswrong?Thenyouthinkwecankeepit?Whenyou ask a question using the declarative form, you expect a yes-type answer, unless you use a negative construction, inwhich case youexpecttheanswerno.‘Youmeanit’sstillhere?’–‘Ofcourse.’‘Yourparentsdon’tmindyoubeingoutsolate?’–‘No,theydon’t’.Questions expressed in the declarative form often begin with aconjunction.Soyou’resatisfied?Andyouthinkthat’sagoodidea?

instructing

5.43 In informal spokenEnglish,youcangivean instructionbyusingadeclarativesentencewithyouasthesubject.

Youputthemonthandthetemperatureonthetopline.Youtakethebusuptothelandingstageattwelve-thirty.Youjustputitstraightintheoven.

offersandinvitations

5.44 Whenyouaremakinganofferoraninvitation,youusuallyuseayes/no-question beginning with a modal such as can or would. This use isexplainedindetailinparagraphs5.173to5.178.CanIhelpyou?CanIgiveyoualift?Wouldyoulikemetogetsomethingforyou?Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?WouldyouliketogotoErnie’sfordinner?Youcanalsomakeanofferorinvitationinamoreinformalwaybyusingtheimperativeform.Notethatyoucanonlydothiswhenitisclearthatyouarenotgivinganorder.Haveacigar.Cometomyplace.Comein,MrsKintner.Youaddemphasisbyputtingdoinfrontoftheverb.Dohaveachocolatebiscuit.Dohelpyourselves.

requests,orders,andinstructions

5.45 When you are making a request, you usually use a yes/no-questionbeginningwithoneofthemodalscould,can,orwould.CouldIaskyouafewquestions?CanIhavemyhatback,please?Wouldyoumindhavingawordwithmyhusband?You can also give an order or instruction using a yes/no-questionbeginningwithamodal.WillyoutellWatsonIshallbeinalittlelate?Theseusesareexplainedindetailinparagraphs5.156to5.166.

questionsthatdonotexpectananswer

5.46 Whenyouuseayes/no-question toofferhelpor tomakea request,youstillexpecttheansweryesorno.However,peoplesometimessaythingsthatseemlikeyes/no-questions,althoughtheydonotexpectanansweratall.Theyareusing theyes/no-question form toexpressa strong feeling,opinion,orimpression.For example, instead of sayingThat’s an ugly building, someonemightsayIsn’tthatanuglybuilding?OrinsteadofsayingYouneverseemtogetupset,someonemightsayDon’tyouevergetupset?Questionslikethesearecalledrhetoricalquestions.Istherenothingshewon’tdo?Can’tyouseethatI’mbusy?Hasn’tanyoneroundheregotanysense?Doesnothingeverworryyou?Anotherkindofrhetoricalquestionconsistsofastatementfollowedbyaquestiontagsuchasareyou?or is it?Forexample,someonemightsaySoyouare thenewassistant,areyou?orSo they’re coming to tea, arethey?Soyouwanttobeanactress,doyou?Sothey’removinghouseagain,arethey?Rhetorical questions can also begin with how. They usually express afeelingof shockor indignation.For example, insteadof sayingYou areverycruel,someonemightsayHowcanyoubesocruel?Howcanyousaysuchthings?Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Rhetoricalquestionsaredealtwithfullyinparagraph9.94.

questionswithoutaverb

5.47 Youcanaskaquestionconsistingofwhataboutorwhatof in frontofanoun phrase, without a verb. You ask a question like this to remindsomeoneofsomething,ortodrawtheirattentiontosomething.Withthistypeofquestion,youoftenexpectanaction,ratherthanareply.Whatabouttheothersonthelist?

Whataboutyourbreakfast?Butwhatofthewomenthemselves?

suggestions

5.48 Thereareseveralwaysinwhichyoucanmakeasuggestion:youcanuse themodalcould inadeclarativesentence(seeparagraph

5.183)Wecouldhavetea.Youcouldgetsomeonetodressupasapirate.youcanuseanegativewh-questionbeginningwithwhy

Whydon’twejustgivethemwhattheywant?Whydon’tyouwritetoheryourself?youcanuseaquestionconsistingofwhataboutorhowaboutinfront

ofan-ingformWhataboutbecominganactor?Howaboutusingmakeuptodramatizeyourfeatures?youcanusetheimperative.

‘Givethemarewardeach,’Isuggested.Youcanalsomakeasuggestionaboutwhatyouandsomeoneelsemightdobyusinglet’s.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph5.41.

Formingnegativestatements5.49 Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisnottrue,isnothappening,oris

notthecase,younormallyuseanegativestatement.Negativestatementscontain words like not, never, or nowhere. These are called negativewords.HereisthelistofnegativewordsinEnglish:

neitherneverno

nobodynonenoonenornotnothingnowhere

Negative words indicate the opposite of something or an absence ofsomething.

5.50 Anothergroupofwordssuchasscarcelyandseldomcanbeusedtomakea statement almost negative. These words are called broad negatives.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs5.82to5.89.

5.51 Ifastatementabouttheexistenceofsomethinghasanegativewordinit,you use any (not no) as a determiner in front of the following nounphrase.Youcanalsouseawordbeginningwithany- suchasanyoneoranywhere.Wedidn’thaveanymoney.Hewritespoetryandnevershowsittoanyone.Itisimpossibletoparkthecaranywhere.Foranotheruseofanyseeparagraph2.163.

BECAREFUL

5.52 InstandardEnglish,itisalmostalwaysunacceptabletousetwonegativewordsinthesameclause.Forexample,youdonotsay,Idon’tnevergothere,orIdon’tknownothing.

5.53 Theuseofnegativesinreportedspeech isexplainedinparagraph7.13.Theuseofnegativeswithmodalsisexplainedinparagraph5.104.

not

5.54 The most commonly used negative word is not. Its use with differentverbs corresponds to the way these verbs are used in yes/no-questions(seeparagraphs5.12to5.14).

positioninverbphrases

5.55 Whennot is usedwith a verb phrase that contains an auxiliary verb, itcomesafterthefirstverbinthephrase.Theycouldnotexistintheirpresentform.Theymightnotevennotice.TheWhiteHousehasnotcommentedonthereport.Hehadnotattendedmanymeetings.Iwasnotsmiling.Herteacherswerenotimpressedwithherexcuses.

addingdo

5.56 If there is no auxiliary verb, you putdo,does, ordid after the subject,followedbynotor-n’t,followedbythebaseformofthemainverb.Theydonotneedtotalk.HedoesnotspeakEnglishverywell.Ididn’tknowthat.Be and have are exceptions to this; this is explained in the followingparagraphs 5.57 and 5.58. The shortening of not to -n’t is explained inparagraphs5.61and5.62.

notwithbe

5.57 If theverbisbe,youdonotusedo.Yousimplyputnotor -n’tafter theverb.Itisnotdifficulttoseewhytheywereunsuccessful.Thereisnotmuchpointinheadingsouth.Thisisn’tmyfirstchoiceofrestaurant.

notwithhaveandhavegot

5.58 If the verb is have, you usually put do, does, or did after the subject,followedbynotor-n’t,followedbythebaseformhave.Theorganizationdoesnothaveagoodtrackrecord.Hedidn’thaveaverygrandsalary.

Youcansimplyputnotor-n’taftertheverb,butthisuseislesscommon,

andalmostneverusedinmodernAmericanEnglish.Hehadn’tenoughmoney.Ihaven’tanypaperstosaythatIhavebeentrained.Ifyouusehavegot,youputnotor-n’tafterhave,followedbygot.Ihaven’tgotthelatestfigures.Hehasn’tgotadaughter.Havegotisexplainedinparagraph3.15.

positionwith-ingformsandto-infinitives

5.59 Whennotisusedwithan-ingformorato-infinitiveclause,itisplacedinfrontofthe-ingformorto-infinitive.Westoodthere,notknowingwhatwasexpectedofus.Helostoutbynottakingadegreeatanotheruniversity.Trynottoworry.Ittookavastamountofpatiencenottostranglehim.

withaninflectedformandan-ingformorto-infinitive

5.60 Whenaclausecontainsaninflectedverbandan-ingformorto-infinitive,you put not either with the inflected form orwith the -ing form or to-infinitive,dependingonthemeaningyouwanttoexpress.Forexample,youcansayeitherMarytriednottosmileorMarydidnottry to smile, but they express different meanings. The first means thatMarytriedtoavoidsmiling.ThesecondmeansthatMarydidnoteventrytosmile.However,withsomeverbsthatareusedwithto-infinitives,themeaningisthe same whether not is placed with the main verb or with the to-infinitive.Shedidnotappeartohavedoneanything.Henryappearsnottoappreciatemyexplanation.Itdidn’tseemtobotherthematall.Theyseemednottonoticeme.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwith to-infinitives.Withallofthese,themeaningof theclause is thesame,whethernot isput infrontof the

verborinfrontoftheto-infinitive:

appearexpecthappenintendplanseemtendwantwish

Theuseoftwoverbsinaclausetotalkabouttwoactionsorstatesisdealtwithinparagraphs3.182to3.212.Note thatwith some reportingverbs themeaning is the samewhetheryouputnotinfrontofthereportingverborinfrontofthemainverb.Thisisexplainedinparagraph7.13.

contractionsofnot

5.61 InspokenEnglishandininformalwrittenEnglish,notisoftenshortenedto-n’tafterbeorhaveorafteranauxiliary.-n’tisattachedtotheendoftheverb.Mariaisn’treallymyauntatall.Hedoesn’tbelieveinanything.Ihaven’theardfromherrecently.Notethatcannotisshortenedtocan’t,shallnotisshortenedtoshan’t,andwillnotisshortenedtowon’t.Hereisacompletelistoftheshortenedformsyoucanuse:

aren’tisn’twasn’tweren’t

didn’tdoesn’tdon’thadn’thasn’thaven’tcan’tcouldn’tmightn’tmustn’toughtn’tshan’tshouldn’twon’twouldn’t

USAGENOTE

5.62 Note that if the verb is already shortened and added to its subject, youcannotshortennotto-n’t.Thismeans,forexample,thatyoucanshortensheisnottosheisn’torshe’snot,butnottoshe’sn’t.Itisn’teasy.It’snoteasy.Ihaven’thadtime.I’venothadtime.Note that you cannot add -n’t to am. You can only use I’m not as theshortenedform.I’mnotexcited.Theformaren’tIisusedinquestions.Inquestions,notisusuallyshortenedto-n’tandaddedtothefirstverbintheverbphrase.Didn’tshewinattheOlympics?Hasn’theputonweight?Aren’tyoubored?

However,informalEnglish,itisalsopossibletoputnotafterthesubject.Didhenothavebrothers?Wasitnotratherabsurd?

otherusesofnot

5.63 Youcanalsousenotwithalmostanywordorwordgroupinaclause.Forexample, you can use it with nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositionalphrases,andsomequantityexpressionssuchasa lotof.Youusuallydothisinordertobemoreforceful,careful,polite,hesitant,andsoon.Thefollowingparagraphs5.64and5.65describesomeoftheseuses.

5.64 Very is often used afternot to soften the negativemeaning of a clause.Thissoundsmorepoliteorhesitantthanusingnotwithoutvery.Hisattitudeisnotverylogical.It’snotverystrongtea;itwon’tstain.Hewasn’taverygoodactor.Sheshookherhead,butnotveryconvincingly.Youcanusenotwithabsolutely,altogether,entirely, ornecessarily in asimilarway.Youdothisinordertosoundmorepoliteorlesscritical.Previousexperienceisn’tabsolutelynecessary,butithelps.Iwasnotaltogethersure.Theyarenotentirelyreliable.Scienceisnotnecessarilyhostiletohumanvalues.Youusenot to show that the thingyouaredescribingdoes in facthavesomegoodqualities,althoughyoudonotwanttomakethemsoundbetterthan they reallyare.This structure isoftenusedwithwords thathaveanegativeprefixsuchasun-or-less.She’snotanunattractivewoman.It’snotabadstart.It’sasmallpoint,butnotanunimportantone.Americaisverywelldeveloped,butnotlimitless.

notusedforcontrast

5.65 Notissometimesusedtocontrastonepartofaclausewithanother.Using

notinthiswayemphasizesthepositivepartofastatement.Heheldherarminhishand,nothard,butfirmly.Wemovesteadily,notfast,notslow.‘Weretheystillinterested?’–‘Notjustinterested.Overjoyed.’Iwillmoveeventually,butnotfromSuffolk.It’snotahugehotel,butit’sverynice.

never

5.66 Neverisusedtosaythatsomethingwasnotorwillnoteverbethecase.Whenitisusedwithaverbphrasethatcontainsanauxiliaryverb,neverisputafterthefirstverbintheverbphraseandinfrontofthemainverb.Iwouldnevertrustmyjudgementagain.…atypeofglassthatisrareandisneverused.Thenumberofpeoplewhodiedwillneverbeknown.Fiftyyearsago,menwereneverexpectedtowashthedishesorhelpwiththechildren.Ihadneverbeentothisbigtownbefore.I’veneverdonesomuchworkinallmylife.However,youcanputneverinfrontofthefirstwordintheverbphraseinordertoemphasizethenegativeaspectofastatement.Ineverwouldhaveguessedifhehadn’ttoldme.Therewasnosuchperson–thereneverhadbeen.

withsimpleformsofbe

5.67 Ifthemainverbisthepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofbe,neverusuallycomesaftertheverb.Shewasnevertooproudtolearn.I’mneververykeenonkeepingacarformorethanayear.Therewereneveranypeopleinthehouse.However,youcanputneverinfrontofasimpleformofbeforemphasis.Thereneverwasenoughhotwaterathome.Itneverwasveryclear.Thereneverisanygreatchange.

withsimpleformsofotherverbs

5.68 If themainverb is thepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofanyverbexceptbe,nevercomesinfrontoftheverb.Ineverwanttoseeyouinmyclassesagain.Shenevergoesabroad.Heneverwenttouniversity.Heneverdidanyhomework.

emphasis

5.69 You can make a negative statement more emphatic by using neverfollowedbydo,does, ordid in front of the base form of the verb. Forexample,insteadofsayingInevermethim,youcansayIneverdidmeethim.Theyneverdidgettheirmoneyback.Sheneverdidfindherrealmother.Somepeopleneverdoadjusttolifehere.

neverinimperatives

5.70 Nevercanbeusedatthebeginningofimperativestructures.Neverchangeawheelnearadrain.Neverdryclothesinfrontofanopenfire.Imperative structures are explained in paragraph 5.4 and in paragraphs5.37to5.41.

no

5.71 Noisanindefinitedeterminerthatisusedinfrontofsingularandpluralnounstosaythatsomethingdoesnotexistorisnotavailable.Therewasnomoneyforanoperation.Wehadnoparents,nobodytolookafterus.Hehasnoambition.Icouldseenotracks.Indefinitedeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.223to1.250.

5.72 In spoken English, -n’t is often used with any instead of no. Forexample,insteadofsayingIhadnomoney,youcansayIdidn’thaveanymoney.Theyhadn’tmeantanyharmtoher.Ican’tseeanyhopeinit.

none

5.73 Thepronounnoneisusedtosaythatthereisnotasinglethingorperson,ornotevenasmallamountofaparticularthing.Iwaitedforcommentsbutnonecame.Theentireareaiscoveredwithshallowlakes,nonemorethanafewyardsindepth.Wehavebeenseeingdifficultieswherenoneexist.Foranotheruseofnoneseeparagraph1.155.

noneof

5.74 Noneofisaquantityexpression.Noneofthetownspeoplehadeverseensuchweather.Noneofthishashappenedwithoutourconsent.Foranexplanationofnoneofseeparagraphs2.179and2.185.

wordsbeginningwithno-

5.75 There are four words beginning with no- that are used in negativestatements.Nothing, no one, and nobody are indefinite pronouns.Nowhere is anindefiniteplaceadverb.There’snothingyoucando.NobodyinherhouseknowsanyEnglish.There’salmostnowherelefttogo.Indefinitepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.128to1.141.Indefiniteplaceadverbsareexplainedinparagraphs6.61and6.71.

followedbybut

5.76 Nothing,noone,nobody,andnowhere canbe followedbybut tomeanonly. For example,Therewas nothing but cheesemeans that therewasonlycheese.Ilookbackonthisperiodwithnothingbutpleasure.Heheardnoonebuthisuncles.Indefinite pronouns and adverbs that begin with any can be used insimilar structures.However, in these structuresbutmeansexcept, ratherthanonly.IcouldneverspeakaboutanythingbutbusinesstoIvan.Heneverspoketoanyonebuthiswife.

neitherandnor

5.77 Neither and nor are used together to say that two alternatives are notpossible, likely,or true.Neither goes in frontof the first alternativeandnorgoesinfrontofthesecondone.NeitherMargaretnorJohnwasthere.Theyhadneitherfoodnormoneyuntiltheendoftheweek.

neitherinreplies

5.78 Neithercanbeusedonitsownasareply,torefertotwoalternativesthathavealreadybeenmentioned.‘Doesthatmeanyesorno?’–‘Neither’.

5.79 Ifaclausecontainsanegativeword,particularlynot,youcanuseneitherornortonegateasecondclause.Inthesecondclause,youputneitherornorfirst,followedbytheverb,followedbythesubject.Thisisn’tadazzlingachievement,butneitherisitanegligibleone.Thesepeoplearenotinsane,noraretheyfools.If there is an auxiliary, it is placed in frontof the subject in the secondclause.The organization had broken no rules, but neither had it actedresponsibly.

Idon’tfeelanyshame.NeitherdoIthinkIshould.

neitherwithsingularnouns

5.80 Neither can be used on its own in front of a singular noun referring toeachoftwothingswhenyouaremakinganegativestatementaboutbothof them. For example, Neither partner benefited from the agreementmeansthatthereweretwopartnersandthenegativestatementappliestobothofthem.NeitherreportmentionedtheAmericans.Neitherfilmwasparticularlygood.Neithersexhasamonopolyonthoughtoremotion.Neitherparentisthegoodoneorthebadone.Notethatinthisstructureneitherisusedwithasingularverb.

neitherof

5.81 Whenneither is followed byof, itmakes a set of two things negative.Neitherofisfollowedbyapluralnounphrase.Neitherofuswashavinganyluck.Neitheroftheboysscreamed.Neitherofthemwasmakinganysound.Neitherofisnormallyusedwithasingularverb.Neitheroftheseextremesisdesirable.Neitheroftheseopinionsprovesanything.However,itisalsopossibletouseapluralverb.Neitherofthechildrenwerethere.

Broadnegatives:hardly,seldom,etc.5.82 Anotherway inwhichyoucanmakeastatementnegative isbyusinga

broad negative. Broad negatives are adverbs like rarely and seldom,whichareusedtomakeastatementalmosttotallynegative.Theestimatedsaleswillhardlycoverthecostofmakingthefilm.Wewerescarcelyabletomove.Kuwaitliesbarely30milesfromtheIraniancoast.

Hereisalistofthemostcommonbroadnegatives:

barelyhardlyrarelyscarcelyseldom

positioninclause

5.83 Thepositionofabroadnegativewithinaclauseissimilartothatofnever(seeparagraphs5.66to5.68).

5.84 When you use a broad negative with a verb phrase that contains anauxiliary verb, you put it after the firstword in the verb phrase and infrontofthemainverb.Icouldscarcelybelievemyeyes.Religionwasrarelydiscussedinourhouse.Hiseyeshadhardlyclosed.

withsimpleformofbe

5.85 Iftheverbisthepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofbe, thebroadnegativeusuallycomesaftertheverb.Changeisseldomeasy.Thenewpressuregroupisbarelysixmonthsold.Theofficewashardlyeverempty.Thelagoonsarerarelydeep.Theresultswerescarcelyencouraging.

withotherverbs

5.86 Iftheverbisthepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofanyverbexceptbe,thebroadnegativeusuallycomesinfrontoftheverb.Heseldombathed.Marshararelyfelthungry.JohnhardlyeverspoketothePress.

It is alsopossible toput abroadnegativeafter theverb,but this is lesscommon.Suchmomentshappenrarelyinlife.Theymetsoseldom.

asfirstwordintheclause

5.87 InformalorliteraryEnglish,abroadnegativeissometimesplacedatthebeginningofaclauseforemphasis.Ifyouareusingaverbphrasewithanauxiliary, the first word in the verb phrase is placed after the broadnegative, followed by the subject and then the remainder of the verbphrase.Seldomhassocietyofferedsowidearangeofleisuretimeactivities.HardlyhadhesettledintohisseatwhenAdamchargedin.If there is no auxiliary, youput thepresent simpleorpast simpleofdoafter the broad negative, followed by the subject, followed by the baseformofthemainverb.Seldomdidaweekpasswithoutarequestforassessment.Rarelydolocalmatchesliveuptoexpectations.Notethatbarelyandscarcelyarenotoftenusedinthisway.

USAGENOTE

5.88 If you make a question tag out of a statement that contains a broadnegative, the tag on the end of the statement is normally in theaffirmative, as it iswithother negatives.Question tags are explained inparagraphs5.16to5.20.She’shardlytherightpersonforthejob,isshe?Youseldomseethatsortofthingthesedays,doyou?Youcanmodify rarely and seldom byputting so,very, too, or pretty infrontofthem.Youcanalsomodifyrarelybyusingonly.Ithappenssorarely.Womenwereveryseldomconvicted.Hetooseldommakesthefirstgreeting.Mostpeoplegotochurchonlyrarely.

Ifyouwant tosaythereisverylittleofsomething,youcanuseabroadnegativewithanyorwithawordthatbeginswithany-.Thebondsshowbarelyanyinterest.Hardlyanybodycame.Infact,itisseldomanyofthese.Withscarcelyanywarning,thesoldierscharged.Sometimestwoorthreerelativesareadmitted,butrarelyanyfriends.

almost

5.89 Instead of using a broad negative, you can use almost followed by anegativeword such asno or never. For example,There was almost nofoodleftmeansthesameasTherewashardlyanyfoodleft.They’vealmostnomoneyforanything.Thecarsthinnedouttoalmostnone.Theywereveryprivatepeople,withalmostnofriends.Childrenalmostneverbeganconversations.

Emphasizingthenegativeaspectofastatement

atall

5.90 You can add at all to a negative statement in order to make it moreemphatic.Youuseatallwithanynegativeword,withwithout,orwithabroadnegative.Shehadnowritingabilityatall.‘There’snoneed,’saidJimmie.‘Noneatall’.Hediditwithoutanyhelpatall.Hehardlyreadanythingatall.Broadnegativesareexplainedinparagraphs5.82to5.88.

whatsoever

5.91 Youcanputwhatsoeverafternoneandnothinginordertoemphasizethenegativeaspectofastatement.‘Youdon’tthinkhehasanychanceofwinning?’–‘Nonewhatsoever.’Thereisabsolutelynoenjoymentinthat,nonewhatsoever.

You’llfindyourselfthinkingaboutnothingwhatsoever.Ifno is used as a determiner in a nounphrase, you canputwhatsoeverafterthenounphrase.Thereisnoneedwhatsoevertoteachchildrenhowtobehave.Therewasnodebatewhatsoever,noteveninParliament.Youcanalsousewhatsoeverinnegativestatementsthatcontainanyorawordthatbeginswithany-.Youarenotentitledtoanyaidwhatsoever.Hewasdevoidofanytalentwhatsoever.IknewIwasn’tlearninganythingwhatsoever.

ever

5.92 Youcanputeverafternegativewordsinordertoemphasizethenegativeaspectofastatement.Ican’tsayIeverhadmuchinterestinfishing.Nobodyeverleavestheairport.Inevereverbelievedwewouldhavesuchsuccess.

otherexpressions

5.93 There are several expressions that are used to emphasize a negativestatementthatcontainsnot.Theseincludeintheleast,theleastbit,intheslightest,andabit.Idon’tmindintheleast,Ireallydon’t.Neitherofthemanagerswastheleastbitrepentantafterwards.Idon’treallyenvyyouintheslightest.They’renotabitinterested.If in the least and in the slightest are usedwith verbs, they are placedeitherimmediatelyaftertheverboraftertheobject,ifthereisone.Iwouldn’thaveobjectedintheleast.ShedidnotworryBillyintheleast.Theweatherhadn’timprovedintheslightest.If in the least is used with an adjective, it is put in front of it. In theslightestusuallycomesafteranadjective.

Iwasn’tintheleastsurprised.Shewasn’tworriedintheslightest.Theleastbitandabitareusedonlywithadjectivesandareplacedinfrontoftheadjective.I’mnottheleastbitworried.They’renotabitinterested.

Usingmodals5.94 Language is not always used just to exchange information by making

simple statements and asking questions. Sometimes we want to makerequests,offers,orsuggestions,ortoexpressourwishesorintentions.Wemaywanttobepoliteortactful,ortoindicateourfeelingsaboutwhatwearesaying.Wecandoallthesethingsbyusingasetofverbscalledmodals.Modalsare always usedwith other verbs. They are a special kind ofauxiliaryverb.HereisalistofthemodalsusedinEnglish:

cancouldmaymightmustoughttoshallshouldwillwould

Insomegrammars,dare,need,andusedtoarealsoreferredtoasmodals.In thisgrammar,wecall thesewordssemi-modals.Theyaredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphs5.248to5.258.Ought is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather than ought to. For a

furthernoteaboutthis,seeparagraph5.101.Modalsaresometimescalledmodalverbsormodalauxiliaries.

5.95 The main uses of modals are explained in paragraphs 5.96 to 5.100.Specialfeaturesofmodalsaredescribedinparagraphs5.101to5.108.Waysofreferringtotimewhenusingmodalsareexplainedinparagraphs5.109 to 5.116. Ways of using modals to say whether something ispossible are explained in paragraphs 5.117 to 5.153. Ways of usingmodals when interactingwith other people are explained in paragraphs5.154to5.222.Expressions that can be used instead of modals are described inparagraphs 5.223 to 5.247. Semi-modals are explained in paragraphs5.248to5.258.

Themainusesofmodals5.96 Modals aremainly usedwhen youwant to show your attitude towards

whatyouaresaying,orwhenyouareconcernedabouttheeffectofwhatyouaresayingonthepersonyouarespeakingorwritingto.

attitudetoinformation

5.97 When you are giving information, you sometimes use modals to showhowcertainyouarethatwhatyouaresayingistrueorcorrect.Forexample,ifyousayMrWilkinsistheoldestpersoninthevillage,youaregivingadefinitestatementoffact.IfyousayMrWilkinsmustbetheoldest person in the village, the modalmust shows that you think MrWilkins is theoldestperson,becauseyoucannot thinkofanyone in thevillagewhoisolderthanMrWilkins.IfyousayMrWilkinsmightbetheoldest person in the village, themodalmight shows that you think it ispossiblethatMrWilkinsistheoldestperson,becauseheisveryold.

attitudetointentions

5.98 Youcanusemodalstoshowyourattitudetowardsthethingsyouintendto do, or intend not to do. For example, if you say I won’t go withoutSimon,youareexpressingstrongunwillingness togowithoutSimon. Ifyousay I can’t gowithout Simon, you are saying that there is a special

reasonfornotgoingwithouthim.IfyousayIcouldn’tgowithoutSimon,youaresayingthatyouareunwillingtogowithoutSimon,becausetodosowouldbewrong,orimpossiblebecauseofthecircumstances.

attitudetopeople

5.99 Whenyouuselanguage,youareaffectingandrespondingtoaparticularpersonoraudience.Modalsareoftenusedtoproduceaparticulareffect,and the modal you choose depends on several factors, such as therelationship youhavewith your listener, the formality or informality ofthesituation,andtheimportanceofwhatyouaresaying.For example, it would normally be rude to say to a strangerOpen thedoor,althoughyoumightsayitinanemergency,oryoumightsayittoaclose friend or a child.Normally, youwould say to a strangerWillyouopenthedoor?,Wouldyouopenthedoor?,orCouldyouopenthedoor?,dependingonhowpoliteyouwanttobe.

useinsentencescontainingmorethanoneclause

5.100 Modalshavespecialusesinthreekindsofsentencecontainingmorethanoneclause:theyareusedinreportedclauses

Wilsondroppedahintthathemightcome.IfeltthatIwouldliketowakeherup.FormoreinformationaboutreportedclausesseeChapter7.theyareusedinconditionalstatements

Ifhehaddiedwhenhewas50,hewouldhavediedhealthy.If only thingshadbeendifferent, shewouldhavebeen farhappierwithGeorge.Formoreinformationaboutconditionalsseeparagraphs8.25to8.42.theyareusedinpurposeclauses.

Hestoleundertheverynosesofthestoredetectivesinorderthathemightbearrestedandpunished.Heresignedsothathecouldspendmoretimewithhisfamily.

Formoreinformationaboutpurposeclausesseeparagraphs8.47and8.48.

Specialfeaturesofmodals

formoffollowingverb

5.101 Modalsarefollowedbythebaseformofaverb.Imustleavefairlysoon.Ithinkitwillberathernice.Theyoughttogiveyouyourmoneyback.Note thatought is sometimes regardedasamodal, rather thanought to.Oughtisthensaidtobefollowedbyato-infinitive.

5.102 Sometimesamodalisfollowedbythebaseformofoneoftheauxiliaryverbshaveorbe,followedbyaparticiple.Whenamodal is followedbybe andan -ing participle, this shows thatyouaretalkingaboutthepresentorthefuture.Peoplemaybewatching.Yououghttobedoingthis.Theplaywillbestartingsoon.Whenamodalisfollowedbyhaveandan-edparticiple,thisshowsthatyouaretalkingaboutthepast.Youmusthaveheardofhim.Shemayhavegonealready.Ioughttohavesentthemoney.Inpassivestructures,amodalisfollowedbybeorhavebeenandan-edparticiple.Thenameofthewinnerwillbeannounced.Theyoughttobetreatedfairly.Suchchargesmayhavebeenjustified.Amodalisneverfollowedbytheauxiliaryverbdo,orbyanothermodal.

noinflections

5.103 Modalsdonotinflect.Thismeansthereisno-sforminthethirdpersonsingular,andthereareno-ingor-edforms.

There’snothingIcandoaboutit.Iamsurehecandoit.Imustleavefairlysoon.Couldissometimesthoughttobethepasttenseofcan.Thisisdiscussedinparagraphs5.112and5.113.

negatives

5.104 Negatives are formed by putting a negative word such as notimmediately after the modal. Can not is usually written as one word,cannot.Youmustnotworry.Icannotgoback.Inthecaseofoughtto,youputthenegativewordafterought.Heoughtnottohavedoneso.

InAmericanEnglish,thetoofoughttoisoptionalinnegativestatements.Newsorganizationsoughtnottreatthemsopoorly.(American)Aftercould,might,must,ought,should,andwould,notisoftenshortenedto-n’tandisaddedtothemodal.Youmustn’ttalkaboutRonlikethis.PerhapsIoughtn’ttoconfessthis.Heoughtn’tturnawayfromthosewhohavesupportedhim.(American)Shallnot,will not,andcannot are shortened to shan’t,won’t, and can’t.Maynotisnotshortenedatall.Ishan’tgetmuchworkdonetonight.Hewon’tbefinishedforatleastanotherhalfanhour.Ican’tgowithyou.

questions

5.105 Questionsareformedbyputtingthemodalinfrontofthesubject.Inthecaseofoughtto,youputoughtinfrontofthesubjectandtoafterit.Couldyougivemeanexample?Oughtwetotellsomeoneaboutit?

Mightn’titbebettertoleavethingsastheyare?Whycouldtheynotleaveheralone?Mustweexplaineverythingwedoinsuchdetail?

questiontags

5.106 Modalsareusedinquestiontags.Theycan’tallberight,canthey?Youwon’ttellanyone,willyou?Withanegativetag,theshortenedformofthenegativeisused.Itwouldbehandy,wouldn’tit?It’llgiveyoutimetothinkaboutit,won’tit?Questiontagsareexplainedinparagraphs5.16to5.20.

contractions

5.107 In spokenEnglish,whenwillandwould are used after a pronoun,theyareoftenshortenedto-’lland-’dandaddedtothepronoun.Ihopeyou’llagree.She’llbeallright.They’dbothcalleachotherhorriblenames.IfIwentbackonthetrain,it’dbebetter.Willandwouldcannotbeshortenedlikethiswhentheyareusedontheirown,without a following verb. For example, you can sayPaul said hewouldcome,andIhopehewill,butyoucannotsayPaulsaidhewouldcome,andIhopehe’ll.

USAGENOTE

5.108 Yousometimesuseamodalonitsown,withoutafollowingverb.Youdothis when you are repeating a modal. For example, if someone says IexpectMargaretwillcometonight,youcansayIhopeshewill,meaningIhopeshewillcome.‘Imustgo.’–‘Isupposeyoumust.’‘You should have become an archaeologist.’ – ‘You’re dead right, Ishould.’

Ifyoucan’tdoit,we’llfindsomeonewhocan.Youalsoomit theverb following amodalwhen this verbhas just beenusedwithoutamodal,orwithadifferentmodal.Forexample,ifsomeonesays George has failed his exam, you can say I thought he would,meaningIthoughthewouldfailhisexam.IlovehimandIalwayswill.Theyhadcometobelievethatitnotonlymustgoonforeverbutthatitshould.Howeveryoucannotomittheverbbeafteramodalwhenyouhavejustuseditwithoutamodal.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysIsheateacher?,youcannotsayIthinkhemight.YoumustsayIthinkhemightbe.Weatherforecastsaren’tveryreliableandneverwillbe.TheBoard’smethodsarenotasstringentastheycouldbe.Relations between the two countries have not been as smooth as theymighthavebeen.Formoreinformationonleavingoutwordsinverbphrasesseeparagraphs10.60to10.81.

Referringtotime5.109 Modalsdonotusuallyshowwhetheryouare talkingabout thepast, the

present,orthefuture.Usuallyyouindicatethisinotherways,forexamplebyputtinganauxiliaryverbandaparticipleafter themodal.Sometimesthegeneral contextmakes it clearwhetheryouare talkingabout apast,present,orfutureeventorsituation.

thefuture:shallandwill

5.110 Shallandwillareexceptionstothis.Shall always indicates that you are talking about a future event orsituation.Ishalldowhatyousuggested.Eventuallyweshallfindasolution.Willusuallyshowsthatyouaretalkingaboutafutureeventorsituation.Thefarmerwillfeelmoreresponsibletowardshisworkers.

Hewillnotreturnformanyhours.However,willissometimesusedtotalkaboutpresentsituations.Youwillnotfeelmuchloveforhimatthemoment.Thisuseofwillisdescribedinparagraph5.123.

5.111 Couldandwouldaresometimesdescribedaspasttenseformsofcanandwill.However,thisistrueinonlyafewminorways.Theseareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.

abilityinthepast:could

5.112 Couldcanberegardedasthepasttenseofcan ifyouaresimplytalkingabouttheabilityofapersonorthingtodosomething.Forexample,ifyouaretalkingaboutalivingperson,youcansayHecanspeakRussianandFinnish. Ifyouare talkingabout adeadperson,youcansayHecouldspeakRussianandFinnish.Forafullerexplanationoftheseusesseeparagraphs5.118to5.120.

reportedspeech

5.113 Couldandwouldaresometimesusedinplaceofcanandwillwhenyouarereportingwhatsomeonehassaid.Forexample,ifyourfriendhassaidIcancome,youmightreportthisasHe said that he could come. Similarly, if he has said, I will come, youmightreportthisasHesaidthathewouldcome.ForafullexplanationofreportedspeechseeChapter7.

thingsthathappenedregularlyinthepast:would

5.114 Wouldisusedtotalkaboutsomethingthathappenedregularlyinthepast,butnolongerhappens.Theotherchildrenwouldteasemeandcallmenames.Amanwithalistwouldcomeroundandsayyoucouldgooffduty.Whenyouusewouldlikethis,youoftenaddatimeexpression.Shewouldoftenhearhimgrumbling.Onceinawhileshe’dgivemesomelilactotakehome.

EverydayI’dringuphomeandaskifthey’dchangedtheirminds.Youcanuseusedtoinsteadofwould.Usedtoisexplainedinparagraphs5.254to5.258.

thinkingaboutthefuture:would

5.115 Would is also used in stories to talk about the thoughts that someone ishavingaboutthefuture.Forexample,ifacharacterinastoryisthinkingthatshewillseeagirlcalledJanethenextday,theauthormightsimplysayShewouldseeJanethenextday.Hewouldrecognizeitwhenhehearditagain.Theywouldreachthecastlesometime.

refusingtodosomething:wouldnot

5.116 Whenwouldisusedwithnottotalkaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepast,ithasaspecialmeaning.Itisusedtosaythatsomeonerefusedtodosomething.Theyjustwouldnotbelievewhatwetoldthem.Afterallthis,Iwouldn’tcomebacktothefarm.Theuseofmodalstoexpressarefusalisexplainedinparagraphs5.196to5.201.

Talkingaboutpossibility5.117 The following four sections explain thedifferentways inwhichmodals

are used to talk about the possibility of something happening or beingdone.Paragraphs 5.118 to 5.121 explain how can and could are used to talkabouttheabilityofapersonorthingtodosomething.Paragraphs 5.122 to 5.141 explain how modals are used to expressdegreesofcertaintyaboutpast,present,andfuturesituationsandevents.Paragraphs 5.142 to 5.145 explain how modals are used to say thatsomethingispermissible.Paragraphs 5.146 to 5.153 explain how modals are used to say thatsomethingisforbiddenorunacceptable.

Talkingaboutability

skillsandabilities:canandcould

5.118 Canisusedtosaythatsomeonehasaparticularskillorability.Youcanallreadandwrite.Somepeoplecanskibetterthanothers.Hecannotdance.…thegirlwhocan’tact.Couldisusedtosaythatsomeonehadaskillorabilityinthepast.WhenIarrived,IcouldspeakonlyalittleEnglish.Icouldbarelywalk.Hecouldkickgoalsfromanywhere.

awareness:canandcould

5.119 Canisalsousedtosaythatsomeoneisawareofsomethingthroughoneoftheirsenses.Icanseeyou.Icansmellit.Can’tyou?Couldisusedtosaythatsomeonewasawareofsomethingthroughoneoftheirsensesonaparticularoccasioninthepast.Icouldseeafewfaintstarsinaclearpatchofsky.Icouldfeelmyheartbumping.Policesaidtheycouldsmellalcoholonhisbreath.

generaltruths:canandcould

5.120 Canandcouldarealsoused toexpressfacts thataregenerally thecase,particularlywhen they relate to somethingor someonebeingcapableofhavingaparticulareffect,orofbehavinginaparticularway.Itcanbeveryunpleasant.Artcanbeusedtocommunicate.Throwingpartiescanbehardwork.Hecouldbeverystiff,couldHaggerty.Hecouldreallyfrightenme,andyetatthesametimehecouldbethemost

gentleandcourteousofmen.

BECAREFUL

5.121 Youcannotusecanorcouldtosaythatsomeoneorsomethingwillhaveaparticularabilityinthefuture.Insteadyouusebeabletoorbepossibleto.Beable to andbepossible to can also be used to talk about someone’sabilitytodosomethinginthepresentorthepast.Beabletoandbepossibletoaredealtwithinparagraphs5.224to5.231.

Talkingaboutlikelihood5.122 The following paragraphs explain how modals are used to express

differentdegreesofcertaintyaboutpast,present,andfuturesituationsandevents.Paragraphs 5.123 to 5.129 explain themain ways in whichmodals areusedtoexpressdegreesofcertainty.Paragraphs5.130 to 5.134 explain special uses ofmodalswhen talkingaboutpossiblefuturesituations.Paragraphs5.135 to 5.141 explain special uses ofmodalswhen talkingaboutpossiblesituationsinthepast.

assumingthatsomethingisthecase:willandwould

5.123 Youusewillwhenyouareassumingthatsomethingisthecase,andyoudonotthinkthereisanyreasontodoubtit.Thoseofyouwhoarefamiliarwiththegamewillknowthis.Hewillbealittleoutoftouch,althoughhe’sarapidlearner.Shewillhaveforgottenallaboutitbynow.Similarly, you use will not or won’t when you are assuming thatsomethingisnotthecase.Theaudiencewillnotbeawareofsuchexactdetails.Youwon’tknowGordon.He’sournewdoctor.After you, you can usewould instead ofwill, if you want to be morepolite.

Youwould agree that theUnited States should be involved in assistingthesecountries.

certainty:wouldandshould

5.124 Youalsousewouldtosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninparticularcircumstances.Evenanilliteratepersonwouldunderstandthat.Fewpeoplewouldagreewiththisasageneralprinciple.Apicnicwouldn’tbeanyfunwithoutyou.AfterI,youcanuseshouldinsteadofwould.TheveryfirstthingIshoulddowouldbetoteachyouhowtocook.Ishouldbeveryunhappyonthecontinent.

ThisisunusualinAmericanEnglish,whichnormallyuseswouldafterI.

belief:mustandcannot

5.125 Youusemusttoshowthatyoubelievesomethingisthecase,becauseofparticularfactsorcircumstances.Oh,youmustbeSylvia’shusband.Fashionmustaccountforasmallpercentageofsales.Thisarticlemusthavebeenwrittenbyawoman.Whenyouareindicatingthatsomethingisnotthecase,youusecannot.Youdonotusemustnot.(Seeparagraph5.128.)Thetwoconflictingmessagescannotpossiblybothbetrue.Youcan’thaveforgottenme.Hecan’thavesaidthat.Hejustcan’t.

presentpossibility:could,might,andmay

5.126 You use could, might, or may to say that there is a possibility ofsomethinghappeningorbeingthecase.Mayisslightlymoreformalthancould or might; otherwise there is very little difference in meaningbetweenthesemodals.Don’teatit.Itcouldbepoisonous.Hisroutefromthebusstopmightbethesameasyours.

Inrarecasesthejawmaybebrokenduringextraction.Ifyouputwellaftercould,might,ormay,youaresayingthatit isfairlylikelythatsomethingisthecase.Itcouldwellbethattheeconomicsituationisgettingbetter.Hispredictionscouldwellhavecometrue.Youmightwellberight.Ithinkthatmaywellhavebeentheintention.

negativepossibility:mightnotandmaynot

5.127 Youusemightnotormaynot tosay that it ispossible thatsomethingisnotthecase.HemightnotbeinEnglandatall.Thatmightn’tbetrue.Thatmaynotsoundveryimposing.

impossibility:couldnotandcannot

5.128 Youusecouldnotorcannottosaythatitisimpossiblethatsomethingisthecase.…knowledgewhichcouldnothavebeengainedinanyotherway.Itcouldn’tpossiblybepoison.Hecannotknoweverythingthatisgoingon.Youcan’ttalktothedead.

strongassertion:couldnotwithcomparatives

5.129 Could issometimesusedinnegativeconstructionswith thecomparativeformofanadjective.Youusecouldlikethistosaythatitisnotpossibleforsomeoneorsomethingtohavemoreofaparticularquality.Icouldn’tbehappier.Youcouldn’tbemorewrong.Thesettingcouldn’thavebeenlovelier.Hecouldhardlyhavefeltmoreashamedofhimself.

talkingaboutthefuture

5.130 The following paragraphs explain how modals are used when you aretalkingaboutpossiblefuturesituations.Theusesofmust,cannot,could,might, and may are similar to their uses when you are talking aboutpossiblesituationsinthepresent.

certainty:will

5.131 Youusewill tosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappenorbethecaseinthefuture.Theywillseeeverything.Thepriceoffoodwillgoup.TheservicewillhavebeenrunningforayearinMay.Begoingtocanalsobeusedtosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninthefuture.Thisuseofbegoingtoisdealtwithinparagraph5.233.

certainty:shall,must,andcannot

5.132 Shallisalsousedtosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappen.Youusuallyuseshallwhenyouaretalkingabouteventsandsituationsoverwhichyouhavesomecontrol.Forexample,youcanuseshallwhenyouaremakingaresolutionorapromise.IshallbeleavingassoonasIamready.Verywell,mydear.Youshallhavethecoat.Ofcourseheshallhavewater.‘You’llmakealotofmoney.’–‘Ishalloneday.’

ThisusageisconsideredveryformalinAmericanEnglishandisnotoftenused.You use must to say that something is certain to happen because ofparticularfactsorcircumstances.Thisresearchmusteventuallyleadtocomputerdecision-making.Youusecannottosaythatsomethingiscertainnottohappenbecauseofparticularfactsorcircumstances.Youdonotusemustnot.Ateamcannothopetowinconsistentlywithoutagoodcoach.Thebadweathercan’tlast.

expectation:shouldandoughtto

5.133 Youuseshouldoroughttotosaythatyouexpectsomethingtohappen.Sheshouldbebackanytimenow.Thiscourseshouldbequiteinterestingforyou.TheCourtofAppealoughttobeabletohelpyou.Itoughttogetbetterasitgoesalong.Should and ought to are also used when you are talking about theimportanceofdoingsomething.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph5.215.

futurepossibility:could,might,andmay

5.134 Youusecould,might, ormay to say that it is possible that a particularthingwillhappen.England’snextfixtureinSalzburgcouldbethedecisivematch.Therivercouldeasilyoverflow.Theymightbeabletorememberwhathesaid.Clericalworkmaybeavailablefortwostudentswhowanttolearnaboutpublishing.If you putwell after could,might, ormay, you are indicating that it isfairlylikelythatsomethingwillhappenorbethecase.Whenitisfinisheditmaywellbethelargestcathedralintheworld.Wemightwellgetinjured.If you put possibly or conceivably after could,might, ormay, you areindicating that it is possible, but fairly unlikely, that something willhappenorbethecase.Theseconditionscouldpossiblybeaccepted.Ratescouldconceivablyrisebyasmuchasawholepercentagepoint.

talkingaboutthepast

5.135 The following paragraphs explain how you use modals when you aretalkingaboutpossiblesituationsinthepast.

expectation:shouldhave,oughttohave

5.136 Youuseshouldoroughttowithhavetosaythatyouexpectsomethingtohavehappenedalready.DearMom,youshouldhaveheardbynowthatI’mO.K.You also use should or ought to with have to say that something wasexpectedtohappen,althoughithasnotinfacthappened.Muskieshouldhavewonbyahugemargin.Sheoughttohavebeenhomebynow.

possibility:wouldhave

5.137 You use would with have to talk about actions and events that werepossibleinthepast,althoughtheydidnotinfacthappen.Denialwouldhavebeenuseless.Iwouldhavesaidyes,butJuliepersuadedustostayathome.Youwouldn’thavepushedhim,wouldyou?

possibility:couldhave,mighthave

5.138 Youusecouldormightwithhave to say that therewas a possibility ofsomethinghappeninginthepast,althoughitdidnotinfacthappen.Itcouldhavebeenawful.Icouldeasilyhavespentthewholeyearonit.Youcouldhavegotajoblastyear.Alotofmendiedwhomighthavebeensaved.Youmighthavefounditverydifficult.

uncertainty:couldhave,mighthave,mayhave

5.139 Youalsousecould,might,ormaywithhavetosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingwasthecase,butyoudonotknowwhetheritwasthecaseornot.It is just possible that such a small creature could have preyed ondinosaureggs.Theymighthavemovedhousebynow.Imayhaveseemedtobeoverreacting.

negativepossibility:mightnothave,maynothave

5.140 You usemight not ormay not withhave to say that it is possible thatsomethingdidnothappenorwasnotthecase.Theymightnothaveconsideredmeastheirfriend.Myfathermightn’thavebeentoblame.Theparentsmaynothavebeenreadyforthisnews.

impossibility:couldhavewithnegative

5.141 Youusecouldwithanegativeandhave to say that it is impossible thatsomethinghappenedorwasthecase.Itcouldn’thavebeenwrong.The money was not, and never could have been, the property of theorganization.

Talkingaboutpermission

permission:can

5.142 Canisusedtosaythatsomeoneisallowedtodosomething.You can drive a van up to 3-ton capacity using an ordinary drivinglicence.Ifyouaregivingpermissionforsomething,youusecan.Youcanborrowthatpenifyouwantto.Youcangooffdutynow.Shecangowithyou.

formalpermission:may

5.143 Inmoreformalsituations,mayisusedtogivepermission.Youmayspeaknow.Theymaydoexactlyastheylike.

permissioninthepast:could

5.144 Could is used to say that someonewas allowed to do something in the

past.Wecouldgotoanypartoftheislandwewantedto.

BECAREFUL

5.145 Youcannotusecanorcould to say that someonewillbeallowed todosomethinginthefuture.Insteadyouusebeableto.Beabletoisdealtwithinparagraphs5.224to5.231.

Sayingthatsomethingisunacceptable5.146 Modals are often used in negative structures to say that an action is

forbiddenorunacceptable.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:cannot

5.147 Cannotisusedtosaythatsomethingisforbidden,forexamplebecauseofaruleorlaw.Childrencannotbatheexceptinthepresenceoftwolifesavers.We’reawfullysorrywecan’tletyoustayhere.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:maynot

5.148 Maynotisusedinasimilarwaytocannot,butismoreformal.Youmaynotmakeamendmentstoyourapplicationoncewehavereceivedit.Thismaterialmay not be published, broadcast, or redistributed in anymanner.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:willnot

5.149 Willnotisusedtotellsomeoneveryfirmlythattheyarenotallowedtodoaparticularthing.Usually,thespeakerhasthepowertopreventthehearerfromdoingthisthing.‘I’lljustgoupstairs.’–‘Youwillnot.’Untilwehavecuredyou,youwon’tbeleavinghere.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:shallnot

5.150 Shallnot is used to say formally that a particular thing is not allowed.Shallnotisoftenusedinwrittenrules,laws,andagreements.Personsunder18shallnotbeemployedinnightwork.Equalityof rightsunder the law shallnot bedeniedor abridgedby theUnitedStatesorbyanyState.Shan’tisusedinasimilarwaytowillnotandwon’t.Youshan’tleavewithoutmypermission.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:imperatives

5.151 Youcanalsosay that something isnotallowedbyusingan imperativesentence. Imperative sentences are explained in paragraph 5.4 and inparagraphs5.37to5.41.

undesirableactions:shouldnot

5.152 Should not is used to tell someone that an action is unacceptable orundesirable.Youshouldnottakeherhelpforgranted.Youshouldn’tdothat.Youshouldn’tbesounfriendly.

undesirableactions:mustnot

5.153 Mustnotisusedtosaymuchmorefirmlythatsomethingisunacceptableorundesirable.Youmustnotacceptit.Youmustn’tdothat.Youmustn’tbreatheawordofthistoanyone.

Interactingwithotherpeople5.154 You often say things in order to get someone to behave in a particular

way.Forexample,youmaywantsomeonetotakeaparticularaction,toacceptanoffer,ortogivetheirpermissionforsomethingtobedone.Inthesesituations,modalsareoftenused.Themodalyouchoosedependsonseveralfactors.Themainonesare:

theformalityorinformalityofthesituationtherelationshipbetweenyourselfandthepersonyouarespeakingtothedegreeofpolitenessyouwanttoshow.

In particular situations, other factors can be important. For example, ifyouaremakinganofferorsuggestion,themodalyouchoosemaydependonhowpersuasiveyouwanttobe.

5.155 Thefollowingsectionsexplainhowtousemodalsindifferentsituations.Paragraphs 5.156 to 5.172 explain how to give instructions and makerequests.Paragraphs5.173to5.181explainhowtomakeanofferoraninvitation.Paragraphs5.182to5.189explainhowtomakesuggestions.Paragraphs5.190to5.195explainhowtostateanintention.Paragraphs 5.196 to 5.201 explain how to express unwillingness or arefusaltodosomething.Paragraphs5.202to5.210explainhowtoexpressawish.Paragraphs 5.211 to 5.215 explain how to indicate the importance ofdoingsomething.Paragraphs5.216to5.222explainvariouswaysofintroducingwhatyouaregoingtosay.

Givinginstructionsandmakingrequests5.156 Whenyougiveaninstructionormakearequest,youusuallyuseamodal

inaninterrogativesentence.You use will, would, can, or could with you to tell someone to dosomething,ortoasksomeonetodosomething.Youusecan, could,may, ormight with I orwe orwith other personalpronounsornounphrasestoasksomeone’spermissiontodosomething.Instructionsandrequestsarealwaysmademorepolitebyaddingplease.Pleaseandothermarkersofpolitenessareexplainedinparagraph5.172.

instructionsandappealsforhelp

5.157 Will,would,andcouldareusedwithyouintwoways:youusethemtogiveaninstructionoranorderyouusethemtoaskforhelporassistance.

instructionsandappealsforhelp:will

5.158 Will is used to give an instruction or order in a fairly direct way. It isslightlylessforcefulthanusingtheimperative.Willyoupickthosetoysupplease?Willyoupackupandleaveatonce,please.Willisusedtoaskforhelpinfairlyinformalsituations.Mummy,willyouhelpme?

instructionsandappealsforhelp:would

5.159 Whenwouldisusedtogiveaninstructionororder,itismorepolitethanwill.WouldyoutellherthatAdrianphoned?Wouldyouaskthemtoleave,please?Whenwould is used to ask for help, it is less informal andmore politethanwill.Wouldyoudomeafavour?

instructionsandappealsforhelp:could

5.160 Whencouldisusedtogiveaninstructionororder,itismorepolitethanwould.Couldyoufollowmeplease?Couldyoujustswitchtheprojectoronbehindyou?Whencouldisusedtoaskforhelp,itismorepolitethanwould.Couldyoushowmehowtodothis?

appealsforhelp:can

5.161 Cancanbeusedwithyoutoaskforhelp.Youusuallyusecanwhenyou

arenotsurewhethersomeonewillbeabletohelpyouornot.Ohhello.Canyouhelpme?I’vebeentryingthisnumberfortenminutesandIcan’tgetthrough.

requests

5.162 Can,could,may,andmightareusedwithIorwewhenyouareaskingforsomething,orareaskingpermissiontodosomething.Thesemodalscanalsobeusedwithhe,she,or they,orwithothernounphrases,whenyouareasking for somethingonbehalfof someoneelse.Forexample,youcansayCansheborrowyourcar?orCouldmymotheruseyourtelephone?

requests:can

5.163 Canisusedtomakearequestinasimpleanddirectway.CanIaskaquestion?’CanIchangethis?’Iaskedtheboxofficelady,offeringhermyticket.

requests:could

5.164 Couldismorepolitethancan.CouldIhaveabottleoflemonade,please?CouldIjustinterruptaminute?

requests:can’tandcouldn’t

5.165 Youcanmakearequestsoundmorepersuasivebyusingcan’torcouldn’tinsteadofcanorcould.Forexample,youcansayCan’tIcomewithyou?insteadofCanIcomewithyou?Can’twehavesomemusic?Couldn’twestayhere?

requests:mayandmight

5.166 Mayandmightaremoreformal thancanandcould. In thepast, peoplewere taught that,when asking for something, itwas correct to saymay

ratherthancan,andmightratherthancould.Howevercanandcouldarenowgenerallyused.Requestsbeginningwithmightareunusual,andareconsideredbymostpeopletobeold-fashioned.MayIhaveacigarette?Maywehavesomethingtoeat?MayIaskwhatyournameis?MightIinquireifyouaretheowner?

instructions:wouldlike

5.167 WouldlikecanbeusedwithIorwe inadeclarativesentencetogiveaninstructionororder.Itisfollowedbyyouandato-infinitiveclause.OK,everyone,Iwouldlikeyoutogetintoacircle.Wantcanbeusedinasimilarwaytowouldlike.Thisuseofwantisdealtwithinparagraph5.236.

firminstructions:will

5.168 An instruction or order can also be given using will in a declarativesentence.Thisformisusedwhenthespeakerisangryorimpatient.Youwillgoandgetoneofyourparentsimmediately.Youwillgivemethosenow.

formalinstructions:shall

5.169 Shallissometimesusedinadeclarativesentencetogiveaninstructionororder.Thisisaveryformaluse.Thereshallbenofurthercommunicationbetweenyou.

imperatives

5.170 Theimperativecanalsobeusedtogiveaninstructionororder.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph5.37.

requests:wouldlike,shouldlike

5.171 You can use would like or (in British English only) should like in adeclarative sentence to make a request.Would like and should like are

followedbyato-infinitiveclauseoranounphrase.

Iwouldliketoaskyouonequestion.I’dliketohavealittletalkwithyou.Ishouldlikealistofyourcustomersoverthepastyear.

politeadditionstorequests

5.172 All theways of giving instructions ormaking requests described abovecanbemademorepolitebyusingplease.CanIspeaktoNicola,please?PleasemayIhavethekey?Youcanalsomakearequestmorepolitebyaddingthenameofthepersonyouareaddressingatthebeginningorendofyourquestion.Martin,couldyoumakeusadrink?CanItalktoyou,Howard?Anotherwayofmakingarequestmorepoliteistoaddanadverbsuchasperhapsorpossiblyafterthesubjectoftheverb.CouldIperhapsbringafriendwithme?MayIpossiblyhaveawordwithyou?

InspokenEnglish,youcanmakearequestmorepolitebyaddingjustafterthesubjectoftheverb.Couldyoujustcomeintomyofficeforaminute?

Makinganofferoraninvitation5.173 Modalsareoftenusedtomakeanofferoraninvitation.

Youusewillorwouldwithyoutoasksomeonetoacceptsomething,ortomakeaninvitation.Youusecan,may,shall,orshouldwithIorwewhenyouareofferingtohelpsomeone.Some of these structures are similar to those described in the previoussection.

offersandinvitations:will

5.174 Will is usedwithyou in an interrogative sentence to offer something tosomeone,ortomakeaninvitationinafairlyinformalway.Youusewillwhenyouknowthepersonyouaretalkingtoquitewell.Willyouhaveawhisky,Doctor?Willyoustayforlunch?

offersandinvitations:wouldandwouldn’t

5.175 Amorepolitewayofofferingsomethingormakinganinvitationistousewouldwithaverbthatmeanstolike.Wouldyoulikeadrink?Wouldyoucaretostaywithus?If you want to sound more persuasive without seeming impolite orinsistent,youcanusewouldn’tinsteadofwould.Wouldn’tyouliketocomewithme?Wouldn’tyoucareforsomemorecoffee?

offersofhelp:can

5.176 Whenyouareofferingtodosomethingforsomeone,youusuallyusecanfollowedbyIorwe.CanIhelpyouwiththedishes?Canwegiveyoualiftintotown?

offersofhelp:may

5.177 Mayisalsousedwhenyouareofferingtodosomethingforsomeone.Itislesscommonthancan,andisratherformalandold-fashioned.MayIhelpyou?MayItakeyourcoat?

offersofhelp:shallandshould

5.178 Youcanalsouseshallorshouldwhenyouareofferingtodosomething.Ifyouareofferingtodosomethingthatyoucandoimmediately,oryouarefairlyconfidentthatyourofferwillbeaccepted,youuseshall.

ShallIshutthedoor?ShallIspellthatforyou?Ifyoutalkingaboutalesslikelyorlessimmediatesituation,orifyouareuncertainwhetheryourofferwillbeaccepted,youuseshould.ShouldIgiveheraring?ShouldIputallthesemeetingsonmycalendar?

emphasizingability:can

5.179 If you want to emphasize your ability to help, you can make an offerusingcaninadeclarativesentence.Ihaveacar.Icandropyouoffonmywayhome.Icanpopinattheshoptomorrow.

persuasiveinvitations:mustandhaveto

5.180 Ifyouwanttomakeaninvitationinaverypersuasiveway,youcanuseadeclarativesentencebeginningwithyouandmustorhave to.Have to ismorecommoninAmericanEnglish.

Youmustjoinusfordrinksthisevening.Youhavetocomeandvisitme.Youonlyusemustandhavetolikethiswithpeoplewhoyouknowwell.

5.181 Otherwaysofmakinganofferor invitationaredealtwith inparagraph5.44.

Makingsuggestions5.182 Suggestions can be made by using a modal in a declarative or

interrogativesentence.Thesubjectofthesentenceisusuallyweoryou.

suggesting:could

5.183 You canmake a suggestion by usingcould in a declarative sentence orcouldn’tinaninterrogativesentence.Ifthebusinessdoesn’tworkoutwecouldsellit.Youcouldhaveanurserythere.Couldn’tyoujustbuildmorefactories?

Couldn’t some international agreement be concluded to ban theseweapons?

suggesting:shouldandoughtto

5.184 If you aremaking a suggestion and youwant to indicate that you feelstronglythatitisagoodidea,youcanuseshouldoroughtto.YoushouldaskNorryaboutthis.Ithinkyoushouldgetintouchwithyoursolicitor.Weoughttocelebrate.Let’sgetabottleofchampagne.Ithinkyououghttotryadifferentapproach.Amorepolitewayofmakingasuggestionthatyoufeelstronglyaboutistouseshouldn’toroughtn’ttoinaninterrogativesentence.Shouldn’tweatleastgiveherachance?Oughtn’twetophonethepolice?

persuading:must

5.185 Ifyouaresuggestinganactionandyouare trying topersuadesomeonethat it shouldbedone, youusemust.Youonlyusemust like thiswhenyouaretalkingtosomeoneyouknowwell.Youmustsayhellotoyourdaughter.Wemustgototheplace,perhapshaveaweekendthere.

politesuggestions:might

5.186 Ifyouwanttomakeasuggestioninaverypoliteway,youcanusemightwithyou inadeclarativesentence.Might isfollowedbyaverbmeaningtolikeortowant.Youmightwanttocommentonhislatestproposal.Ithoughtperhapsyoumightliketocomealongwithme.YoucanalsomakeapolitesuggestionbyusingasentencebeginningwithIt might be, followed by a noun phrase or adjective and a to-infinitiveclause.Ithinkitmightbeagoodideatostopnow.Itmightbebettertowaitawhile.

suggesting:mightaswell,mayaswell

5.187 Youcanalsomakesuggestionsusing theexpressionsmightaswell andmayaswell.Youusemightaswellwhenwhatyouaresuggestingseemstobetheonlysensiblecourseofaction,althoughyouarenotenthusiasticaboutit.Hemightaswelltakethecar.Wemightaswellcallthewholethingoff.Youusemayaswelltoshowthatitisnotimportanttoyouwhetheryoursuggestionisacceptedornot.Youmayaswellopenthemall.Wemayaswellgiveheracopy.

suggesting:shall

5.188 Youcanmakeasuggestionaboutwhatyouandsomeoneelsecoulddobyusinganinterrogativesentencebeginningwithshallandwe.Shallwegoandseeafilm?Shallwegoontoquestionnumbersix?Shallwetalkaboutsomethingdifferentnow?

5.189 Otherwaysofmakingsuggestionsaredescribedinparagraph5.48.

Statinganintention5.190 Intentionsareusuallystatedbyusingwill,shall,ormust inadeclarative

sentence.ThesubjectisIorwe.

intentions:will

5.191 The usual way to state an intention is to use I or we with will. TheshortenedformsI’llandwe’llareverycommon.IwillcallyouwhenIamready.Wewillstayhere.I’llwriteagainsometime.We’lldiscussthatlater.Youstateyourintentionnottodosomethingusingwillnotorwon’t.

Iwillnotfollowher.Iwon’tkeepyouanylonger.Wewon’tletthemthroughthegate.

5.192 YoucanshowthatyouareverydeterminedtodosomethingbyusingthefullformIwillorwewillandstressingwill.YoucanshowthatyouareverydeterminednottodosomethingeitherbyusingIwon’torwewon’tandstressingwon’t,orbyusingIwillnotorwewillnotandstressingnot.

intentions:shall

5.193 AnotherwayofstatinganintentionistouseIorwewithshall.Ishallbeleavingsoon.Ishallmakesomeenquiriesandcallyouback.Weshallcontinuetomonitorhisprogress.

This use is slightly old-fashioned, rather formal, and uncommon inAmericanEnglish.Youcanshowthatyouareverydeterminednottodosomethingbyusingshallnotorshan’t.Thisismoreemphaticthanusingwillnotorwon’t.Ishallnotdisclosehisname.Ishan’tgobackthere.

Theformshan’tisnotusedinAmericanEnglish.

intentions:must

5.194 Ifyouwant toshowthat it is important thatyoudosomething,youcanuseImust.Imustleavefairlysoon.Imustaskheraboutthat.Imustcallmymum–it’sherbirthdaytoday.

5.195 Ways of stating an intention without using a modal are explained inparagraphs5.237to5.240.

Expressingunwillingnessorrefusal5.196 A refusal can be expressed by using amodal in a negative declarative

sentence.Thesubject isusually Iorwe, butotherpersonalpronounsornounphrasescanbeused.

refusal:willnotandwon’t

5.197 Ifyouwanttosayfirmlythatyourefusetodosomething,youusewillnotorwon’t.IwillnothearawordsaidagainsttheNationalHealthService.Iwon’tletthishappen.YoucanjustsayIwon’t.‘Tellmeyoursecret.’–‘Iwon’t.Itwouldn’tbeasecretifItoldyou.’Itisn’tthatIwon’t.Ican’t.Youcanusewon’ttosaythatsomeoneelseisrefusingtodosomething.Hewon’tgiveherthemoney.

refusal:wouldnot

5.198 Ifyouwanttosaythatyourefusedtodosomethinginthepast,youusewouldnotorwouldn’t.HethoughtIwasafreakbecauseIwouldn’tcarryaweapon.

unwillingness:cannot

5.199 Ifyouwanttoshowthatyouhavestrongfeelingsthatpreventyoufromdoingsomething,youusecannotorcan’t.Icannotleaveeverythingforhim.Ican’tgiveyouup.

unwillingness:couldn’t

5.200 Couldn’tisusedintwowaystoexpressunwillingnesstodosomething.Youuseittoshowthatyouareunwillingtodosomethingbecauseyouareafraid,embarrassed,ordisgusted.

Icouldn’tpossiblygooutnow.Icouldn’tlethimtouchme.Youuseittoindicatethatyouareunwillingtodosomethingbecauseyouthinkitwouldbeunfairormorallywrong.Icouldn’tleaveHilarytocopeonherown.Icouldn’ttakeyourlastchocolate.

5.201 Other ways of expressing refusal and unwillingness are described inparagraphs5.241to5.243.

Expressingawish5.202 Wishescanbeexpressedbyusingamodalinadeclarativesentence.

wishes:would

5.203 You can say what someone wants by usingwould followed by a verbmeaning to like. After the verb meaning to like you put a to-infinitiveclauseoranounphrase.Iwouldliketoknowthedate.Iwouldprefertosaynothingaboutthisproblem.We’dliketokeepyouhere.Oh,Ihopeitwillbetwins.I’dlovetwins.

5.204 Youcansaywhatsomeonedoesnotwantbyusingwouldnot.Iwouldnotliketoseeit.Wewouldn’tliketoloseyou.Normally,whenyouareusingwouldwithliketosaywhatsomeonedoesnotwant,youputnotafterwould.Ifyouputnotafterlike,youchangethemeaningslightly.Forexample,ifyousayIwouldnotliketobeastudent,youmeanyouarenotastudentanddonotwanttobeone.ButifyousayIwouldlikenottobeastudent,youmeanyouareastudentanddonotwanttobeone.Theywouldlikenottohavetogothroughallthat.Youcanalsosaywhatsomeonedoesnotwantbyusingwouldwithhate.Iwouldhatetomovetoanotherhousenow.Personally,Iwouldhatetobedraggedintothisdispute.

wishes:should

5.205 Youcanalsosaywhatsomeonewantsordoesnotwantbyusingshould.Shouldislesscommonthanwould,andisslightlymoreformal.Ishouldliketoliveinthecountry.Ishouldhatetoseethemdisappear.

preference:wouldrather,wouldsooner

5.206 Youcansaythatsomeoneprefersonesituationtoanotherbyusingwouldratherorwouldsooner.Hewouldratherhaveleftit.She’dratherbeleftalone.I’dsoonerwalkthandoanyofthesethings.

wishes:wouldhave

5.207 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonewantedsomethingtohappen,althoughitdidnothappen,youusewouldhaveandan-edparticiple.Iwouldhavelikedtohearmorefromthepatient.Shewouldhavelikedtoremainjustwhereshewas.

USAGENOTE

5.208 Anotherwayofsayingthatyouwantsomethingistousewouldn’twithaverborexpressionthatisnormallyusedtorefusesomething,suchasmindorobjectto.Iwouldn’tmindbeingamanagerofastore.‘Drink,Ted?’–‘Iwouldn’tsayno,Bryan.’

regret:wouldthat

5.209 Inveryold-fashionedEnglish,wouldisusedwithoutasubjecttoexpressa wish that a situation might be different, or to express regret thatsomethingdidnothappeninthepast.Wouldisfollowedbyathat-clause.‘Aretheybetteroffnowthantheyweretwoyearsago?’–‘Wouldthattheywere.’

Wouldthatthedevelopmentshadbeensoeasy.WhenI,he,she,oritisthesubjectofthethat-clause,theverbisusuallywere,notwas.Wouldthatyouwereheretonight.Twoyearsagowewere told that theywouldbemuchbetteroffbynow.Wouldthattheywere.

hopesandwishes:may

5.210 InveryformalEnglish,mayisusedtoexpressahopeorwish.Longmaytheycontinuetodoit.Mayhejustifyourhopesandrisetothetop.

Indicatingimportance5.211 Modalscanbeusedindeclarativesentencestosaythatitisimportantthat

something is done. Different modals indicate different degrees ofimportance.

importance:must

5.212 Mustisusedinthreecommonwaystotalkabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Youusemustwithyouorwe tourgesomeonetodosomething,becauseyou feel it is important.Must not is used to urge someone not to dosomething.Youmustcomeatonce.Wemustacceptthetruthaboutourselves.Youmustnotworry.Youmustn’tlethersufferforit.Haveto,havegotto,andneedtocanbeusedinsteadofmusttotalkabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs5.244and5.245.Youusemusttosaythatsomethingisrequiredbyaruleorlaw.Peoplewhoqualifymustapplywithinsixmonths.EuropeanCommunitystandardsmustbemet.

Youusemusttosaythatitisnecessarythatsomethinghappensorisdone,inorderthatsomethingelsecanhappen.Meadowsmusthaverain.Totravelproperlyyoumusthaveavalidticket.

necessity:willhaveto,willneedto

5.213 Ifyouwanttosaythatanactionwillbenecessaryinthefuture,youusewillhavetoorwillneedto.Theywillhavetopayfortherepairs.MrSmithwillhavetomakethefuneralarrangements.Youwillneedtocoveritwithsomekindofsheeting.Electricclockswillneedtobereset.

necessity:shallhaveto

5.214 ShallhavetoissometimesusedinsteadofwillhavetoafterIorwe.IshallhavetospeakaboutthattoPeter.Weshallhavetoassumethatyouareright.

Thisisaslightlyformaluse,andisrarelyusedinAmericanEnglish.

importance:shouldandoughtto

5.215 Shouldandoughttoareusedinthreedifferentwayswhenyouaretalkingabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.You use should or ought to when you are trying to help someone byadvisingthemtodosomething.Carbonsteelknivesshouldbewipedcleanafteruse.Youshouldclaimyourpension3-4monthsbeforeyouretire.Yououghttotryadifferentapproach.You use should orought to when you are saying that something is therightorcorrectthingtodo.Weshouldsendherapostcard.Thejudgesshouldofferconstructivecriticism.Weoughttostaywithhim.Yououghtnottodothat.

Youuse should orought to withhave and an -ed participle to say thatsomethingwasdesirableinthepast,althoughitdidnotinfacthappen.Onesailorshouldhavebeenasleepandoneonwatch.Weoughttohavestayedintonight.Amorejuniormemberofstaffoughttohavedonethework.You also use should andought to to say that you expect something tohappen.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph5.133.

Introducingwhatyouaregoingtosay5.216 Sometimes you introducewhat you are going to say by using amodal

followed by a verb such as say or ask that refers to the act of sayingsomething.You can also combine amodalwith a verb such as thinkorbelievethatreferstotheholdingofanopinion.Youuseamodalinordertosoundmorepolite,ortoshowyourfeelingsaboutwhatyouaregoingtosay.In structures like these, the subject is usually I. Sometimes you use animpersonal structure beginning with it or you. For example, instead ofsaying I ought tomention that he had never been there, you can say Itoughttobementionedthathehadneverbeenthere.

importance:must

5.217 Ifyoufeelstronglythatwhatyouaresayingisimportant,youusemust.Imustapologizetoyou.Imustobject.Itmustbesaidthathehasapoint.

importance:shouldandoughtto

5.218 Ifyoufeel that it is importantorappropriatethatsomethingissaid,youindicatethatyouaregoingtosayitbyusingshouldoroughtto.I should explain at this point that there are two different sorts ofmicroscope.ItshouldalsobesaidthatIlearnedagreatdealfromtheexperience.Ioughttostressthatthiswasnotatrial.

PerhapsIoughttoconcludewithaslightlymorelight-heartedquestion.

politeness:canandcould

5.219 If you want to say something during a discussion, you can indicatepolitelythatyouaregoingtosayitbyusingcan.PerhapsIcanmentionanotherpossibility.IfIcanjustinterveneforonemoment…Ifyouwanttobeevenmorepolite,youusecould.PerhapsIcouldjustillustratethisbymentioningtwocasesthatIknowofpersonally.PerhapsIcouldjustaskyouthis…

5.220 Youalsousecanandcouldwhenyouarementioninganopinionorawayofdescribingsomething.Cansuggeststhatyouapproveoftheopinionordescription.Suchbehaviourcanbeareactiontodeepemotionalupset.Couldismoreneutral.Youcouldarguethatthisisirrelevant.Youcouldcallitapoliticaloffence.

approval:mayandmight

5.221 May and might can also be used to mention an opinion or a way ofdescribingsomething.May suggests that youapproveof theopinionordescription. It ismoreformalthancan.This,itmaybeadded,greatlystrengthenedhiminhisresolve.Mightalsosuggests thatyouapproveof theopinionordescription.Youusemightwhen you think there is a possibility that the person you aretalkingtowilldisagreewithyou.Youmightsayshe’sentitledtogetangry.That,onemightargue,isnottooterrible.

politeness:shouldandwould

5.222 Ifyouarestatinganopinionofyourown,youcanshowpolitelythatyouaregoingtostateitbyusingshould.Ishouldthinkitwouldlastquitealongtime.Wouldisusedinasimilarway,butislesscommon.Iwouldguessitmaywellcomedowntocost.

Expressionsusedinsteadofmodals5.223 Severalordinaryverbsandfixedexpressionsareusedtoexpressthesame

attitudesandideasasmodals.Theseverbsandexpressionsareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.Eachgroupofparagraphscorrespondstoanearliersectioninthechapterdealingwiththeuseofmodalsinaparticulartypeofsituation.

sayingwhethersomethingispossible

5.224 Beabletoandbepossibletocanbeusedinsteadofcanandcouldtosaywhetherornotsomethingispossible.Thesubjectofbeable toandbeunable to usually refers to apersonorgroupofpeople,but it can refer toany living thing. It canalso refer tosomethingorganizedoroperatedbypeople,suchasacompany,acountry,oramachine.Thesubjectofbepossibletoisalwaystheimpersonalpronounit.

5.225 If you want to say that it is possible for someone or something to dosomething,youcanusebeableto.Allmembersareabletoclaimtravellingexpenses.Thecollegeisabletoofferawidechoiceofsubjects.You use be able to with a negative to say that it is not possible forsomeoneorsomethingtodosomething.Theyarenotabletorunfastorthrowaball.

5.226 You also usebeunable to to say that it is not possible for someone orsomethingtodosomething.IamhavingmedicaltreatmentandI’munabletowork.Weareunabletocommentonthis.

5.227 Youalsousebepossibletowithitasthesubjecttosaythatsomethingispossible.Youusuallyusethisexpressiontosaythatsomethingispossibleforpeopleingeneral,ratherthanforanindividualperson.Itispossibletoinsureagainstlossofearnings.Isitpossibletoprogrammeacomputertospeak?Ifyouusebepossibletotosaythatsomethingispossibleforaparticularpersonorgroup,youputforandanounphraseafterpossible.Itispossibleforustomeasurehisprogress.It’spossibleforeachdepartmenttosupportnewmembers.You use be possible to with a negative to say that something is notpossible.Itisnotpossibletoquantifytheeffect.

5.228 Youcanalsousebeimpossibletotosaythatsomethingisnotpossible.Itisimpossibletofixtheexactmomentintimewhenithappened.ItisimpossibleforhimtowatchTVandtalk.

5.229 To change the tense of be able to, be unable to, be possible to, or beimpossibleto,yousimplychangetheformofbetoanappropriatesimpleform.Thedoctorwillbeabletospendmoretimewiththepatient.Theirparentswereunabletosendthemanymoney.Itwasnotpossibletodismisshisbehaviourasacontributingfactor.Itwasimpossibleforhertoobeythisorder.

5.230 Allmodalsexceptcanandcouldcanbeusedwiththeseexpressions.Amachineoughttobeabletodothis.TheUnitedStateswouldbeunabletoproduceanywood.Itmaybeimpossibletopredictwhichwaythingswilldevelop.

5.231 Usedtocanbeusedwithbeabletoandbepossibleto.Youusedtobeabletogotothedoctorforthat.Itusedtobepossibletobuysecond-handwigs.Formoreinformationaboutusedto,seeparagraphs5.254to5.258.

sayinghowlikelysomethingis

5.232 Youcanusehavetoorhavegottoinsteadofmusttoshowthatyouthinksomethingisthecase,becauseofparticularfactsorcircumstances.‘Thatlooksaboutright.’–‘Ithastobe.’Moneyhasgottobethereason.

5.233 Youcanusebegoingtoinsteadofwilltosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappenorbethecaseinthefuture.Thechildrenaregoingtobefishermenorfarmers.Lifeisgoingtobeabiteasierfromnowon.

5.234 Youcanusebeboundtoorbesuretotosayemphaticallythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninthefuture.Marion’sboundtobebacksoon.Itwasboundtohappensoonerorlater.Theroadsaresuretobebusythisweekend.

givinginstructionsandmakingrequests

5.235 Insteadofbeginningaquestionwithcanorcouldwhenyouaremakingarequest,youcanbeginitwith isandtheimpersonalpronoun it.After it,youputanexpressionsuchasallrightandeitherato-infinitiveclauseoranif-clause.Isitallrightforhimtocomeinandsitandreadhispaper?Isitokayifwehavelunchhere?

5.236 Youcanusewant insteadofwouldlike togivean instructionormakearequest.Wantismoredirectandlesspolitethanwouldlike.Iwantyoutoturntothefrontoftheatlas.Iwanttoknowwhatyouthinkaboutthis.Iwanttospeaktothemanager.Wantedisalsosometimesused.Itismorepolitethanwant.Iwantedtoaskifyoucouldgiveusanyadvice.Goodmorning,IwantedtobookaholidayintheSouthofFrance.

statinganintention

5.237 Youcanusebegoingtoinsteadofwilltostateanintention.

IamgoingtotalktoBoris.I’mgoingtoshowyouourlittleschool.

5.238 Youuseintendtotostateafairlystrongintention.IintendtogotoCannesforamonthinAugust.Idon’tintendtostayverylong.

5.239 You use be determined to or be resolved to to indicate a very strongintentiontodosomething.Beresolvedtoisratherformal.I’mdeterminedtotry.ShewasresolvedtomarryarichAmerican.

5.240 You can use have to or have got to instead ofmust to show that it isimportantthatyoudosomething.Ihavetogethomenow.It’ssomethingIhavegottoovercome.

expressingunwillingness

5.241 You can use I am not instead of I will not to say firmly that you areunwilling to do or accept something. I am not is followed by an -ingparticiple.Iamnotstayinginthishospital.I’mnothavingdirtyrugs.

5.242 You can use refuse instead of will not when you are refusing to dosomething.Refuseisfollowedbyato-infinitiveclause.Irefusetolistpossiblereasons.Irefusetopay.

5.243 Youcanuseunwillingorreluctantwitha to-infinitiveclause tosay thatsomeoneisnotwillingtodooracceptsomething.Heisunwillingtoanswerthequestions.Theyseemedreluctanttotalkaboutwhathadhappened.Youcanuseseveraladjectivesafternottosaythatsomeoneisunwillingtodooracceptsomething.Exportersarenotwillingtosupplygoodsoncredit.I’mnotpreparedtoteachhimanything.

Thompsonisnotkeentoseehistoryrepeatitself.

indicatingimportance

5.244 Youcanusehavetoorhavegottoinsteadofmusttosaythatsomethingisnecessaryorextremelyimportant.Wehavetolookmorecloselyattherecordoftheirworktogether.Thishasgottobeputright.You’vegottobeabletocommunicate.

5.245 Needtocanalsobeusedinsteadofmustorhaveto.Weneedtochangethebalanceofpower.Youdonotneedtoworry.

5.246 You can also say that something is important or necessary by using asentence beginning with the impersonal pronoun it, followed by is, anadjectivesuchasimportantornecessary,andathat-clause.Itisimportantthatyoushouldknowpreciselywhatisgoingon.Itisessentialthatimmediateactionshouldbetaken.Itisvitalthatamothertakestimetogettoknowherbaby.Importantandnecessarycanalsobefollowedbyato-infinitiveclause.It’simportanttorecognizewhatindustryneedsatthismoment.Itisnecessarytoexaminethisclaimbeforeweproceedanyfurther.

5.247 Youcanusehadbetterinsteadofshouldoroughttotosaythatsomethingistherightorcorrectthingtodo.YouusehadbetterwithIorwetoshowan intention. You use it with you when you are giving advice or awarning.IthinkIhadbettershowthistomybrother.Hedecidedthatwehadbettermeet.You’dbettergo.

Semi-modals5.248 Dare,need, andused to can be used asmodals, or they can be used in

otherways.Whentheyareusedasmodals,theyhavesomecharacteristicsthat other modals do not have. For these reasons, they are sometimescalledsemi-modals.

Theuseofdareandneedasmodals isexplained inparagraphs5.249 to5.253.Theuseofusedtoasamodalisexplainedinparagraphs5.254to5.258.

dareandneed

5.249 Whendareandneedareusedasmodals,theyhavethesamemeaningaswhen they are followed by a to-infinitive clause. However, they arenormallyusedasmodalsonlyinnegativesentencesandinquestions.Nobodydaredisturbhim.Noparentdarelettheirchildroamfree.Hetoldherthatsheneednotworry.Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Needyougososoon?

Neednotisoftenshortenedtoneedn’t.Darenotissometimesshortenedtodaren’t in British English but this contraction is very rare in AmericanEnglish.Idaren’tringJeremyagain.Weneedn’tworryaboutthat.

inflectedforms

5.250 Unlikeothermodals,darehassomeinflectedformsthatareoccasionallyused.Inthepresentsimple,thethirdpersonsingularformcanbeeitherdareordares.Hedarenotadmithehadforgottenhername.Whatnobodydaressuggestisthatthechildrenaresimplyspoilt.Inthepastsimple,eitherdareordaredcanbeused.Dareismoreformalthandared.Hedarenottakehiseyesoffhisassailant.Hedarednotshowhewaspleased.Needisnotinflectedwhenitisusedasamodal.

usewithothermodals

5.251 Normally,modalscannotbeusedwithothermodals.Howeverdarecanbeusedwithwill,would,should,andmight.Noonewilldareoverridewhatthetownsdecide.Iwouldn’tdaregototherealone.

usewithdo

5.252 Unlikeothermodals,darecanbeusedwiththeauxiliaryverbdo.Wedonotdareexamineit.Don’tyoueverdarecomehereagain!Inordinaryspeech,didnotdareanddidn’tdarearemuchmorecommonthandarednotordarenot.Shedidnotdareleavethepath.Ididn’tdarespeakormove.Wedidn’tdaresaythatwewouldprefertogohome.

otherusesofdareandneed

5.253 Besidesbeingusedasmodals,dareandneed are used in otherways inwhichtheyarenotfollowedbythebaseformofanotherverb.Bothverbscanbefollowedbyato-infinitiveclause,andneedisacommontransitiveverb.

usedto

5.254 Usedtocannotbeusedwithothermodals.SheusedtogetquitecrosswithLily.…theseWesternsthatusedtodosowellinHollywood.Whatdidweusetocallit?However, used to can be used with the auxiliary verb do. This isexplainedinparagraphs5.257and5.258.Usedissometimesregardedasamodal,ratherthanusedto.Usedisthensaidtobefollowedbyato-infinitive.

5.255 Usedtoisusedtosaythatsomethinghappenedregularlyorexistedinthepast,althoughitnolongerhappensorexists.

Usedtoissimilartowouldwhenitisusedtodescriberepeatedactionsinthepast.However,unlikewould,usedtocanalsodescribepaststatesandsituations.I’mnotquiteasmadasIusedtobe.Youusedtobringmeflowersallthetime.Theuseofwouldtotalkaboutthingsthathappenedregularlyinthepastisdealtwithinparagraph5.114.

omittingthefollowingverbphrase

5.256 Usedtocanbeusedonitsownwithoutafollowingverbphrasewhenitisclearfromthecontextwhatthesubjectmatteris.Peopledon’tworkashardastheyusedto.Idon’tfeelBritishanymore.NotasmuchasIusedto.

negatives

5.257 Usedtoisnotcommoninnegativestructures.

Ininformalspeech,peoplesometimesmakenegativestatementsbyputtingdidn’tinfrontofusedto.Thisissometimesrepresentedasuseto.Theydidn’tusetomindwhatwedid.However,manypeopleconsiderthisusetobeincorrect.Anotherwaytoformthenegativeistoputneverinfrontofusedto.WhereIwasbefore,weneverusedtohavepostersonthewalls.Sometimesnotisputbetweenusedandto.Thisisafairlyformaluse.Itusednottobetaxable.Somegrammarbooksgiveacontractedformforthenegative,usedn’t toor usen’t to. This is now rarely used, and is thought to be very old-fashioned.

questions

5.258 Younormallyformquestionswithused tobyputtingdid in frontof thesubject, followed by used to or use to. Wh-questions are formed by

puttingthewh-wordatthebeginning,followedbyusedto.Didsheusedtobenice?Whatusedtoannoyyoumostabouthim?Youcanformnegativequestionsbyputtingdidn’tinfrontofthesubject,followedbythesubjectandusedtooruseto.Didn’ttheyusetomind?InmoreformalEnglish,didisputinfrontofthesubjectandnotafterit,followedbyusedtooruseto.Didshenotusetosmile?

Chapter6Expressing manner and place: otheradverbials

6.1–15 Introduction6.7–15 Positionofadverbials

6.16–72 Adverbs6.16 Typesofadverb

6.17–29 Adverbformsandmeaningsrelatedtoadjectives6.30–35 Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbs6.36–44 Adverbsofmanner6.45–52 Adverbsofdegree6.53–64 Adverbsofplace6.65–72 Destinationsanddirections

6.73–127 Prepositions6.78 Positionofprepositionalphrases

6.79–83 Afterverbsindicatingmovement6.84–92 Showingposition6.93–99 Showingdirection

6.100–101 Prepositionalphrasesafternouns6.102–110 Otherusesofprepositionalphrases6.111–116 Prepositionsusedwithverbs6.117–120 Prepositionalphrasesafternounsandadjectives

6.121 Extendedmeaningsofprepositions6.122–127 Otherwaysofgivinginformationaboutplace

6 Expressing manner and place: otheradverbials

Introduction6.1 Whenyouaretalkingaboutaneventorasituation,yousometimeswant

tosaysomethingaboutitthathasnotbeenindicatedbythesubject,verb,object,orcomplement.Youdothisbyusinganadverbial.Anadverbialisawordorgroupofwordsthatyouusewhenyouwanttosaywhenaneventorsituationoccurs,howitoccurs,howmuchitoccurs,orwhereitoccurs.Iwassoonlost.Shelaughedquietly.Shewastremendouslyimpressed.Hefumbledinhispocket.

adverbphrases

6.2 The twomain typesofadverbialareadverbphrasesandprepositionalphrases.Heactedveryclumsily.Icannotspeaktoohighlyoftheircourageandskill.Hetakeshisjobveryseriouslyindeed.Hedidnotplaywellenoughthroughouttheweektodeservetowin.However,adverbsveryoftenoccurontheirown.Ishookhergently.HegreatlyadmiredCezanne.HescarcelyknewhisauntThenumberwillprobablybehigherthanweexpected.

For more information about adverbs, see the section beginning atparagraph6.16.

prepositionalphrases

6.3 Adverbialsthatconsistofaprepositionandanoun,suchasinaboxandto thestation, are calledprepositionalphrases.These aredealtwith indetailinthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.73.Largecushionslayonthefloor.Thevoicewascomingfrommyapartment.

nounphrases

6.4 Occasionally,nounphrasescanalsobeusedasadverbials.Hewaslookingreallyillthistimeyesterday.I’mgoingtohandlethismyway.Whennounphrasesareusedasadverbials,theymostoftenrelatetotime.Timeadverbialsaredealtwith inChapter4.Nounphrases that relate toplace are dealt with at paragraph 6.72; those that relate to manner aredealtwithatparagraph6.44,andthosethatrelatetodegreeatparagraph6.52.Formoreinformationonnounphrasesingeneral,seeChapters1and2.

addingmeaningtoverbphrases

6.5 The most common way in which adverb phrases give additionalinformationisbyaddingsomethingtothemeaningofaverbphrase.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Thereportsaysthathospitalsandrescueservicescopedextremelywell.Icouldfindthatoutfairlyeasily.Prepositionalphraseshaveawiderrangeofmeanings.Itwasestimatedthatatleast2,000peoplewereonthetwotrains.Kenny Stuart came second, knocking two minutes off his previous besttime.ForthefirsttimesinceI’dbeenpregnantIfeltwell.Many intransitive verbs normally require an adverbial. See paragraph

3.10formoreinformationaboutthese.Ashtonhadbehavedabominably.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.Some transitiveverbs normally require an adverbial after theobject oftheverb.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraph3.19.Iputmyhandonthedoor.

addingmeaningtoclauses

6.6 Adverbials can also add meaning to a whole clause, for example bygivingthewriter’sorspeaker’scommentonit.Formoreinformation,seethesectiononsentenceadverbialsbeginningatparagraph9.56.Obviouslycrimeisgoingtobesqueezedinavarietyofways.Fortunately,thedamagehadbeenslight.Ideallythedairyshouldhaveaconcreteortiledfloor.NodoubtshelovesGertrudetoo.Theycanalso show theway inwhichonesentence is linked toanotherclause. For more information, see the section on sentence connectorsbeginningatparagraph10.48.The second paragraph repeats the information given in the firstparagraph.Therefore,itisn’tnecessary.

Positionofadverbials6.7 The position of adverbials within clauses is flexible, allowing many

changesofemphasisandfocus.Adverbials are normally placed at the end of the clause after the verbphrase,orafteranobjectifthereisone.Shepackedcarefully.Theywouldgoontalkingforhours.Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.

beginningofclauseforemphasis

6.8 You can emphasize the adverbial by placing it at the beginning of theclause,infrontofthesubject.

GentlyFionaleanedforwardandwipedtheoldlady’stearsaway.InhisexcitementBillyhadforgottentheletter.Theadverbialisoftenseparatedbyacommafromtherestoftheclause.Aftermuchdiscussion,theyhaddecidedtotakethecointothejeweller.This position is often used in written stories to draw attention to theadverbial.Formoreinformation,seeparagraph9.70.Notethatadverbsofdegreearerarelyusedatthebeginningofaclause:seeparagraph6.45.

betweensubjectandverb

6.9 Adverbials can also be placed between the subject and the main verb.This focuses on the adverbial more than when it is at the end of theclause, but not as much as putting it at the beginning of the clause.However, this position is much more common with adverbs than withprepositionalphrases.Iquicklybecameawarethatshewaslookingatme.Weoftenswaminthesurf.Hecarefullywrappedeachcomponentinseverallayersoffoamrubber.Henoisilyopenedthefridgeandtookoutacartonofmilk.Note that in verb phrases containing auxiliaries, the adverbial is stillplacedinfrontofthemainverb.Ihadalmostforgottenaboutthetrip.Wewillneverhaveenoughmoneytoprovidealltheservicesthatpeoplewant.Itwouldnotinanycasebeforhim.Longadverbialsinthispositionareusuallyseparatedbycommasfromtherestoftheclause.Fred,inhisownway,wasagreatactor.Adverbials of place rarely occur in this position. Formore informationaboutadverbialsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.

6.10 Someadverbialsareoftenplacedinfrontofthemainverb:mostadverbsofindefinitefrequency(seeparagraph4.114)

alwaysconstantlycontinuallycontinuouslyeverfrequentlyhardlyevernevernormallyoccasionallyoftenrarelyregularlyrepeatedlyseldomsometimesusually

someadverbsofindefinitetime(seeparagraph4.41)

againalreadyearlierfinallyfirstjustlastpreviouslyrecentlysince

some adverbs of degree (see paragraph 6.45), especially emphasizingadverbs(seeparagraph6.49)

absolutelyalmostaltogetherbadlycompletelydeeplyentirelyfairlygreatlylargelynearlyperfectlyquiteratherreallysomewhattotallyutterlyvirtuallywell

focusingadverbs,whenmodifyingaverb(seeparagraph9.67)

evenjustmerelyonlyreallysimply

Notethatsomeadverbshaveadifferentreferencewhentheyareplacedinfrontofthemainverbratherthanattheendoftheclause:TheTradeUnionshaveactedfoolishly.Baldwinhadfoolishlyopenedthedoor.

The first example means that the Unions acted in a foolish way. Thesecondexamplemeansthatopeningthedoorwasafoolishaction,andnotthatthedoorwasopenedinafoolishway.Americansalwaystipgenerously.Hegenerouslyofferedtodrivemehome.The first example tells us howwellAmericans tip, the second exampleindicatesthathisofferwasagenerousaction.

USAGENOTE

6.11 Iftheverbisato-infinitive,youusuallyputanadverbafterit,oraftertheobjectifthereisone.Hetriedtoleavequietly.Thomasmadeanappointmenttoseehimimmediately.Some people, however, particularly when they are speaking, do putadverbs between the to and the infinitive. This use is considered to beincorrectbysomespeakersofEnglish.Mywifetoldmetoprobablyexpectyou,hesaid.Vauxhallareattemptingtoreallybreakintothemarket.Sometimes,however,ifyouavoidputtingtheadverbbetweenthetoandthe infinitive, you change the emphasisof the sentence, or it can soundclumsy. In such cases, splitting the infinitive, as it is called, is nowgenerallyconsideredacceptable.Participantswillbeencouragedtoactivelyparticipateintheworkshop.Iwantyoutoreallyenjoyyourself.Notethat thesecondexampleabovemeansIwantyou toenjoyyourselfverymuch. If you said I really want you to enjoy yourself, you wouldmeanItisveryimportantformethatyouenjoyyourself.

minorpointsaboutposition

6.12 If a clause has two adverbials, and one is an adverb and the other is aprepositionalphrase,youcanusuallyplaceeitherofthemfirst.MissBurnslookedcalmlyatMarianne.Theyweresittinghappilyinthecar.

Thewomenshoutedatmesavagely.Hegotintothecarquicklyanddroveoff.However,iftheprepositionalphraseisratherlong,itismorecommontoplacetheadverbfirst,immediatelyaftertheverb.Helistenedcalmlytothereportofhisaides.Shewouldsitcross-leggedinherredrobes.Similarly, if the verb phrase is followed by a long object, the adverbcomesaftertheverbandbeforetheobject.Shesangbeautifullyaschoolsongthechildrenhadtaughtherwhentheywerelittle.

manner,place,thentime

6.13 In clauseswithmore than one adverbial, themeaning of the adverbialscan also affect their order.Theusualorder is adverbial ofmanner, thenadverbialofplace,thentimeadverbial.Theykneltquietlyintheshadowoftherock.Itriedtoreachyouathomeseveraltimes.HewasimprisonedinCairoinJanuary1945.Parentsmaycomplainthattheirchildeatsbadlyatmeals.Theyoungstersrepeatthisinunisonatthebeginningofeachsession.However, if a clause contains an adverb of manner and an adverb ofdirection suchasdown,out, orhome, the adverb of direction is usuallyputinfrontoftheadverbofmanner.Lomaxdrovehomefast.Ireacheddownslowly.

adverbialsofthesametype

6.14 Adverbialsofdifferenttypescanbeplacedtogether,sometimesseparatedbyacomma,butadverbialsofthesametype,forexampletwoadverbialsof manner, are usually linked by conjunctions such as and and but, orstructures such as rather than. Formore information about how to linkadverbialsusingconjunctions,seeparagraph8.188.Shesangclearlyandbeautifully.

Theyhelptocombattheproblematsource,ratherthansuperficially.

changingwordorderafteradverbials

6.15 When clauses beginwith an adverbial, the normal order of subject andverb is sometimes changed. For example, after adverbials of place, theverb usually comes before the subject. For more information aboutadverbialsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.Nexttoitstoodapileofpapercups.Beyondthemlaythefields.This also happens when broad negative adverbs such as hardly andbarely,andsomeothernegativewordsareplacedatthebeginningoftheclause.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs5.49to5.93.Neverinhistoryhadtechnologymadesuchspectacularadvances.Seldomcantherehavebeensuchahappymeeting.Bothofthesecasesareparticularlycommoninwrittenstories.Achangeinthenormalorderofsubjectandverbcanoccurafterotheradverbs,butonlyinpoetryorold-fashionedEnglish.ThefollowingexampleisfromaChristmascarolwrittenin1843:Brightlyshonethemoonthatnight,thoughthefrostwascruel.

AdverbsTypesofadverb6.16 Thereareseveraltypesofadverb:

adverbs of time, frequency, andduration, for example soon, often,andalways.Becausetheseareallrelatedtotime,theyaredealtwithfullyinChapter4.adverbs of place, for example around,downstairs, and underneath.

Thesearedealtwithinthesectiononplacebeginningatparagraph6.53.adverbs of manner, for example beautifully, carefully, and silently.

See the sectionbeginningatparagraph6.36 formore informationaboutthese.adverbsofdegree, forexamplealmost,badly, terribly,andwell.See

thesectionbeginningatparagraph6.45formoreinformationaboutthese.

sentence connectors, for example consequently, furthermore, andhowever.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs10.48to10.56.sentence adverbs, for example alas, apparently, chiefly, and

interestingly. See the section beginning at paragraph 9.79 for moreinformationonthese.broadnegativeadverbs, forexamplebarely,hardly,rarely,scarcely,

andseldom.Thesearedealtwithatparagraphs5.82to5.89.focusing adverbs, for example especially and only. These are dealt

withinthesectionbeginningatparagraph9.64.

Adverbformsandmeaningsrelatedtoadjectives

-lyadverbs

6.17 Manyadverbsarerelatedtoadjectives.Themainrelationshipsandrulesofformationareexplainedbelow.Manyadverbsareformedbyadding-lytoanadjective.Forexample,theadverbsquietlyandbadlyareformedbyadding-lytotheadjectivesquietandbad.Mostoftheadverbsformedinthiswayareadverbsofmanner,sosomepeoplerefertoadverbsofmanneras-lyadverbs.Sittherequietly,andlistentothismusic.Ididn’tplaybadly.Hereportedaccuratelywhattheysaid.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Formoreinformationaboutadjectives,seeChapter2.

spelling

6.18 Some-lyadverbshaveslightlydifferentspellingsfromtheadjectivestheyare related to, for example nastily, gently, terribly, academically, truly,andfully.Forinformationabouttheseadverbs,seetheReferencesection.

6.19 Notalladverbsendingin-lyareadverbsofmanner.Someareadverbsofdegree,suchasextremelyandslightly:seethelistatparagraph6.45.

Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.Salesfellslightlylastmonth.A few are adverbs of time, duration, or frequency, such as presently,briefly,andweekly:seethelistsoftheseinChapter4.At10.15a.m.soldiersbrieflyopenedfireagain.Theseallegationsarecurrentlybeinginvestigatedbymylegalteam.Others are adverbsofplace, such as locally and internationally, linkingadverbssuchasconsequently, or sentenceadverbs suchasactually.Forlistsofadverbsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.Forlistsofsentenceadverbs,seeChapter9.Theylivelocallyandtheyhavenevercausedanybother.Theseeffortshavereceivedlittlecreditinternationally.Theydidnotpreach.Consequently,theyreachedavastlywideraudience.Therestillremainssomethingtosay.Severalthings,actually.

adverbmeaning

6.20 Mostadverbsformedbyadding-lytoanadjectivehaveasimilarmeaningto the adjective, for example quietly and beautifully have similarmeaningstoquietandbeautiful.Sheisthoughtful,quietandcontrolled.‘I’mgoingtodoit,’Isaidquietly.Hiscostumesarebeautiful,abigimprovementonthepreviousones.Thegirlshaddressedmorebeautifullythanever,forhim.

6.21 Some -ly adverbs have a differentmeaning from themeanings of theirrelated adjectives. For example,hardlymeans not verymuch oralmostnotatallandisnotusedwithanyofthemeaningsoftheadjectivehard.Thishasbeenalonghardday.Herbedroomwassosmallshecouldhardlymoveinit.Hereisalistofadverbsendingin-lythathaveadifferentmeaningfromthemeaningsoftheirrelatedadjectives:

barelyhardly

latelypresentlyscarcelyshortly

6.22 Some -lyadverbsarenot related toadjectives, forexampleaccordingly.Some are related to nouns, for example bodily, purposely, daily andweekly.Forlistsofthese,seetheReferencesection.

6.23 Adverbs ending in -ly are very rarely formed from some types ofadjective:mostclassifyingadjectives,forexampleracist,eastern,female,urban,

foreign,andavailable.SeeChapter2forlistsofclassifyingadjectives.most colour adjectives, although -ly adverbs from these are

occasionallyfoundinworksofliterature.Thehillsrisegreenlytothedeep-bluesky.Helaystill,staringblacklyupattheceiling.someverycommonqualitativeadjectivesthatrefertobasicqualities:

bigfatoldsmalltalltinywetyoung

adjectivesthatalreadyendin-ly,forexamplefriendly,lively,cowardly,ugly,andsilly.mostadjectivesthatendin-ed, suchas frightenedandsurprised.See

the Reference section for a list of the common ones that do form -lyadverbs,suchasexcitedlyandhurriedly.

sameformasadjective:afastcar,drivefast

6.24 Insomecases,anadverbhasthesameformasanadjectiveandissimilarinmeaning.Forexample, fast isanadverb in thesentenceNews travelsfastandanadjectiveinthesentenceShelikesfastcars.…afastraillinkfromLondontotheChannelTunnel.Thedriverwasdrivingtoofastfortheconditions.Inthesecases,theadverbisusuallyplacedimmediatelyaftertheverborobject,andrarelyinfrontoftheverb.

alikedowntownextrafarfastinsidelongnextoutsideoverseaspaststraightthrough

Somewords ending in -ly are both adverbs and adjectives, for exampledaily,monthly,andyearly.Theserelatetofrequencyandareexplainedinparagraph4.120.

6.25 Severalpostdeterminers,includingfurther,next,only,opposite,andsame,have the same form as adverbs but no direct relation inmeaning.Notethatwell is an adverb and adjective, but usually means not ill as anadjective,andwithskillorsuccessasanadverb.Hehasdonewell.

twoforms:dear/dearly,hard/hardly,etc.

6.26 Sometimes,twoadverbsarerelatedtothesameadjective.Oneadverbhasthesameformastheadjective,andtheotherisformedbyadding-ly.Heclosedhiseyestight.Heclosedhiseyestightly.Failuremayyetcosthiscountrydear.Holes in the road are amenacewhich costs this country dearly in lostmanhourseveryyear.TheGermanmanufacturerwasurgingmetocutoutthemiddlemananddealwithhimdirect.Thetrendinrecentyearshasbeentodealdirectlywiththesupplier.Hereisalistofcommonadverbsthathaveboththeseforms:

clearclearlyclosecloselydeardearlydeepdeeplydirectdirectlyeasyeasilyfinefinelyfirstfirstlyhardhardlyhighhighlylastlastlylate

latelythickthicklythinthinlytighttightly

Note that the -ly adverb often has a differentmeaning from the adverbwiththesameformastheadjective,Theriverwasrunninghighandswiftly.Ithoughthighlyoftheidea.Hehasworkedhard.Bordercouldhardlymakehimselfheardabovethedin.Whenthesnakestrikes,itsmouthopenswide.Closingdatesforapplicationsvarywidely.Notethat,withsomewordsthatareadverbsandadjectives, theadditionof -ly forms a new adverb and a new adjective, for example dead anddeadly,lowandlowly.

noadverbfromadjective

6.27 Someadjectivesdonot formadverbs at all.These include the commonqualitativeadjectiveslistedinparagraph6.23,suchasbigandold.Hereisalistofsomemoreadjectivesthatdonotformadverbs:

afraidalivealoneasleepawakecontentdifficultdrunkforeign

goodhurtilllittlelongsorrystandard

Notethattheadverbsrelatingtocontentanddrunkareformedbyadding-ly to the forms contented and drunken, thus giving contentedly anddrunkenly.

USAGENOTE

6.28 If there is no adverb related to an adjective, and you want to giveadditional information about an event or situation, you can often use aprepositionalphrase.Insomecases,theprepositionalphraseinvolvesanounthatisrelatedtothe adjective. For example, there is no adverb related to the adjectivedifficult, but you can use the related noundifficulty in the prepositionalphrasewithdifficultyinstead.Hestoodupslowlyandwithdifficulty.Inothercases,forexamplewithadjectivesthatendin-ly,ageneralnounsuchasway,manner,orfashionisused.Hewalksinafunnyway.Hegreetedusinhisusualfriendlyfashion.Prepositional phrases may be used even if an adverb does exist, forexample when you want to add more detailed information or to addemphasis.She comforted the bereaved relatives in a dignified, compassionate andpersonalizedmanner.Attheseextremevelocities,materialsbehaveinatotallydifferentmannerfromnormal.

adverbsnotrelatedtoadjectives

6.29 Someadverbsarenotrelatedtoadjectivesatall.Thisisespeciallytrueofadverbs of time and place. See Chapter 4 for adverbs of time, and thesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53foradverbsofplace.ItwillsoonbeChristmas.Therearealsosomeotheradverbsthatarenotrelatedtoadjectives.Foralistofthecommonadverbsthatarenotrelatedtoadjectives,seetheReferencesection.

Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbs6.30 Youmaywant to say how something happens or is done in relation to

howithappensonadifferentoccasion,orhowitwasdonebysomeoneorsomethingelse.Youcandothisbyusingadverbsinthecomparativeorsuperlative.Hebegantospeakmorequickly.Thisformoftreatmentismostcommonlyusedinyoungerpatients.Most adverbs of manner (see paragraph 6.36) have comparatives andsuperlatives.A few other adverbs also have comparatives and superlatives: someadverbsoftime(earlyandlate,seeparagraph4.71),frequency(oftenandfrequently, see paragraph 4.114), duration (briefly, permanently, andlong, see paragraph 4.123), andplace (near, close,deep,high, far, andlow,seeparagraphs6.88and6.60).

6.31 Theformsandusesofcomparativeandsuperlativeadverbsaregenerallysimilar to thoseof adjectives.Formore informationabout comparativesandsuperlativesofadjectives,seeparagraphs2.103to2.122.However, unlike adjectives, the comparative of an adverb is usuallyformedwithmore and the superlativewithmost, and not by adding -erand-est.Thepeopleneededbusinessskillsso that theycouldmanage themselvesmoreeffectively.…thetextthatProfessorWilliams’sworkmostcloselyresembles.Valiumismostoftenprescribedasananti-anxietydrug.

irregularforms

6.32 Someverycommonadverbshavecomparativesandsuperlativesthataresinglewordsandnotformedusingmoreandmost.Notethatadverbsthathaveirregularcomparativesalsohaveirregularsuperlatives.Wellhasthecomparativebetterandthesuperlativebest.Shewouldaskhimlater,whensheknewhimbetter.IhavetofindoutwhatIcandobest.Badlyhasthecomparativeworseandthesuperlativeworst.‘Idon’tthinkthecrowdhelpedher,’Gordonadmitted.‘Sheplayedworse.’TheexpeditionfromMozambiquefaredworst.Notethatworseandworstarealsothecomparativeandsuperlativeofillwhenitisanadverboradjective.

6.33 Adverbs that have the same form as adjectives also have the samecomparatives and superlatives as the adjectives. For example, fast hasfasterandfastest,andhardhasharderandhardest.Foralistofcommonadverbsthathavethesameformasadjectives,seeparagraph6.24.Theyworkedharder,theyweremorehonest.Thewinningblowistheonethatstrikeshardest.Thiswouldenableclaimstobedealtwithfaster.Thistypeofsugardissolvesfastest.

6.34 Some adverbs have comparatives and superlativeswithmore andmost,butalsohavesingle-wordcomparativesandsuperlatives.Theycanbebuiltmorequickly.Youprobablylearnquickerbyhavinglessons.Thosewomentreatedquickestwerethosemostlikelytodie.The American computer firm will be relying more heavily on its newScottishplant.Itseemsthattherightsofsoldiersweighheavierthantherightsofthosekilled.TheburdenfellmostheavilyonKanhai.Illiteracyweighsheaviestonthegroupswhoarealreadydisadvantagedinotherways.

USAGENOTE

6.35 Thestructures involvingcomparativesandsuperlativesaregenerally the

sameforadverbsasforadjectives:theuseofnoandanywithcomparatives:seeparagraph2.163

Hebegantobehavemoreandmoreerratically.Omorodidn’twanttoexpressitanymorestrongly.theoptionaluseofthewithsuperlatives:seeparagraph2.117

Hisshouldershurttheworst.Oldpeopleworkhardest.the use of words like much or a little with comparatives and

superlatives:seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.157ThesituationresolveditselfmuchmoreeasilythanIhadexpected.Theretheprocessprogressesevenmorerapidly.theuseofthanaftercomparatives:seeparagraph2.106

Thisclasscontinuestogrowmorerapidlythananyothergroup.Priceshavebeenrisingfasterthanincomes.Youmightknowthisbetterthanme.repeatingcomparativestoshowchangesinextent:seeparagraph2.161

Hebegantobehavemoreandmoreerratically.

Adverbsofmanner

adverbsofmanner

6.36 You often want to say something about the way something is done oraboutthecircumstancesofaneventorsituation.Themostcommonwayof doing this is by usingadverbs ofmanner. Adverbs ofmanner givemoreinformationaboutthewayinwhichaneventoractiontakesplace.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Sheaccidentallyshotherselfinthefoot.

howsomethingisdone:singbeautifully,walkbriskly

6.37 Manyadverbsofmannerareusedtodescribethewayinwhichsomethingisdone.Forexample,inthesentenceHediditcarefully,carefullymeansinacarefulway.

Theythink,dressandlivedifferently.Heactedveryclumsily.Youmustbeabletospeakfluentlyandcorrectly.

6.38 Here is a list of common -ly adverbs that describe the way in whichsomethingisdone:

abruptlyaccuratelyawkwardlybadlybeautifullybrightlybrilliantlybrisklycarefullycarelesslycasuallycheaplyclearlycloselyclumsilycomfortablyconsistentlyconvenientlycorrectlydangerouslydelicatelydifferentlydiscreetlydistinctlydramaticallyeasilyeconomicallyeffectivelyefficiently

evenlyexplicitlyfaintlyfaithfullyfiercelyfinelyfirmlyfluentlyformallyfranklyfreelygentlygracefullyhastilyheavilyhonestlyhurriedlyintentlymeticulouslyneatlynicelyoddlypatientlypeacefullypeculiarlyperfectlyplainlypleasantlypolitelypoorlyprofessionallyproperlyquietlyrapidlyreadilyrichly

rigidly

roughlyruthlesslysecurelysensiblysharplysilentlysimplysmoothlysoftlysolidlyspecificallysplendidlysteadilysteeplystifflystrangelysubtlysuperblyswiftlysystematicallytenderlythicklythinlythoroughlythoughtfullytightlytruthfullyuncomfortablyurgentlyvaguelyvigorouslyviolentlyvividlyvoluntarily

warmlywidely

willinglywonderfully

feelingsandmanner:smilehappily,walkwearily

6.39 Adverbs formed from adjectives that describe people’s feelings, forexamplehappilyornervously,indicateboththewayinwhichsomethingisdoneandthefeelingsofthepersonwhodoesit.For example, the sentence She laughed happily means both that shelaughedinahappywayandthatshewasfeelinghappy.Welaughedandchattedhappilytogether.Gaskellgotupwearilyandheadedforthestairs.Theylookedanxiouslyateachother.Thechildrenwaitedeagerlyfortheirpresents.Thechildrensmiledshyly.

6.40 Hereisalistofadverbsthatdescribethefeelingsofthepersonwhodoessomethingaswellasthewayinwhichitisdone:

angrilyanxiouslybitterlyboldlycalmlycheerfullyconfidentlydesperatelyeagerlyexcitedlyfuriouslygladlygloomilygratefully

happilyhelplesslyhopefullyhopelesslyimpatientlymiserablynervouslypassionatelyproudlyreluctantlysadlyshylysincerelyuncomfortablyuneasilyunhappilywearily

circumstances:talkprivately,workpart-time

6.41 Adverbs of manner can also indicate the circumstances in whichsomething is done, rather than how it is done. For example, in thesentenceHespoketomeprivately,privatelymeanswhennooneelsewaspresentratherthaninaprivateway.Ineedtospeaktoyouprivately.Hehadpubliclycalledforaninvestigationoftheentireschoolsystem.BritainandFrancejointlysuggestedaplanin1954.Ihaveundertakenalltheenquiriespersonally.

6.42 Hereisalistofadverbsthatareusedtoshowthecircumstancesinwhichanactiontakesplace:

accidentallyaloneartificiallyautomatically

bodilycollectivelycommerciallydeliberatelydirectlydulyfirst-classfull-timeillegallyindependentlyindirectlyindividuallyinnocentlyinstinctivelyinvoluntarilyjointlylegallylogicallymechanicallynaturallyofficiallyopenlyovertlypart-timepersonallypoliticallyprivatelypubliclyregardlessretailscientificallysecretlysolospeciallysymbolicallywholesale

forms

6.43 Most adverbs of manner are formed from qualitative adjectives, forexample stupidly from stupid, and angrily from angry. For moreinformationabouttheformsofadverbs,seeparagraph6.17.

USAGENOTE

6.44 Instead of using an adverb of manner, you can sometimes useprepositionalphrasesornounphrasestogivemoreinformationaboutthemannerorcircumstancesofanaction.‘Comehere’,hesaidinalowvoice.IknowIhavetodoitthisway.Insomecasesyoumayhave todo this,because there isnoadverb.Seeparagraph6.23.

Adverbsofdegree6.45 Whenyouwanttogivemoreinformationabouttheextentofanactionor

thedegree towhichanaction isperformed,youoftenuseanadverbofdegree.Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.Ihadalmostforgottenaboutthetrip.Achangeofonewordcanradicallyalterthemeaningofastatement.

6.46 Hereisalistofadverbsofdegree:

absolutelyadequatelyalmostaltogetheramazinglyawfullybadlycompletelyconsiderably

dearlydeeplydrasticallydreadfullyenormouslyentirelyexceedinglyexcessivelyextensivelyextraordinarilyextremelyfairlyfantasticallyfullygreatlyhalfhardhugelyimmenselyincrediblyintenselyjustlargelymoderatelynearlynoticeablyoutrightpartlyperfectlypoorlypositivelypowerfullypracticallyprettyprofoundlypurely

quite

radicallyratherreallyreasonablyremarkablysignificantlysimplyslightlysomewhatsoundlystronglysufficientlysupremelysurprisinglysuspiciouslyterriblytotallytremendouslytrulyunbelievablyutterlyveryvirtuallywellwonderfully

fromadjectives

6.47 Adverbsofdegreeareoftenformedfromadjectivesbyadding-ly.Someare formed from qualitative adjectives, for exampledeeply, hugely, andstrongly, and some from classifying adjectives, for example absolutely,perfectly,andutterly.A few adverbs of degree are formed from postdeterminers, such asentirely.

SeeChapter2formoreinformationabouttypesofadjectives.

positioninclause

6.48 Youcanuseadverbsofdegreeintheusualpositionsforadverbials.Iadmiredhimgreatly.Igreatlyenjoyedworkingwiththem.Yogacangreatlydiminishstresslevels.However,yourarelyuseanadverbofdegreeatthebeginningofaclause.For example, you do not usually sayGreatly I admired him. Formoreinformation about placing adverbs at the beginning of a clause, seeparagraph9.70.Afewadverbsofdegreearenearlyalwaysusedinfrontofthemainverb:

almostlargelynearlyreallyvirtually

For example, you usually say He almost got there, not He got therealmost.Thistypeofinstitutionhaslargelydisappearednow.Hereallyenjoyedtalkingaboutflying.TheresultvirtuallyensuresScotland’splaceinthefinals.Someadverbsofdegreearealmostalwaysusedafterthemainverb:

altogetherenormouslyhardoutrightsomewhattremendouslywell

Thiswasadifferentlevelofcommunicationaltogether.Theproposalwasrejectedoutright.Ienjoyedthebookenormously.

emphasizingadverbs

6.49 Agroupofadverbsofdegreearecalledemphasizingadverbs.Theseareformedfromemphasizingadjectives(seeparagraph2.36).

absolutelycompletelyentirelyjustoutrightperfectlypositivelypurelyquitereallysimplytotallytrulyutterly

Note that the emphasizing adverb outright has the same form as anadjective,anadverbofmanner,andanadverbofdegree.

6.50 Youuseanemphasizingadverbsuchasabsolutely,just,quite,orsimplytoaddemphasis to theactiondescribedbyaverb.Emphasizingadverbsusuallycomeinfrontofverbs.Iquiteagree.Iabsolutelyagree.IjustknowI’mgoingtobelate.Isimplyadorethisflat.In a verb phrase, the emphasizing adverb comes after the auxiliary or

modalandinfrontoftheverb.Someonehadsimplyappeared.Iwasabsolutelyamazed.However,absolutelyisoccasionallyusedafterverbsaswell.IagreeabsolutelywithwhatGeoffreyhassaid.Forotherusesofemphasizingadverbs,seeparagraphs9.62to9.63.

adverbsofdegreeinfrontofotheradverbs:verycarefully,fairlyeasily

6.51 Youcanusesomeadverbsofdegreesuchasveryandrather in frontofotheradverbs.Whenadverbsofdegreeareusedlikethistheyarecalledsubmodifyingadverbs.They can also be used in front of adjectives; this use is explained inparagraphs2.140to2.168,wherelistsofsubmodifyingadverbsandtheirmeaningsarealsogiven.Hepreparedhisspeechverycarefully.Hewashavingtoworkawfullyhard.Thingschangedreallydramatically.Wegetonextremelywellwithourneighbours.Wewereabletoheareverythingprettyclearly.Thepaperdisintegratedfairlyeasily.Hedressedratherformally.Everychildreactssomewhatdifferently.Notethatmoderatelyandreasonablyaremainlyusedinfrontofadverbsthatdonotendin-ly.Heworksreasonablyhard.Afewadverbsofdegreecanbeusedas in thiswaywithcomparatives:seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.157.Thiscouldallbedoneverymuchmorequickly.Ithankedhimagain,evenmoreprofuselythanbefore.Ihopeyoucanseeslightlymoreclearlywhatisgoingon.Notethatstillcanalsobeplacedafterthecomparative.They’re doing better in some respects now.Of course they’ve got to do

betterstill.

otheradverbsofdegree

6.52 Therearesomespecialadverbsofdegree.Theseincludemuch,which isusedasanadverbofdegreeinnegativeclauses,andinreportedquestionsafterhow.Shewasdifficultasachildandhasn’tchangedmuch.Thesedefinitionsdonothelpmuch.Haveyoutoldhimhowmuchyoulovehim?Verymuchisalsousedinasimilarway.Sheischarming.Welikeherverymuch.The comparative adverbs better andworse and the superlative adverbsbestandworstarealsoadverbsofdegree.Youknowhimbetterthananyoneelse.Itisthelanditselfwhichsuffersworst.Moreandlesscanbeusedascomparativeadverbsofdegree.Her tears frightenedhimmore thananything thathadeverhappened tohimbefore.Thegroundheatsuplessthere.Mostandleastcanbeusedassuperlativeadverbsofdegree.ShegavemetheopportunitytodowhatIwantedtodomost.Theystagedsomeofhisleastknownoperas.Comparativeadverbsandsuperlativeadverbsareexplainedinthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.30.Thenounphrasesabit, agreatdeal,a little,anda lot are alsoused asadverbsofdegree.Idon’tlikethisabit.Thesituation’schangedagreatdealsincethen.

Adverbsofplace6.53 Adverbsarealsousedafterverbstogiveinformationaboutplace.

Nobirdsoranimalscamenear.

Seagullswerecirclingoverhead.In many cases the same word can be used as a preposition and as anadverb.Thelimbwasseveredbelowtheelbow.Thisinformationissummarizedbelow.

adverbsshowingposition

6.54 Hereisalistofwordsthatareusedasadverbstoshowposition.Notethatsomeadverbsconsistofmorethanoneword,forexample,outofdoors.

abroadaheadaloftashoreawayclosetodownstairsdownstreamdowntowndownwindeastwardhalfwayhereindoorsinlandmidwaynearbynextdoornorthwardoffshoreoutdoorsoutofdoorsoverheadoverseas

southwardthereunderfootundergroundunderwaterupstairsupstreamuptownupwindwestwardyonder(American)

Thecommonadverbsofplacethatareusedasadverbsandasprepositionsare sometimes called adverb particles or adverbial particles. Thefollowingwords are used as adverbs to show position, and can also beusedasprepositions:

aboardaboutabovealongsidebehindbelowbeneathbesidebeyondclosebydownininbetweeninsidenearoffoppositeoutside

overroundthroughoutunderneathup

6.55 Anadverbcanbeusedaloneafteraverbtoshowplaceordirection.Theyoungmenhatedworkingunderground.Theenginedronedonasweflewnorthward.You can also use an adverb showing place or directionwhen it is clearfrom the context what place or direction you are referring to. Forexample, youmay havementioned the place earlier, or the adverbmayrefertoyourownlocation,ortothelocationofthepersonorthingbeingtalkedabout.HemovedtoPortugal,anditwastherewherehelearnttodothesamba.She walked away and my mother stood in the middle of the road,watching.Theyspenttheautumnof1855inJapan.ItwasherethatHilarywroteherfirstnovel.

USAGENOTE

6.56 Afewadverbsofpositionareusedtoshowtheareainwhichasituationexists:

globallyinternationallylocallynationallyuniversallywidelyworldwide

Everythingweusedwasboughtlocally.

Unlikemost other adverbs of position, they cannot be used after be tostatethepositionofsomething.

USAGENOTE

6.57 Afewotheradverbsareusedtoshowwheretwoormorepeopleorthingsareinrelationtoeachother:together,apart,sidebysideandabreast.Allthevillagersandvisitorswouldsittogetherroundthefire.Afigurestoodatthewindowholdingthecurtainsapart.

adverbsofpositionwithafollowingadverbial

6.58 Someadverbsofpositionarenormallyfollowedbyanotheradverbialofposition.Thisisparticularlycommonwhentheverbbeisusedasamainverb.Barbara’sdownatthecottage.Adamwashalfwayupthestairs.Outonthequietsurfaceoftheriver,somethingmoved.Sheisupinherownbedroom.

deep,far,high,low

6.59 Theadverbsdeep,far,high,and low,which indicatedistanceaswellasposition,arealsousuallyfollowedbyanotheradverbialofposition,oraremodifiedorqualifiedinsomeotherway.Manyoftheeggsremainburieddeepamongthesandgrains.Oneplane,flyingverylow,sweptbackandforth.Deepdown,faraway,highup,andlowdownareoftenusedinsteadoftheadverbsontheirown.Thewindowwashighup,milesabovetherocks.Sitascrapedashallowcavitylowdowninthewall.Farandfarawayareoftenqualifiedbyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithfrom.Iwasstandingfarawayfromtheball.Welivedfarfromthenearestvillage.

adverbsofposition:comparativesandsuperlatives

6.60 Some adverbs have comparative and superlative forms. The superlativeformisnotusedtoshowposition,buttospecifywhichofseveralthingsyouaretalkingabout.Deeper,further(orfarther),higher,and lowerareusually followedbyaprepositionalphraseshowingposition.Furtheralongthebeach,athintrickleofsmokewasclimbingintothesky.Thebeansareabithigheronthestalkthisyear.Nearercanbeusedasanadverbaswellasapreposition(seeparagraph6.88).Closercanonlybeusedasanadverb.Thehillswerenearernow.Thousands of tourists stood watching or milled around trying to getcloser.

anywhere,everywhere,somewhere,nowhere

6.61 There are four indefinite adverbs of position: anywhere, everywhere,nowhere,andsomewhere.Theyareusedtotalkaboutapositionthatisnotdefiniteorthatisverygeneral.Idroppedmycigarsomewhereroundhere.IthoughtI’dseenyousomewhere.Therewerebicycleseverywhere.No-onecanfindHowardorBarbaraanywhere.Nowheremakesaclausenegative.Therewasnowheretohide.Ifnowhereisatthebeginningofaclause,thesubjectoftheverbmustbeplacedafteranauxiliaryoraformofbeorhave.NowherehaveIseenanyseriousmentionofthis.Nowherearetheyoverwhelminglynumerous.

American English has informal variants for all four of these adverbs inwhichthewordplacereplaces-where.Thesecanbewrittenasoneortwowords.

Haven’tyougotsomeplacetogo?Video-conferencingcanconnectanyone,anytime,anyplace.

addinginformation

6.62 Thereareseveralstructuresyoucanusewithindefiniteplaceadverbsinordertogivemoreinformation.Youcanuse:anadverbofplace:

Iwouldliketoworksomewhereabroad.We’recertainlynowherenear.anadjective:

WecouldgotoMajorcaifyouwantsomewherelively.Areyougoingsomewherenice?aprepositionalphrase:

Thewaiterwasn’tanywhereinsight.In1917,Kollontaiwas theonlywoman inanygovernmentanywhere intheworld.orato-infinitiveclause:

Wementionedthatwewerelookingforsomewheretolive.Iwantedtohavesomewheretoputit.You can also use a relative clause. Note that the relative pronoun isusuallyomitted.Wasthereanywhereyouwantedtogo?EverywhereIwent,peoplewereangryorsuspicious.

differentoradditionalplaces

6.63 Else is used after the indefinite place adverb to indicate a different oradditionalplace.Wecouldholdthemeetingsomewhereelse.Morepeopledieinbedthananywhereelse.Elsewherecanbeusedinsteadofsomewhereelse.Gwensatnexttothewindow.Theothergirlshadfoundseatselsewhere.

6.64 Everywhere and anywhere can also be used as the subjects of verbs,especiallybe.SometimesIfeelthatanywhere,justanywhere,wouldbebetterthanthis.Ilookedaroundforashop,buteverywherewasclosed.

Destinationsanddirections

adverbsindicatingdestinationsandtargets

6.65 Adverbscanbeusedtoindicatedestinationsandtargets.Ihaveexpectedyou,shesaid,invitinghiminside.Nobirdsoranimalscamenear.Thefollowingadverbsareusedtoindicatedestinationsortargets:

aboardabroadashoreclosedownstairsdowntownheavenwardhomehomewardinindoorsinlandinsideinwardinwardsnearnextdooroutdoorsoutofdoorsoutsideoverseas

skywardthereundergroundupstairsuptown

Thecomparativeformsnearerandcloseraremorecommonlyusedthannearorclose.Comenearer.Deep,far,high,andlowarealsousedasadverbsshowingadestinationortargetbutonlywhentheyaremodifiedinsomeotherway.Thedancersspranghighintotheairbrandishingtheirspears.Thecomparativeformsdeeper,further(orfarther),higher,andlowerarealsoused,andso is thesuperlative form furthest (or farthest).Thesedonothavetobemodifiedinanyway.Weleftthewaterfallandclimbedhigher.Peoplehavetotrekfurtherandfurther.

relativedirection

6.66 Adverbs can be used to show direction in relation to the particularposition of the person or thing you are talking about. For moreinformationonphrasalverbs,seeparagraphs3.83to3.116.GonorthfromLeicesterSquareupWardourStreet.Don’tlookdown.…thepartoftheenginethatwasspinningaround.MrsJamesgavealittlecryandhurriedon.Theygrabbedhimandpulledhimbackwards.Heturnedleftandbeganstrollingslowlydownthestreet.They can also show the direction in which someone or something isfacinginrelationtothefrontoftheplacetheyarein.Theseatsfaceforward.Thefollowingadverbsareusedtoshowdirectionofthissort:

aheadalongbackbackwardbackwardsforwardforwardsleftononwardrightsideways~anti-clockwisearoundclockwisecounterclockwise(American)downdownwarddownwardseasteastwardeastwardsnorthnorthwardnorthwardsnorth-eastnorth-westsouthsouthwardsouthwardssouth-eastsouth-westround

upupwardupwardswestwestwardwestwards

movementinseveraldirections

6.67 The adverbs round, about, and around show movement in severaldirectionswithinaplace.Stoprushingabout!Theywon’twantanyoneelsetramplingaround.The following adverbial expressions are used to talk about repeatedmovementindifferentdirections:

backandforthbackwardsandforwardsfromsidetosideinandoutroundandroundtoandfroupanddown

Atothertimesshewouldpaceupanddownoutsidethetrailer.Burkewaswalkingbackandforthashespoke.

movementaway

6.68 The following adverbs are used to talk about movement away fromsomeoneorsomething:

asideawayoff

outoutward

Thefarmerjustlaughedandrodeaway.Ittookjustonetugtopullthemout.Theadverbapartindicatesthattwoormorethingsmoveawayfromeachother.Irushedinandtriedtopullthedogsapart.

movementalongapath

6.69 The following adverbs are used to talk about movement along a road,path,orline:

alongsidebesidedownhilldownstreamuphillupstream

Goingdownhillwaseasy.Itwasn’tthemovingthatkeptmewarm;itwastheeffortofpushingDaisyuphill.

movementacrossorpastsomething

6.70 The following adverbs are used to talk aboutmovement across or pastsomething:

acrossbyoveroverheadpast

roundthrough

There’sanaircraftcomingover.‘Whereareyougoing?’demandedMissCraigasFlorrierushedby.

indefinitedirection:somewhere,everywhere,nowhere,etc.

6.71 The indefinite place adverbs are used to talk about a destination ordirectionwhenyouwanttobemoregeneralorvague.Hewentoffsomewhereforashootingweekend.Dustbleweverywhere,swirlingoverdrycakedmountains.Therewashardlyanywheretogo.Can’tyouplayelsewhere?Nowhereismainlyusedmetaphorically,toindicatelackofprogress.Theyweregettingnowhereandhadotherthingstodo.Seeparagraph6.61formoreinformationontheseindefiniteadverbs.

adverbsafternouns:themanopposite,theroadsouth

6.72 Likeprepositionalphrases,adverbscanalsobeplacedafternouns.Theywatchedhimfromtheterraceabove.Themanoppositegotup.Peopleeverywherearebecomingawareoftheproblem.Wetooktheroadsouth.

Prepositions6.73 This section explains howprepositional phrases are used to show the

placewhereanactionoccurs, theplacewheresomeoneorsomethingis,the place they are going to or coming from, or the direction they aremovingin.Aprepositionalphraseconsistsofaprepositionanditsobject,whichisnearlyalwaysanoun.The most basic use of most prepositions is to indicate position and

direction.Hefumbledinhispocket.Onyourleftistheriver.WhydidhenotdrivetoValence?Thevoicewascomingfrommyapartment.Iraninsideandboundedupthestairs.

6.74 Aprepositionisawordthatallowsyoutosaymoreaboutathingoranaction,becauseyoucanchooseanyappropriatenounafteritasitsobject.Mostprepositionsaresinglewords,althoughtherearesomethatconsistofmorethanoneword,suchasoutofandinbetween.Hereisalistofcommonone-wordprepositionsthatareusedtotalkaboutplaceordestination:

aboutaboveacrossalongalongsideamongaroundatbeforebehindbelowbeneathbesidebetweenbeyondbydownfromininsideintonear

offonoppositeoutsideoverpastroundthroughthroughouttotoward(Am)towardsunderunderneathupwithin

Note that toward and towards are both used inAmericanEnglish,withnodifferenceinmeaning.Hereisalistofprepositionsthatconsistofmorethanonewordandthatareusedtotalkaboutplaceordestination:

acrossfromaheadofalloverawayfromclosebyclosetoinbetweeninfrontofneartonexttoontopofoutof

6.75 Manyprepositionscanalsobeadverbs;thatis,theycanbeusedwithoutanobject.Seeparagraph6.54foralistofthese.

BECAREFUL

6.76 BecauseEnglishhasalargenumberofprepositions,someofthem,suchas beside, by, near, and next to, are very close in meaning. Otherprepositions,forexampleatandin,haveseveraldifferentmeanings.Themeaningandusageofprepositionsshouldbecheckedwherepossibleinadictionary.

6.77 Prepositionshaveanobject,whichcomesafterthepreposition.Theswitchisbythedoor.Lookbehindyou,Willie!Note that ifapersonalpronoun isusedas theobjectofapreposition, itmustbetheobjectpronoun:me,you,him,her,it,us,them.Prepositionsalsocombinewithcomplexnounphrasestodescribeplacesin somedetail.Seeparagraph2.280 for informationon the use ofof innounphrases.Istoodaloneinthemiddleoftheyard.Hewassittingtowardstheendoftheroom.Hewenttothebackofthestore.

Positionofprepositionalphrases

afterverbsshowingposition

6.78 Prepositionalphrasesaremostcommonlyusedafterverbs.Theyareusedafterverbsthatindicatepositioninordertospecifywheresomethingis.ShelivesinNewcastle.Anoldpianostoodinthecorneroftheroom.Yououghttostayoutofthesun.Thefollowingverbsareoftenusedtoshowposition:

bebelong

hanglieliveremainsitbesituatedstandstay

Afterverbsindicatingmovement6.79 Prepositionalphrasesareusedafterverbsindicatingmovementtospecify

thedirectionofmovement.Iwentintothekitchenandbegantomakethedinner.MrsKaulwasleadinghimtohisseat.Theothersburstfromtheirtents.Thestormhaduprootedtreesfromtheground.HetookhertoEdinburgh.

afterverbsindicatingactivities

6.80 Prepositionalphrasesareusedafterverbs indicatingactivities tospecifywhereanactivitytakesplace.…childrenplayinginthestreet.ThemeetingwasheldatacommunitycentreinLoganHeights.Hewaspractisinghighjumpsinthegarden.

6.81 Prepositionalphrasesusuallycomeattheendoftheclause,aftertheverb,oraftertheobjectoftheverbifthereisone.Welandedatasmallairport.Weputthechildren’stoysinabigbox.

atthebeginningofaclause:foremphasisorcontrast

6.82 Ifyouwanttofocusontheprepositionalphraseforemphasisorcontrast,itcanbeplacedatthebeginningoftheclause.Thisorderingismainlyusedin

descriptivewritingorreports.Inthegardeneverythingwaspeaceful.Atthetopofthetreewasabrowncat.

atthebeginningofaclause:verbbeforesubject

6.83 Ifyouputaprepositionalphrasethatreferstothepositionofsomethingatthebeginningoftheclausewhenyouareusingaverbwithnoobject,thenormalwordorderafteritisoftenchanged,andtheverbisplacedbeforethesubject.Ontheceilinghungdustpansandbrushes.Insidetheboxliethegroup’sUSminingassets.Beyondthemlaythefields.If you are using be as a main verb, the verb always comes before thesubject;so,forexample,youcannotsayUnderherchinacolossalbroochwas.Underherchinwasacolossalbrooch.NexttoitisadifferentsignwhichsayssimplyBeware.AlongsidehimwillbeMrMitchellFromstein.

Showingposition6.84 The prepositional phrases in the following examples show the place

whereanactionoccurs,ortheplacewheresomeoneorsomethingis.Thechildrenshouted,wavingleafybranchesabovetheirheads.Thewholeplaytakesplaceatabeachclub.Twominuteslaterweweresafelyinsidethetaxi.Hestoodnearthedoor.Shekepthispictureonherbedsidetable.

prepositionsshowingposition

6.85 Thefollowingprepositionsareusedtoshowposition:

aboardaboutabove

acrossagainstaheadofalloveralongalongsideamidstamongaroundastrideatawayfrombeforebehindbelowbeneathbesidebetweenbeyondbyclosebyclosetodownininbetweeninfrontofinsidenearneartonexttooffonontopofoppositeoutofoutside

pastthroughunderunderneathupuponwithwithin

USAGENOTE

6.86 Someprepositionsareonlyusedwitharestrictedgroupofnouns.Forexample,aboardisusedwithanounreferringtoaformoftransport,suchasship,plane,train,orbus,orwiththenameofaparticularship,theflightnumberforaparticularplanejourney,andsoon.There’ssomethingterriblywrongaboardthisship,DrMarlowe.Morethan1500peoplediedaboardtheTitanic.…gettingaboardthatflighttoRome.Heclimbedaboardatruck.Hereisalistofnounsthatyouusewithaboardtoindicateposition:

aircraftcarrierboatbuscoachferryjetplanerocketshipsled(American)sledgespaceshuttletrain

trawlertruckwagonyacht

Astride ismainlyused to say that a personhasone legon each sideofsomething,usuallysittingonitorridingit.Hewhippedoutachairandsatastrideit.Hespottedamansittingastrideahorse.Whenbefore is used to showposition, theobject is usually a personorgroupofpeople.Leading representatives were interviewed before a live televisionaudience.Heappearedbeforeadisciplinarycommittee.Alloverusuallyhasalargeorindefiniteareaasitsobject.Through the site, thousands of people all over the world are beingreunitedwitholdfriends.Therewerepiecesofshipallovertheplace.

USAGENOTE

6.87 Someprepositionshaveseveralmeanings.Forexample,oncanbeusedtosay that someone or something is resting on a horizontal surface or isattachedtosomething,orthatsomeone’splaceofworkisanareasuchasafarmorabuildingsite.Thephonewasonthefloorinthehallway.Iloweredmyselfdownonarope.Myfatherworkedonafarm.

prepositionswithcomparativeforms

6.88 Near,nearto,andclosetohavecomparativeformsthatcanalsobeusedasprepositions.We’removingnearermyparents.VenusismuchnearertotheSunthantheEarth.

Thejudge’sbenchwasclosertomethanRuchell’schair.

morespecificposition

6.89 Ifyouwanttosaymoreexactlywhichpartoftheotherthinganobjectisnearestto,orexactlywhichpartofanareaorroomit isin,youcanuseone of the following prepositions: at, by, in, near, on, round. To andtowards,usuallyusedtoindicatedirection,areusedtoexpresspositioninamoreapproximateway.Theobjectsoftheprepositionsarenounsreferringtopartsofanobjectorplace,suchastop,bottom,andedge.Hereisalistofwordsthatareusedtotalkaboutpartsofanobjectorplace:

backbottomedgeendfrontleftmiddlerightsidetop~eastnorthnorth-eastnorth-westsouthsouth-eastsouth-westwest~banksidebedsidedockside

gravesidehillsidekerbsidelakesidemountainsidepoolsidequaysideringsideroadsideseasidewaterside

Notethatthecompounddirectionprepositions(northeast,southwest,etc.)maybe spelledeitherwithorwithout ahyphen inBritishEnglish.TheyarehardlyeverspelledwithahypheninAmericanEnglish.When the place that you are referring to is obvious or has been statedearlier,youusethenounsinthesingularwiththedeterminerthe.Iraninsideandboundedupthestairs.Wendywasstandingatthetop.Hewassittingtowardstherear.Tothenortharethemaingardens.Wefoundhimsittingbythefireside.Otherdeterminers,forexamplethisandeach,areusedwithnounssuchasside,end, andedge, because anobject or placemayhave several sides,ends,oredges.Loosenthetwoscrewsateachendofthefuse.Standingoneithersideofhimweretwoyoungermen.If the person or thing has been mentioned or is obvious, a possessivedeterminercanbeused.…adollthatturnsbrowninthesun,exceptforunderitsswimsuit.Therewasagateonourleft.

6.90 Note that two- or three-word prepositions that include the word of aremorespecificbecauseofcanbefollowedbyanynoun.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.

Therewasamanstandinginfrontofme.Mysisterstartedpilingthebooksontopofeachother.

specificdistances

6.91 Theplacewhereanactionoccurs,orwheresomeoneorsomethingis,canalsobeshownbystatingitsdistancefromanotherobjectorplace.Youmention theactualdistancebeforeaprepositionalphrasewith fromorawayfrom.Herehesatontheterraceafewfeetfromtheroaringtraffic.Theballswervedtwofeetawayfromher.Distanceisalsoexpressedintermsofthetimetakentotravelit.Myhouseisonly20minutesfromwhereIwork.TheylivedonlytwoorthreedaysawayfromJuffure.Themethodoftravellingcanbestatedtobeevenmoreprecise.Itislessthananhour’sdrivefromhere.It’saboutfiveminutes’walkfromthebusstop.

showingpositionanddistance

6.92 To show both where something is and how far from another object orplaceitis,thedistanceisstatedbeforethefollowingprepositions:

abovealongbehindbelowbeneathbeyonddowninsideoutsidepastunderup

Thevolcanoisonlyafewhundredmetresbelowsealevel.Thedistancecanalsobestatedbeforeprepositionalphrasesincludingleftandrightorpointsofthecompasssuchasnorthandsouth-east.WelivedfortymilestotheeastofOttawa.

Showingdirection6.93 Theprepositionalphrasesinthefollowingexamplesshowtheplacethat

someone or something is going to, or the place that they are movingtowards.I’mgoingwithhertoAustralia.Theyjumpedintothewater.Hesawhismotherrunningtowardshim.Hescrewedthelidtightlyontothetopofthejar.Shestuckherknittingneedlesintoaballofwool.

prepositionsused

6.94 Thefollowingprepositionsareusedtoshowdestinationsandtargets:

aboardalloveralongalongsidearoundatawayfrombesidedownfrominsideintonearoffonto

outofroundtotoward(American)towardsup

Notethatontoissometimeswrittenastwowords.Thebirdhoppedupontoahigherbranch.InAmericanEnglishandsomevarietiesofBritishEnglish,outisusedasaprepositionwithoutoftoshowdirection.Hewalkedoutthedoorforthelasttime.The prepositional phrases to the left and to the right are also used toindicatedirection,fromyourownviewpointorthatofsomeoneelse.Seeparagraph6.96.

USAGENOTE

6.95 Therearesomerestrictionsinthechoiceofpreposition.At is not usually used to show the place that the subject of the verb ismovingtoortowards.It isusedtoshowwhatsomeoneislookingat,orwhattheycauseanobjecttomovetowards.Theywerestaringatagarageroof.Supportersthrewpetalsathiscar.After is used to show that someone or something is following anothermoving person or thing, or ismoving in the same direction but behindthem.Hehurriedafterhismen.…draggingthesacksafterusalongtheground.

directionrelativetothefront

6.96 Youusetheprepositionalphrasestotheleftandtotherighttosaywhichdirectionsomeoneorsomethingismovinginrelationtothedirectionthey

arefacing.Theyturnedtotheleftanddroveaway.

severaldirections

6.97 The prepositions about, round, around, and all over are used to showmovementinseveraldirectionswithinaplace.Iwanderedroundthegarden.Shejumpedaroundtheroominfrontofthechildrenassheactedoutherstory.Theboysbeganclimbingallovertheship.

RoundisnotusedasaprepositioninAmericanEnglish;aroundisalwaysusedinstead.

startingpoint

6.98 Prepositionalphrasesshowtheplaceorobjectthatisthestartingpointofamovement.Thefollowingprepositionsareused:awayfrom,from,off,andoutof.Thecoffeewassentupbythecatererfromthekitchensbelow.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.Hetookhishandoffherarm.

frombeforeprepositionsandadverbs

6.99 From is alsousedbeforeanotherprepositionorbefore someadverbs totalkaboutthestartingpointofamovement.Ihadtakenhisdrinkingbowlfrombeneaththekitchentable.…goodsimportedfromabroad.Thomashadstoppedbringinghislunchfromhome.Fromisusedbeforethefollowingadverbs:

aboveabroadanywhere

behindbelowbeneathdownstairselsewhereeverywhereherehomeinsidenextdoornowhereoutsideoverseassomewherethereunderneathupstairs

Prepositionalphrasesafternouns6.100 Aswellasbeingusedafterverbs,prepositionalphrasescanbeusedafter

nounstogiveinformationaboutplace.ThemusclesbelowPeter’skneeswerebeginningtoachealittle.Thechestnuttreesinthebackgardenwereablazingorange.Theystoodandwatchedtheboatsontheriver.…theclockinherbedroom.…thelowwallroundthegarden.…theblackshapelessmassestotheleftandrightoftheroad.

6.101 Prepositional phrases can be added after roads, routes, and so on, tospecifythembyindicatingtheirdestinationordirection.…themainroadfromParistoMarseilles.…theroadbetweenthecampandthehospital.…theroadthroughthecanyon.Similarly, doors, entrances, and so on can be specified by addingprepositionalphrasesindicatingwhereyougettobygoingthroughthem.

Heopenedthedoortohisroom.…attheentrancetothelibrary.Prepositionalphrasesarealsousedafternounstosaywheresomeoneorsomethingcomesfrom.…aveterinaryofficerfromSingapore.…anengineerfromHertfordshire.

Otherusesofprepositionalphrases6.102 Prepositionsareoftenusedtotalkaboutthingsotherthanplaceaswell,

forexampletotalkaboutatime,awayofdoingsomething,orafeelingorquality.Thefollowingparagraphsfrom6.103to6.110describetheseusesbriefly,andgivecrossreferencestofullerexplanationselsewhere.The following prepositions are only or mainly used to indicate thingsotherthanplace:

afterasdespiteduringexceptforlikeofsinceuntil

referringtotime

6.103 Althoughthemainuseofprepositionalphrasesistotalkaboutpositionordirection,theyarealsousedtorefertotime.I’llseeyouonMonday.Theyareexpectingtoannouncethesalewithinthenextfewdays.The use of prepositions to talk about time is explained in paragraphs4.100to4.108.

referringtothewaysomethingisdone

6.104 Prepositionalphrasesarealsousedtosaysomethingmoreaboutthewayinwhichanactionwasperformed,orthewayinwhichitshouldbedone.‘Ohyes,’Ettasneeredinanoffensiveway.Abirdcanchangedirectionbydippingonewingandliftingtheother.Hebrushedbackhishairwithhishand.Prepositionalphrasessuchasonfootorbybuscanbeusedtotalkaboutamethodoftravelling.Iusuallygotoworkonfoot.Itravelledhomebybus.Theuseofadverbstotalkaboutthewaythingsaredoneisexplainedinthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.36.

6.105 Youcanalsouseprepositionalphrasestogivemoreinformationaboutthefeelingsofthepersonperformingtheaction.Fannysawwithamazementthattheletterwasaddressedtoherself.

likeandasincomparison

6.106 You can use the preposition like to show that someone or somethingbehavesinasimilarwaytosomeoneorsomethingelse.Shetreatedmelikeaservant.Sheshuffledlikeanoldlady.There is more information about comparison in general in the sectionbeginningatparagraph2.103.

6.107 Youcanalsouselikeandastosaythatsomeoneorsomethingistreatedinasimilarwaytosomeoneorsomethingelse.Thenounphraseafterlikeorasdescribesthepersonorthingaffectedbytheaction,notthepersonorthingdoingtheaction.Myparentsdressedmelikealittledoll.Theirparentscontinuetotreatthemaschildren.Shetreatedhermorelikeadaughterthanacompanion.You can also use expressions such as like this or like that to refer to aparticularmannerofdoingsomething.

Ifyou’regoingtobehavelikethis,thebestthingyoucandoistogobacktobed.Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Theuseof likeandas in subordinateclauses isexplained inparagraphs8.78to8.80.

6.108 Youcansaythatonewayofdoingsomethinghasasmuchofaqualityasanother way of doing something, by using as followed by an adverbfollowedbyanotheras.The secondas is followed by a noun phrase, apronoun,anadverbial,oraclause.Thecompanyhasnotgrownasquicklyasmanyofitsrivals.ShewantedsomeonetotalktoasbadlyasIdid.

circumstancesofanaction

6.109 Youuseprepositionalphrases tosaysomethingabout thecircumstancesofanaction.‘No,’shesaidwithadefiantlook.…strugglingtoestablishdemocracyunderadverseconditions.

reason,cause,orpurpose

6.110 Prepositionalphrasescanalsobeusedtosaysomethingaboutthereasonforanaction,orthecauseorpurposeofit.In1923,thePrimeMinisterresignedbecauseofillhealth.Hewasdyingofpneumonia.Asisusedtoshowthefunctionorpurposeofsomething.Heworkedasatruckdriver.Duringthewartheyusedthetheatreasawarehouse.

Prepositionsusedwithverbs

inphrasalverbs

6.111 Some verbs always have a prepositional phrase after them in particularmeanings. They are called phrasal verbs, and information about themcanbefoundinparagraphs3.83to3.116.

Shesailedthroughherexams.Whatareyougettingat?

verbswithoptionalprepositionalphrases

6.112 Someverbscanhaveaprepositionalphraseinsteadofadirectobject.Formoreinformationontheseverbs,seeparagraph3.10.ThePolishArmyfoughttheGermansfornearlyfiveweeks.Shewasfightingagainsthistory.Weclimbedthemountain.Iclimbedupthetree.

indirectobjectsofverbswithtwoobjects

6.113 A prepositional phrase is used as an indirect object when the indirectobjectcomesafterthedirectobject.Forinformationonverbswithtwoobjects,seeparagraphs3.73to3.82.Iftheactiondescribedbytheverbinvolvesthetransferofsomethingfromonepersonorthingtoanother,theprepositiontoisused.Ipassedthelettertomyhusband.Therecoveredanimalswillbegiventozoos.Iftheactioninvolvesapersondoingsomethingforthebenefitofanotherperson,theprepositionforisused.Sheleftanoteforheronthetable.

withreciprocalverbs

6.114 Some reciprocal verbs require a prepositional phrase when a secondnounphraseismentioned.Forinformationonreciprocalverbs,seeparagraphs3.68to3.72.Ourreturncoincidedwiththearrivalofbadweather.Shehasrefusedtocooperatewithinvestigators.

withpassiveverbs

6.115 Prepositionalphrasesareusedafterverbsinthepassive.

Ninetymenwerecutoffbystorms.Moistureisdrawnoutwithsalt.The use of prepositional phrases after passive verbs is explained inparagraphs9.14to9.16.

positionofprepositionalphrasesandadverbsafterverbs

6.116 When verbs are followed by prepositional phrases and adverbs, a longprepositionalphraseisusuallyplacedaftertheadverb.Helistenedcalmlytothereportofhisaides.Ashortprepositionalphrasecancomebeforeoraftertheadverb.Thewomenshoutedatmesavagely.MissBurnslookedcalmlyatMarianne.

Prepositionalphrasesafternounsandadjectives6.117 Prepositional phrases are sometimes used after nouns and adjectives to

describe the subject or object of a clause rather than themanner of anactionorsituation.Seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.275formoreinformation.…agirlinadarkgreydress.…amanwithaquicktemper.

particularprepositionsafternounsandadjectives

6.118 Particularprepositionsareusedaftersomenounsandadjectiveswhenyouareaddinginformation.Seeparagraphs2.45to2.50and2.287to2.290.Myrespectforherisabsolutelyenormous.Women’stennisputsanemphasisontechnique,notstrength.Heisresponsibleforpursuingtheclaim.

comparisonswiththanandlike

6.119 Aprepositionalphrasewith thanoftenshows thepersonor thing that isthebasisofacomparison.Hewassmarterthanyou.Shewasmorerefinedthanherhusband.

For more information on comparisons, see the section beginning atparagraph2.103.Theprepositionlikeisusedtoshowthatsomeoneorsomethingissimilartosomeoneorsomethingelse,withoutcomparinganyspecificquality.TheBritishforcesarelikepermanenttourists.Weneedmanymorepeoplelikethese.

of

6.120 Of is used in prepositional phrases after any noun to indicate variousrelationshipsbetweenonenounphraseandanother,especiallybelonging,possession, and connection. It can be used to state what something is,whatitcontains,whatitismadefrom,orhowmuchofitthereis.Hewasamemberofthegolfclub.She’safriendofStephen’s.…theMayorofMoscow.

Extendedmeaningsofprepositions6.121 Theusesofprepositionalphrases toexpress timeandmannerare really

extendedormetaphoricalusesthatcoverawiderangeofprepositionsandarepartofametaphorthataffectsmanyotheraspectsoflanguageaswell.For example,whenyou talkaboutapproachingapoint in time, a shortstretchoftime,andsoon,youareusingwordsthatrefertospacetotalkabouttime.However, there are also extended meanings that apply only to smallgroupsofprepositions,orsometimesonlytoindividualprepositions.Forexample,inbasicallyindicatespositioninsideacontainer.What’sthatinyourbag?Itwillendupinthedustbin.However,itisoftenusedwithreferencetoareasratherthancontainers.Emmasatinanarmchairwithherlegscrossed.ThenweweretoldwhathadhappenedinSheffield.Inisalsousedtotalkaboutrelativeposition.Wehadtodosomethinginthecentreofthetowntoattractvisitors.

However, in is also used inways that extend itsmeaning further awayfromphysicalposition.Forexample,itcanbeusedtosaythatsomeoneisinvolvedinaparticularsituation,group,oractivity.Theywereinnodanger.Thechildwasintroublewiththepolice.Thisgovernmentwon’tbeinpowerforever.MrMatthewshasremainedinofficebuttheislandhasnoParliament.Itcanshowinclusioninamoreabstractway.Some of her early Hollywood experiences were used in her 1923 film,MaryoftheMovies.Inanybook,thereisamoralpurpose.It can also indicate that something has reached a particular stage, orappearsinaparticularway.Thefirstprimrosesareinflower.Herhairwasinpigtailsovereithershoulder.Afewotherprepositionswithabasicmeaningrelating tocontainersareusedinsimilarways:forexamplewithin,into,outof.Anythingwithinreasonshouldbeconsidered.Whenweget thosemen into the police force, they are going to be realheroes.Heroineswhowereconsideredattractivebyearliergenerationsnowseemhopelesslyoutoftouch.

Otherwaysofgivinginformationaboutplace

nounphrasesreferringtoplace:placenames

6.122 Some verbs of position and movement are followed by noun phrasesreferringtoplaces.Thesearedescribedinparagraph3.21.Peelapproachedthebuilding.

6.123 Insteadofusinganounphrasetorefertoaplace,youcanusethenameoftheplace.ThisgreatblockoflandbecameAntarctica.…anislandroughlythesizeofMartha’sVineyard.

HerworkisonshowattheNationalMuseumofFilmandPhotographyinBradford.

verbsafterplacenames

6.124 Most place names are singular nouns, although some look like pluralnouns, for example The Netherlands. Some place names, for examplethosereferringtogroupsofislandsormountains,arepluralnouns.Verbsusedwithplacenamesfollowthenormalrules,soasingularverbformisusedwithasingularnounandapluralverbformwithapluralnoun.Milanisaveryinterestingcity.TheAndessplitthecountrydownthemiddle.

placenamesusedfortalkingaboutpeople

6.125 Thenameofaplacecanbeusedtotalkaboutthepeoplewholivethere.If the place name is a singular noun, a singular verb form is still used,eventhoughthenounisbeingusedtorefertoapluralconcept.Europewassickofwar.Thenameof a countryor its capital city isoftenused to talk about thegovernmentofthatcountry.BritainandFrancejointlysuggestedaplan.WashingtonputagreatdealofpressureonTokyo.

placenamesusedfortalkingaboutevents

6.126 Placenamesarealsousedtotalkaboutawell-knownhistoricalorrecentevent that occurred there, such as a battle, a disaster, an internationalsportscompetition,ascandal,oranimportantpoliticalmeeting.AfterWaterloo,tradeandindustrysurgedagain.WhatwastheeffectofChernobylonBritishagriculture?…thechainofeventsthatledtoWatergate.

placenamesusedasmodifiersbeforenouns

6.127 Manyplacenamescanbeusedasmodifiers,toshowwherethingscomefromorarecharacteristicof,aswellaswherethingsare.

…aLondonhotel.…theNewZealandrugbyteam.Ifaplacenamebeginswiththe,youomititwhenyouusethenameasamodifier.…Arcticexplorers.ShehasaMidlandsaccent.Notethatthenamesofcontinentsandofmanycountriescannotbeusedasmodifiers. Instead,youuseclassifyingadjectivessuchasAfricanandItalian.

Chapter7Reportingwhatpeoplesayorthink

7.5–15 Showingthatyouarereporting:usingreportingverbs

7.16–26 Reportingsomeone’sactualwords:directspeech

7.27–86 Reportinginyourownwords:reportedspeech7.29–31 Reportingstatementsandthoughts7.32–38 Reportingquestions7.39–47 Reportingorders,requests,advice,andintentions

7.48 Reportinguncertainthings7.49–59 Timereferenceinreportedspeech7.60–63 Makingyourreferenceappropriate7.64–67 Usingreportingverbstoperformanaction7.68–71 Avoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinking7.72–81 Referringtothespeakerandhearer7.82–85 Otherwaysofindicatingwhatissaid

7.86 Otherwaysofusingreportedclauses

7 Reportingwhatpeoplesayorthink

7.1 Thischapterexplainsthedifferentwaysofreportingwhatpeoplesayorthink.

7.2 One way of reporting what someone has said is to repeat their actualwords.‘Idon’tknowmuchaboutmusic,’Judysaid.Repeatingsomeone’sactualwordslikethisiscalleddirectspeech.InsteadofrepeatingJudy’swords,thewritercouldsay,Judysaidthatshedidn’t know much about music. This is called reported speech. Somegrammarscalledthisindirectspeech.Directspeechandreportedspeechbothconsistoftwoclauses.Themainclauseiscalledareportingclause.Theotherclauseshowswhatsomeonesaidorthought.Indirectspeech,thisotherclauseiscalledthequote.‘Haveyoumethim?’Iasked.‘I’llseeyoutomorrow,’saidTom.Inreportedspeech,theotherclauseiscalledthereportedclause.HementionedthathehadabrotherlivinginLondon.Heaskedifyouwouldbeabletocallandseehim.Hepromisedtogivemethemoney.Notethatthereportedclausecanbeginwithato-infinitive.

7.3 Inordinaryconversation,weusereportedspeechmuchmoreoftenthandirect speech. This is because we usually do not know, or cannotremember,theexactwordsthatsomeonehassaid.Directspeechismainlyusedinwrittenstories.Whenwereportpeople’sthoughts,wealmostalwaysusereportedspeech,

becausethoughtsdonotusuallyexistintheformofwords,sowecannotquote them exactly. Reported speech can be used to report almost anykindofthought.

7.4 Paragraphs 7.5 to 7.15 explain verbs used in reporting clauses.Paragraphs7.16 to 7.26 explaindirect speech. Paragraphs 7.27 to 7.71explainreportedspeech.Paragraphs7.72to7.81explainhowtorefertothe speaker and hearer in direct speech or reported speech. Paragraphs7.82to7.85explainotherwaysofindicatingwhatsomeonesaysortalksabout.

Showingthatyouarereporting:usingreportingverbs7.5 You show that you are quoting or reporting what someone has said or

thought by using a reporting verb. Every reporting clause contains areportingverb.‘Idon’tseewhatyouaregettingat,’Jeremysaid.Helookedold,Haroldthought,andsick.TheywerecomplainingthatCantonwashotandnoisy.

basicreportingverbs

7.6 Youusesaywhenyouaresimplyreportingwhatsomeonesaidanddonotwanttoaddanymoreinformationaboutwhatyouarereporting.Shesaidthatshedidn’twanttoknow.Youuseaskwhenyouarereportingaquestion.‘How’sitallgoing?’Derekasked.

showingthepurposeofspeaking

7.7 Somereportingverbssuchasanswer,complain,andexplaintellyouwhatpurposeanutterancewasintendedtoserve.Forexample,answertellsyouthatastatementwasintendedasananswer,andcomplaintellsyouthatastatementwasintendedasacomplaint.Heansweredthatthepricewouldbethreepounds.Henevertoldme,sir,Watsoncomplained.‘Pleasedon’t,’Ibegged.

Isuggestedthatitwastimetoleave.Somereportingverbsusedindirectspeechshowthemannerofspeaking.Seeparagraph7.19.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatcanbeusedtoreportwhatpeoplesay:

acknowledgeaddadmitadviseagreeallegeannounceanswerargueaskassertassurebegbeginboastcallchorusclaimcommandcommentcomplainconcedeconfessconfirmcontendcontinueconvincecrydeclaredecree

demanddenydescribedirectdiscussdisputeenquireexplainforbidgrumbleguaranteehintimplyinforminquireinsistinstructinvitelamentmaintainmentionmumblemurmurmusemutternotenotifyobjectobserveorderpersuadepleadpledgepraypredictproclaim

promiseprophesyproposereassurerecallreciterecommendrecordrefuseremarkremindrepeatreplyreportrequestrespondrevealrulesayscreamshoutshriekstatestipulatestormsuggestswearteachtellthreatenthunderurgevowwailwarnwhisper

writeyell

BECAREFUL

7.8 Note that theverbsaddress,converse, lecture,speak, and talk,althoughtheymeantosaysomething,cannotbeusedasreportingverbs.

verbsofthinkingandknowing

7.9 Manyreportingverbsareusedtotalkaboutpeople’sthoughts,ratherthanwhattheysay.Reportingverbsareusedtotalkaboutmanydifferentkindsof thought, including beliefs, wishes, hopes, intentions, and decisions.Theycanalsobeusedtotalkaboutrememberingandforgetting.Webothknewthathewaslying.‘I’llgotohiminaminute,’shethought.IhadalwaysbelievedthatonedayIwouldseehimagain.Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be used to report people’sthoughts:

acceptagreeassumebelieveconsiderdecidedeterminedoubtdreamestimateexpectfearfeelfigureforesee

forgetguessholdhopeimagineintendjudgeknowlongmeanmusenoteplanponderpraypreferproposereasonrecallreckonreflectregretrememberresolvesupposethinkunderstandvowwantwishwonderworry

verbsoflearningandperceiving

7.10 Somereportingverbsareusedfor talkingabout learningandperceiving

facts.Ihavesincelearnedthatthewriteroftheletterisnowdead.Thenshesawthathewassleeping.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatrefertolearningandperceivingfacts:

concludediscoverelicitfindgatherhearinferlearnnotenoticeobserveperceivereadrealizeseesense

7.11 Someoftheverbsintheabovelists,suchastellandpromise,mustbeorcanbefollowedbyanobjectshowingwhotheheareris.Seeparagraphs7.75to7.76.Note that some verbs appear in more than one list, because they havemorethanonemeaning.

indicatingthewaythatsomethingissaid

7.12 When you use direct speech or reported speech, you can give moreinformationaboutthewaythatsomethingissaidbyputtinganadverboraprepositionalphraseafterthereportingverb.‘I’vegotthekey!’heannouncedtriumphantly.

His secretary explained patiently that this was the only time he couldspare.Iknowwhatyoumean,Carrierepliedwithfeeling.Youshowhowthethingthatissaidfitsintotheconversationbyusingaprepositionalphrase.Agiftfrommymother,headdedinexplanation.

negativesinreportingclauses

7.13 Withasmallnumberofreportingverbs,thenegativeisoftenexpressedinthereportingclauseratherthaninthereportedclause.Idon’tthinkMaryisathomemeansthesameasIthinkMaryisnotathome,andShedoesn’twanttoseehimmeansShewantsnottoseehim.Idonotthinkshesuspectsme.Shedidn’tbelieveshewouldeverseehimagain.Hedidn’twanttogo.Wedon’tintendtoputhimontrial.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareoftenusedwithanegativeinthisway:

believeexpectfeelimagineintendplanproposereckonsupposethinkwantwish

reportingspeechandthoughtininformalspokenEnglish

7.14 IninformalspokenEnglish,thereportingverbgoissometimesusedto introduce direct speech. The reporting clause with go always comesbeforethequote.Isaid,‘Well,whatdoyouwanttotalkabout?’Hegoes,‘Idon’tcare.’ItoldherwhatI’dheardandshewent,‘Oh,mygosh.’WhenIheardthatI’dgotthejobIwent,‘Oh,no,whathaveIdone?’Notethatyoucannotaddanadverbaftergo.Forexample,youcannotsay,Hewentangrily,‘Bequiet!’

7.15 AnotherreportingstructurethatisusedininformalspokenEnglishisbelike.Belikecanrepresenteitherspeechorthought.Inwriting,belikeis usually followed by a comma. The quote is sometimes in quotationmarks,andsometimesnot.He got a call fromOprah, and hewas like, ‘Of course I’ll go on yourshow.’He’slike,‘It’sboring!Ihatechess!’AndI’mlike,‘Pleaseteachme!’TheminuteImethim,Iwaslike,he’sperfect.As with other reporting verbs, you can use be like with a noun or apersonalpronoun:forexample,youcansayShewaslike,…,Thedoctorwas like, … or Jane was like, …, followed by the thing that she/thedoctor/Janesaidorthought.Unlikeotherreportingverbs,youcanalsousebelikeafterthepronounit.Thisstructureisoftenusedtopresentamixtureofspeechandthought,ora general situation. For example, if you say It was like, Oh wow! it ispossible that nobody actually said or thought Oh wow! Rather, thesentencegivesusanideaofthesituationandmeanssomethinglikeItwasamazing/surprising.SoIgetbackinthebus,quarterofanhourpassesandit’slike,Where’sGraham?Whenthathappeneditwaslike,Oh,no,notagain.Belikealwayscomesbeforethereportedclause.

Reportingsomeone’sactualwords:directspeech7.16 Whenyouwanttosaythatapersonusedparticularwords,youusedirect

speech.Youcandothisevenifyoudonotknow,ordonotremember,theexactwords thatwere spoken.When you use direct speech, you reportwhatsomeonesaidasifyouwereusingtheirownwords.Directspeechconsistsoftwoclauses.Oneclauseisthereportingclause,whichcontainsthereportingverb.‘IknewI’dseenyou,’Isaid.Yesplease,repliedJohn.Theotherpart is thequote,whichrepresentswhatsomeonesaysorhassaid.‘Let’sgoandhavealookattheswimmingpool,’shesuggested.‘Leavemealone,’Isnarled.Youcanquoteanythingthatsomeonesays–statements,questions,orders,suggestions,andexclamations.Inwriting,youusequotationmarks(alsocalled invertedcommas inBritishEnglish) (‘’)or (“”)at thebeginningandendofaquote.‘Thankyou,’Isaid.Afteralongsilenceheasked:‘Whatisyourname?’Notethat,inwrittenstories,quotesaresometimesusedwithoutreportingclauses if thespeakershavebeenestablished,and ifyoudonotwish toindicatewhetherthequotesarequestions,suggestions,exclamations,etc.‘Whendoyouleave?’–‘Ishouldbegonenow.’–‘Well,good-bye,Hamo.’

7.17 Thinking is sometimes represented as speaking to oneself. You canthereforeusesomeverbsthatrefertothinkingasreportingverbsindirectspeech.ImustgoandseeLynn,Marshathought.When you are using direct speech to say what someone thought, youusuallyomitthequotationmarksatthebeginningandendofthequote.Howmuchshouldhetellher?Notmuch,hedecided.Perhapsthat’snoaccident,hereasoned.Why,shewondered,wastheflagathalfmast?

7.18 Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareoftenusedwithdirectspeech:

addadmitadviseagreeannounceanswerargueaskassertassurebegbeginboastclaimcommandcommentcomplainconcludeconfesscontinuedecidedeclaredemandexplaingrumbleinquireinsistmuseobserveorderpleadponderprayproclaimpromiseread

reason

recitereflectremarkreplyreportrespondsaystatesuggesttellthinkurgevowwarnwonderwrite

Afewoftheseverbscanormustbeusedwithanobjectthatreferstothehearer.Seeparagraphs7.75to7.76.

verbsthatdescribethewayinwhichsomethingissaid

7.19 Ifyouwanttoindicatethewayinwhichsomethingwassaid,youcanuseareportingverbsuchasshout,wail,orscream.Verbs like theseusuallyoccuronlyinwrittenstories.Jump!shoutedtheoldwoman.Oh,poorlittlething,shewailed.Getoutofthere,Iscreamed.Hereisalistofverbsthatindicatethewayinwhichsomethingissaid:

bellowcallchorus

crymumblemurmurmutterscreamshoutshriekstormthunderwailwhisperyell

BECREATIVE

7.20 Anotherwayofdescribingthewayinwhichsomethingissaidistouseaverbthatisusuallyusedtodescribethesoundmadebyaparticularkindofanimal.Excuseme!Susannahbarked.Youcanuseaverbsuchassmile,grin,orfrowntoindicatetheexpressiononsomeone’sfacewhiletheyarespeaking.‘I’mawfullysorry.’–‘Notatall,’Ismiled.Itwasajoke,hegrinned.

BECREATIVE

7.21 You use verbs like bark and smile in direct speech when you want tocreateaparticulareffect,especiallyinwriting.

positionofreportingverb

7.22 There are several positions in which you can put the reporting verb inrelationtoaquote.Theusualpositionisafterthequote,butitcanalsogoinfrontofthequoteorinthemiddleofthequote.Youhavetokeeptrying,hesaid.Hesteppedbackandsaid,Nowlookatthat.

Yousee,hesaid,myfatherwasaninventor.7.23 Ifyouputthereportingverbinthemiddleofaquote,itmustgoinoneof

thefollowingpositions:afteranounphrase

Thatman,Isaid,neveropenedawindowinhislife.afteravocativesuchasdarlingorDad

‘Darling’,Maxsaidtoher,‘don’tsayit’snotpossible.’afterasentenceadverb

Maybe,hesaidhesitantly,maybethereisabeast.afteraclause

‘Iknowyoudon’trememberyourfather,’saidJames,‘buthewasakindandgenerousman.’

7.24 Youcanusemostreportingverbsinfrontofaquote.Shereplied,Myfirstthoughtwastoprotecthim.Onestudentcommented:Heseemstoknowhissubjectverywell.However, thereportingverbsagree,command,promise,andwonderarehardlyeverusedinfrontofaquote.

changingtheorderofthesubjectandthereportingverb

7.25 Whenareportingverbcomesafteraquote,thesubjectisoftenputaftertheverb.‘Perhapsheisn’tabadsortofchapafterall,’remarkedDave.Isee,saidJohn.Iamawareofthat,repliedtheEnglishman.Notethatthisisnotdonewhenthesubjectisapronoun,exceptinsomeliterarycontexts.

punctuationofquotes

7.26 The following examples show how you punctuate quotes in BritishEnglish. You can use either single quotation marks (‘ ’) or doublequotationmarks(“”).Theonesusedtobeginaquotearecalledopening

quotation marks, and the ones used to end a quote are called closingquotationmarks.‘Let’sgo,’Iwhispered.“Wehavetogohome,”shetoldhim.Mona’smotheranswered:‘Ohyes,she’sin.’Henoddedandsaid,‘Yes,he’smyson.’‘Margaret’,Isaidtoher,‘I’msogladyoucame.’Whatareyoudoing?Sarahasked.‘Ofcourseit’sawful!’shoutedClarissa.Whatdotheymean,shedemanded,bya“populationproblem”?Notethatinthelastexampleshownabove,thereisaquotewithinaquote.If you are using single quotationmarks for themain quote, the quotedwordswithin themainquoteareenclosed indoublequotationmarks. Ifyou are using double quotation marks for the main quote, the quotedwordswithinthemainquoteareenclosedinsinglequotationmarks.

InAmericanEnglish,youalwaysusedoublequotationmarks(“”),exceptwhereyouhaveaquotewithinaquote.Insuchcases, thequotedwordswithinthemainquoteareenclosedinsinglequotationmarks(‘’).Thisisshowninthesecondexamplebelow.“Whatareyoudoing?”Sarahasked.“Whatdotheymean,”shedemanded,“bya‘populationproblem’?”If you arequotingmore thanoneparagraph, youput openingquotationmarksat thebeginningofeachparagraph,butyouputclosingquotationmarksonlyattheendofthelastparagraph.

Reportinginyourownwords:reportedspeech7.27 Whenyoureportwhatpeoplehavesaidusingyourownwordsratherthan

thewordstheyactuallyused,youusereportedspeech.Thewomansaidshehadseennothing.IrepliedthatIhadnotreadityet.You usually use a reported speech structure when you report whatsomeonethinks.Hethoughtshewasworried.

Reported speech is sometimes called indirect speech. Reported speechconsistsoftwoparts.Onepartisthereportingclause,whichcontainsthereportingverb.Itoldhimthatnothingwasgoingtohappentome.Ihaveagreedthatheshoulddoit.Iwantedtobealone.Theotherpartisthereportedclause.Heansweredthathethoughtthestorywasextremelyinteresting.Hefeltthathehadtodosomething.Hewonderedwheretheycouldhavecomefrom.Youusually put the reporting clause first, in order tomake it clear thatyouarereportingratherthanspeakingdirectlyyourself.Henrysaidthathewantedtogohome.TheexactwordsthatHenryusedareunlikelytohavebeenIwant togohome, although they might have been. It is more likely that he saidsomething like I think I should be going now. You are more likely toreportwhathemeantratherthanwhatheactuallysaid.There aremany reasonswhy you do not quote a person’s exactwords.Often you cannot remember exactlywhatwas said.At other times, theexactwordsarenotimportantornotappropriateinthesituationinwhichyouarereporting.

typesofreportedclause

7.28 Thereareseveraltypesofreportedclause.Thetypeyouusedependsonwhether you are reporting a statement, a question, an order, or asuggestion.Mostreportedclauseseitherarethat-clausesorbeginwithato-infinitive.When a question is being reported, the reported clause begins with if,whether, or awh-word. The use of that-clauses as reported clauses isdiscussed inparagraphs7.29 to7.31.Reportedquestions are discussedin paragraphs 7.32 to 7.38. The use of to-infinitive clauses in reportedspeechisdiscussedinparagraphs7.39to7.48.

Reportingstatementsandthoughts

7.29 If you want to report a statement or someone’s thoughts, you use areportedclausebeginningwiththeconjunctionthat.Hesaidthatthepolicehaddirectedhimtothewrongroom.HewrotemealettersayingthatheunderstoodwhatIwasdoing.MrsKaulannouncedthatthelecturewouldnowbegin.In informal speech and writing, the conjunction that is commonlyomitted.TheysaidIhadtoseeadoctorfirst.Shesaysshewantstoseeyouthisafternoon.Heknewtheattemptwashopeless.Ithinkthere’ssomethingwrong.Ineachofthesesentences,thatcouldhavebeenused.Forexample,youcansayeitherTheysaidIhadtoseeadoctorfirstorTheysaidthatIhadtoseeadoctorfirst.That isoftenomittedwhenthereportingverbreferssimplytotheactofsayingorthinking.Youusuallyinclude thatafteraverbthatgivesmoreinformation,suchascomplainorexplain.TheFBIconfirmedthatthesubstancewasanexplosive.Iexplainedthatshewouldhavetostayinbed.This kind of reported clause is often called a that-clause, even thoughmanyoccurwithoutthat.Notethatsomerelativeclausesalsobeginwiththat.Insuchclauses,thatisarelativepronoun,notaconjunction.Relativeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.83to8.116.

verbsusedwiththat-clauses

7.30 Here is a list of verbs that are often used as reporting verbswith that-clauses:

acceptacknowledgeaddadmit

agreeallegeannounceanswerargueassertassumeassurebelieveboastclaimcommentcomplainconcedeconcludeconfirmconsidercontendconvincedecidedenydeterminediscoverdisputedoubtdreamelicitestimateexpectexplainfearfeelfigurefindforeseeforget

gather

guaranteeguesshearholdhopeimagineimplyinforminsistjudgeknowlamentlearnmaintainmeanmentionnotenoticenotifyobjectobserveperceivepersuadepledgepraypredictpromiseprophesyreadrealizereasonreassurerecallreckon

recordreflect

remarkrememberrepeatreplyreportresolverevealsayseesensespeculatestatesuggestsupposesuspectswearteachtellthinkthreatenunderstandvowwarnwishworrywrite

Notethatsomeoftheseverbsareonlyusedinreportedspeechinsomeoftheirsenses.Forexample,ifyousayHeacceptedapresentyouareusingacceptasanordinaryverb.Afewoftheseverbscanormustbeusedwithanobjectthatreferstothehearer.Seeparagraphs7.75to7.76.

Someoftheseverbs,suchasdecideandpromise,canalsobeusedwithato-infinitive.Seeparagraphs7.39and7.45.Some other verbs, such as advise and order, can be used as reportingverbs with that-clauses only if the that-clause contains amodal or asubjunctive.That-clausesofthiskindarediscussedinparagraph7.43.

positionofreportedclauses

7.31 You usually put the reporting clause before the that-clause, in order tomakeitclearthatyouarereportingratherthanspeakingdirectlyyourself.IsaidthatIwouldratherworkathome.Georginasaidshewasgoingtobed.However, if you want to emphasize the statement contained in thereportedclause,youcanchangetheorderandputthereportedclausefirst,withacommaafterit.Youdonotusethattointroducetheclause.Allthesethingsweretrivial,hesaid.Shewasworried,hethought.If the reported clause is long, you can put the reporting clause in themiddle.Tenyearsago,Moumoniexplained,somegovernmentpeoplehadcometoinspectthevillage.

Reportingquestions7.32 Aswellasreportingwhatsomeonesaysorthinks,youcanalsoreporta

questionthattheyaskorwonderabout.Questionsinreportedspeecharesometimescalledreportedquestionsorindirectquestions.

thereportingverb

7.33 The reporting verb most often used for reporting questions is ask.Questionscanbereportedinamoreformalwayusingenquireorinquire.IaskedifIcouldstaywiththem.HeaskedmewhereIwasgoing.SheinquiredhowIbrahimwasgettingon.

BECAREFUL

7.34 Whenyoureportaquestion:youdonotuseinterrogativewordorderyoudonotuseaquestionmark.

SothequestionDidyouenjoyit?couldbereported:Iaskedherifshehadenjoyedit.Questionsareexplainedinparagraphs5.10to5.36.

yes/noquestions

7.35 Therearetwomaintypesofquestion,andsotwomaintypesofreportedspeechstructureforquestions.Onetypeofquestioniscalledayes/noquestion.Thesearequestionsthatcanbeansweredsimplywithyesorno.Whenyoureportayes/noquestion,youusean if-clausebeginningwiththe conjunction if, or awhether-clause beginning with the conjunctionwhether.You use if when the speaker has suggested one possibility thatmay betrue.Do you knowmy name? could be reported asAwoman asked if Iknewhername.SheaskedhimifhisparentsspokeFrench.Someoneaskedmeiftheworkwasgoingwell.Heinquiredifherhairhadalwaysbeenthatcolour.Youusewhetherwhenthespeakerhassuggestedonepossibilitybuthasleft open the question of other possibilities. After whether, you cansuggestanotherpossibility,oryoucanleaveitunstated.IwasaskedwhetherIwantedtostayatahotelorathishome.Sheaskedwhethertheservantswerestillthere.IaskedProfessorFredBaileywhetherheagreed.Apolicemanaskedmewhetherhecouldbeofhelp.Sometimesthealternativepossibilityisrepresentedbyornot.Thebarmandidn’taskwhetherornottheywereovereighteen.TheyaskedwhetherBritainwasorwasnotaChristiancountry.

For more information about yes/no questions, see paragraphs 5.12 to5.14.

7.36 Thereareafewotherverbsthatcanbeusedbeforeif-clausesorwhether-clauses,becausetheyrefertobeingunsureoffactsortodiscoveringfacts.Ididn’tknowwhethertobelievehimornot.Simonwonderedifheshouldmakeconversation.Shedidn’tsaywhetherhewasstillalive.Here is a list of other verbs that can be used before if-clauses andwhether-clauses:

considerdeterminediscoverdoubtknowremembersayseetellwonder

Notethatknow,remember,say,see,andtellareusuallyusedinanegativeorinterrogativeclause,oraclausewithamodal.All the verbs in the list, except wonder, can also be used with that-clauses: see paragraph 7.30. They can all also be used with clausesbeginningwithwh-words:seeparagraph7.38.

wh-questions

7.37 Theothertypeofquestioniscalledawh-question.Thesearequestionsinwhich someone asks for information about an event or situation.Wh-questionscannotbeansweredwithyesorno.Whenyoureportawh-question,youuseawh-wordat thebeginningofthereportedclause.

HeaskedwhereIwasgoing.SheenquiredwhyIwassolate.Shestartedtoaskwhathadhappened,thendecidedagainstit.Iaskedhowtheyhadgottheresoquickly.Ineverthoughttoaskwhoputitthere.

When the details of the question are clear from the context, you cansometimesleaveouteverythingexceptthewh-word.ThishappensmostlyinspokenEnglish,especiallywithwhy.Iaskedwhy.Theyenquiredhow.Formoreinformationaboutwh-questionsseeparagraphs5.23to5.36.

7.38 Otherverbscanbeusedbeforeclausesbeginningwithwh-words,becausetheyrefertoknowing,learning,ormentioningoneofthecircumstancesofaneventorsituation.Shedoesn’tknowwhatweweretalkingabout.Theycouldn’tseehowtheywouldmanagewithouther.Iwonderwhat’shappened.Hereisalistofotherverbsthatcanbeusedbeforeclausesbeginningwithwh-words:

decidedescribedeterminediscoverdiscussexplainforgetguessimaginejudgeknowlearnrealizeremember

revealsayseesuggestteachtelltestthinkunderstandwonder

Note that imagine, say, see, suggest, and think are usually used in anegativeorinterrogativeclause,oraclausewithamodal.Alltheverbsinthelist,exceptdescribe,discuss,andwonder,canalsobeusedwiththat-clauses:seeparagraph7.30.

Reportingorders,requests,advice,andintentions

reportingrequests

7.39 If someone orders, requests, or advises someone else to do something,thiscanbereportedbyusingato-infinitiveafterareportingverbsuchastell.Thepersonbeingaddressed,who isgoing toperform theaction, ismentionedastheobjectofthereportingverb.Hetoldhertowaitthereforhim.HecommandedhismentoretreatHeorderedmetofetchthebooks.Mydoctoradvisedmetoseeaneurologist.Formoreonthistypeofstructure,seeparagraphs3.202and3.206.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatcanbeusedwithapersonasobjectfollowedbyato-infinitive:

adviseaskbeg

commandforbidinstructinviteorderpersuaderemindteachtellurgewarn

USAGENOTE

7.40 Afewverbscanbeusedwitha to-infinitivetoreportrequestswhenthehearerismentionedinaprepositionalphrase.Anofficershoutedtoustostopallthenoise.Ipleadedwithhimtotellme.Hereisalistoftheseverbsandtheprepositionsusedwiththem:

appealtopleadwithshoutatshouttowhispertoyellat

7.41 Inordinaryconversation,requestsareoftenputintheformofaquestion.For example, you might say Will you help me? instead of Help me.Similarly,reportedrequestsoftenlooklikereportedquestions.HeaskedmeifIcouldlendhimfiftydollars.When you report a request like this, you can mention both the personreceivingitandthepersonmakingit.SheaskedmewhetherIwouldhelpher.

Alternatively,youcanjustmentionthepersonmakingit.HeaskedifIwouldanswersomequestions.

7.42 You can report a request in which someone asks for permission to dosomethingbyusingato-infinitiveafteraskordemand.Iaskedtoseethemanager.

reportingsuggestions

7.43 When someonemakes a suggestion aboutwhat someone else (not theirhearer)shoulddo,youreportitbyusingathat-clause.InBritishEnglish,thisclauseoftencontainsamodal,usuallyshould.HeproposesthattheGovernmentshouldholdaninquiry.Travelagentsadvise thatpeople shouldchange theirmoneybefore theytravel.Notethatthisstructurecanalsobeusedtoreportasuggestionaboutwhatthe hearer should do. Consider the example:Her father had suggestedthatsheoughttoseeadoctor;herfathermighthavesuggesteditdirectlytoher.

Ifyoudonotuseamodal, theresultisconsideredmoreformalinBritishEnglish.InAmericanEnglish,however,thisistheusualverbformthatisusedaftersuggestingverbs.Someonesuggestedthattheybreakintosmallgroups.Note thatwhenyouleaveout themodal, theverb in thereportedclausestillhastheformitwouldhaveifthemodalwerepresent.Thisverbformiscalledthesubjunctive.Itwashisdoctorwhoadvisedthathechangehisjob.Isuggestedthathebringthemalluptothehouse.Heurgesthattherestrictionsbelifted.Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be followed by a that-clausecontainingamodalorasubjunctive:

adviseagreeask

begcommanddecreedemanddirectinsistintendorderpleadpraypreferproposerecommendrequestrulestipulatesuggesturge

Note thatadvise,ask,beg, command,order, and urge can also be usedwithanobjectandato-infinitive,andagree,pray,andsuggestcanalsobeusedwiththat-clauseswithoutamodal.

7.44 Whensomeonemakesasuggestionaboutwhatsomeoneelseshoulddo,or about what they themselves and someone else should do, you canreport this usingoneof the reportingverbs suggest,advise, propose, orrecommendfollowedbyan-ingparticiple.Barbarasuggestedgoingtoanothercoffee-house.DeirdreproposedmovingtoNewYork.

reportingintentionsandhopes

7.45 When you are reporting an action that the speaker (the subject of thereportingverb)intendstoperform,youcanreportitintwoways.Youcaneitherreportitsimplyasanaction,usingato-infinitiveclause,oryoucanreportitasastatementorfact,usingathat-clause.

Forexample,promisesrelatetoactions(egHepromisedtophoneher)buttheycanalsobeseenasrelatingtofacts(egHepromisedthathewouldphoneher).Theverbphraseinthethat-clausealwayscontainsamodal.Ipromisedtocomeback.Shepromisedthatshewouldnotleavehospitaluntilshewasbetter.Idecidedtowithholdtheinformationtilllater.Shedecidedthatshewouldleavehermoneytohim.Ihadvowedtofightfortheirfreedom.Shevowedthatshewouldnotleaveherhome.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedeitherwithato-infinitiveorwithathat-clausecontainingamodal:

decideexpectguaranteehopepledgepromiseproposeresolveswearthreatenvow

USAGENOTE

7.46 Claimandpretendcanalsobeusedwiththesetwostructures,whenyouare saying that someone is claiming or pretending something abouthimselforherself.Forexample,HeclaimedtobeageniushasthesamemeaningasHeclaimedthathewasagenius.Heclaimedtohavewitnessedtheaccident.Heclaimedthathehadfoundthemoneyintheforest.Note that the to-infinitive can be in the perfect form: to have + -ed

participle,whenyouarereferringtoapasteventorsituation.7.47 Note thata fewverbs that indicatepersonal intentionscanbeusedonly

withato-infinitive.Iintendtosaynothingforthepresent.Theyareplanningtomovetothecountry.Idon’twanttodieyet.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

intendlongmeanplanrefusewant

Reportinguncertainthings7.48 Whenyouarereportinganactionthatsomeoneiswonderingaboutdoing

themselves,youcanuseato-infinitivebeginningwithwhether.I’vebeenwonderingwhethertoretire.Hedidn’tknowwhethertofeelgladorsorryathisdismissal.Here is a listofverbs that canbeusedwith to-infinitive clauses of thiskind:

choosedebatedecideknowwonder

Note that choose, decide, and know are usually used in a negative orinterrogativeclause,oraclausewithamodal.When you are mentioning information about something involved in an

action,youcanuseato-infinitiveafterawh-wordasthereportedclause.Iaskedhimwhattodo.Ishallteachyouhowtocook.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithto-infinitivesofthiskind:

describediscoverdiscussexplainforgetguessimagineknowlearnrealizerememberrevealsayseesuggestteachtellthinkunderstandwonder

As an alternative to both kinds of to-infinitive, you can use a clausecontainingshould.IwonderedwhetherIshouldcallforhelp.Hebegantowonderwhatheshoulddonow.All the verbs in the above lists, except choose and debate, can also beused with ordinary clauses beginning with whether or wh-words. Seeparagraphs7.35to7.38.

Timereferenceinreportedspeech7.49 This section explains how to show time reference in reported speech.

Descriptionsoftimereferenceinreportedspeechoftengiveasimplifiedsystem that involves changing the tense in the actualwords spoken, sothat a present tensewould be changed to a past tense, and a past tensewouldbechanged to thepastperfect. In fact, tensechanges in reportedspeech are affected by several factors other than time, such aswhetheryouwishtodistanceyourselffromwhatwassaid,orwhetheryouwanttoemphasizethefactthatastatementisstilltrue.

pasttenseforbothverbs

7.50 Ifyouarereportingsomethingthatwassaidorbelievedinthepast,orifyou want to distance yourself from what the other person said, youusually use a past tense for both the reporting verb and the verb in thereportedclause.Shesaidyouthrewawayhersweets.Brodyaskedwhathappened.IntheMiddleAges,peoplethoughttheworldwasflat.

reportingverbinothertenses

7.51 Ifyouarereportingsomethingthatsomeonesaysorbelievesatthetimethatyouarespeaking,youuseapresenttenseofthereportingverb.Athirdofadultssaythatworkisbadforyourhealth.Ithinkit’sgoingtorain.However,youcanalsouseapresenttenseofthereportingverbwhenyouare reporting something said in the past, especially if you are reportingsomethingthatsomeoneoftensaysorthatisstilltrue.Shesaysshewantstoseeyouthisafternoon.Mydoctorsaysit’snothingtoworryabout.Ifyouarepredictingwhatpeoplewillsayorthink,youuseafutureformofthereportingverb.Nodoubthewillclaimthathiscarbrokedown.Theywillthinkwearemakingafuss.

tenseofverbinreportedclause

7.52 Whatever the tense of your reporting verb, you put the verb in thereported clause into a tense that is appropriate at the time that you arespeaking.If theeventorsituationdescribedin thereportedclause is in thepastatthetimethatyouarespeaking,yougenerallyusethepastsimple,thepastprogressive,or thepresentperfect:Shesaidsheenjoyed thecourse,Shesaidshewasenjoyingthecourse,orShesaidshehasenjoyedthecourse.SeeChapter4forinformationonwhentousetheseforms.Dadexplainedthathehadnomoney.Sheaddedthatshewasworkingtoomuch.Hesayshehasneverseenalivesharkinhislife.Whenthereportingverbisinapasttense,apasttenseisalsousuallyusedfortheverbinthereportedclauseevenifthereportedsituationstillexists.Forexample,youcouldsayItoldhimIwaseighteenevenifyouarestilleighteen.Youareconcentratingonthesituationatthepasttimethatyouaretalkingabout.HesaidhewasEnglish.Apresentformissometimesusedinstead,toemphasizethatthesituationstillexists.ItoldhimthatIdon’teatmorethananyoneelse.If the event or situation was in the past at the time that the reportedstatement was made, or had existed up to that time, you use the pastperfect:Shesaidshehadenjoyedthecourse.Heknewhehadbehavedbadly.MrBennsaidthathehadbeeninhospitalatthetime.Iftheeventorsituationisstillgoingon,youuseapresentformifyouareusing a present form of the reporting verb:She says she’s enjoying thecourse.Don’tassumeI’macompletefool.Heknowshe’sbeingwatched.Iftheeventorsituationwasinthefutureatthetimeofthestatementorisstillinthefuture,youuseamodal.Seeparagraphs7.53to7.56,below.

modalsinreportedclauses

7.53 Thebasicrulesforusingmodalsinreportedclausesareasfollows.Iftheverbinthereportingclauseisinapastformorhascouldorwouldas an auxiliary, you usually use could,might, orwould in the reportedclause.If,asislesscommon,theverbinthereportingclauseisinthepresentorhascanorwill as an auxiliary, youusuallyusecan,may, orwill in thereportedclause.

USAGENOTE

7.54 Whenyouwanttoreportastatementorquestionaboutsomeone’sabilitytodosomething,younormallyusecould.Theybelievedthatwarcouldbeavoided.Nellwouldnotadmitthatshecouldnotcope.If you want to report a statement about possibility, you normally usemight.Theytoldmeitmightfloodhere.Hesaidyoumightneedmoney.Ifthepossibilityisastrongone,youusemust.Itoldhershemustbeoutofhermind.Whenyouwant to reportastatementgivingpermissionora request forpermission, you normally use could. Might is used in more formalEnglish.Itoldhimhecouldn’thaveit.Madeleineaskedifshemightborrowapenandsomepaper.When you want to report a prediction, promise, or expectation, or aquestionaboutthefuture,younormallyusewould.Shesaidtheywouldallmissus.Heinsistedthatreformswouldsavethesystem,notdestroyit.

7.55 If the reported eventor situation still exists or is still in the future, andyouareusingapresenttenseofthereportingverb,youusecaninsteadofcould,mayinsteadofmight,andwillorshallinsteadofwould.

HelensaysIcanshareherapartment.Ithinktheweathermaychangesoon.Idon’tbelievehewillcome.Note that you cannot use can have instead of could have, orwill haveinsteadofwouldhave.Youcannotusemayhaveinsteadofmighthaveifyou are using it like could have to talk about something that did nothappen.Youcanalsousecan,may,will,andshallwhenyouareusingapasttenseof the reporting verb, if you want to emphasize that the situation stillexistsorisstillinthefuture.He claimed that the child’s early experiences may cause psychologicaldistressinlaterlife.If you are using a present reporting verb and want to indicate that thereported event or situation is hypothetical or veryunlikely, you canusethemodalscould,might,orwould.IbelievethatIcouldliveverycomfortablyhere.

7.56 Whenyouwanttoreportastatementaboutobligation,itispossibletousemust,buttheexpressionhadto(seeparagraph5.244)ismorecommon.Hesaidhereallyhadtogobackinside.Sitatoldhimthathemustbeespeciallykindtothelittlegirl.Youusehaveto,hasto,ormustifthereportedsituationstillexistsorisinthefuture.Whenyouwanttoreportastatementprohibitingsomething,younormallyusemustn’t.Hesaidtheymustn’tgetusintotrouble.Whenyouwanttoreportastrongrecommendation,youcanuseoughtto.Youcanalsouseshould.HeknewheoughttobehelpingHarold.IfeltIshouldconsultmyfamily.

7.57 Whenyouwanttoreportahabitualpastactionorapastsituation,youcanusethesemi-modalusedto.IwishIknewwhathisfavouritedishesusedtobe.

7.58 Theuseofmodalsinreportedclausescanbecomparedwiththeordinaryuseofmodals(seeparagraphs5.94to5.258).Manyof thefunctionsaresimilar,butsomearerarelyorneverfoundinreportedclauses.

reportingconditionalstatements

7.59 Whenyouarereportingaconditionalstatement,thetensesoftheverbsare,inmostcases,thesameastheywouldbenormally.However,theyaredifferent if you are using the past simple formof a reporting verb, andreporting a conditional statement such as If there is no water in theradiator,theenginewilloverheat.Inthiscase,youcanusethepastsimpleinstead of the present simple andwould instead ofwill in the reportedconditionalstatement:Shesaidthatiftherewasnowaterintheradiator,theenginewouldoverheat.Forinformationaboutconditionalstatements,seeparagraphs8.25to8.42.

Makingyourreferenceappropriate7.60 People, things, times, and places can be referred to in different ways,

dependingonwhoisspeakingoronwhenorwheretheyarespeaking.Forexample, the same person can be referred to as I, you, or she, and thesameplacecanbereferredtoasoverthereorjusthere.Ifyouusereportedspeech to reportwhat someonehassaid, thewordsyouusetorefertothingsmustbeappropriateinrelationtoyourself,thetimewhenyouarespeaking,andtheplaceinwhichyouarespeaking.Thewordsyouusemaywell bedifferent from thewordsoriginally spoken,whichwereappropriatefromthepointofviewofthespeakeratthetime.

referringtopeopleandthings

7.61 Forexample,ifamanistalkingtosomeoneaboutawomancalledJenny,andhesays,IsawherintheHighStreet,thereareseveralwaysinwhichthis statement can be reported. If the original speaker repeats what hesaid,hecouldsay, I said I sawher in theHighStreet. Iandher donotchange,becausetheystillrefertothesamepeople.Iftheoriginallistenerreportswhatwassaid,heorshecouldsay,Hesaidhe saw her in the High Street. I becomes he, because the statement is

reported from thepointofviewofa thirdperson,not from thepointofviewoftheoriginalspeaker.If theoriginal listener reports the statement to Jenny,her becomesyou:HesaidhesawyouintheHighStreet.The original listenermight report the statement to the original speaker.Thistime,Ihastochangetoyou:YousaidyousawherintheHighStreet.You’recrazy.Itoldhimhewascrazy.Possessivedeterminersandpronounschangeinthesamewayaspersonalpronounsinordertokeepthesamereference.Sothefollowingsentencescouldall report the samequestion:Sheasked ifhewasmybrother,Sheaskedifyouweremybrother,Iaskedifhewasherbrother.TheoriginalquestionmighthavebeenexpressedasIsheyourbrother?

referringtotime

7.62 Whenreporting,youmayneedtochangetimeadverbialssuchastoday,yesterday,ornextweek.Forexample,ifsomeonecalledJillsaysIwillcometomorrow,youcouldreportthisstatementthefollowingdayasJillsaidshewouldcometoday.Atalatertime,youcouldreportthesamestatementasJillsaidshewouldcomethenextdayorJillsaidshewouldcomethefollowingday.Wedecidedtoleavethecitythenextday.I was afraid people might think I’d been asleep during the previoustwenty-fourhours.

referringtoplaces

7.63 Youmayneedtochangewordsthatrelatetopositionorplace.Forexample,ifyouaretalkingtoamanaboutarestaurant,hemightsayIgothereeveryday. Ifyoureporthisstatementwhileyouareactually intherestaurant,youcouldsayHesaidhecomeshereeveryday.

Usingreportingverbstoperformanaction7.64 Reportingverbsareoftenusedwhenpeopleexplicitlysaywhatfunction

theirstatementisperforming.TheydothisusingIandthepresentsimpleofaverbsuchasadmitorpromise that refers to something that isdonewithwords.Forexample, insteadofsayingI’llbethereyoucouldsay IpromiseI’llbethere,whichmakesthestatementstronger.Isuggestwedrawupadocument.I’llbebackatone,Ipromise.Iwassomewhatshocked,Iadmit,bytheseevents.Thefollowingverbscanbeusedinthisway:

acknowledgeadmitassureclaimconcedecontenddemanddenyguaranteemaintainpledgepredictpromiseprophesyproposesaysubmitsuggestsweartellvowwarn

7.65 Some other verbs that refer to doing something with words are usedwithoutathat-clauseafterthem.Whenusedwithoutathat-clause,theuse

ofthepresentsimplewithIperformsthefunctionofastatementinitself,ratherthancommentingonanotherstatement.Iapologizeforanydelay.Icongratulateyouwithallmyheart.Iforgiveyou.Thefollowingverbsarecommonlyusedinthisway:

absolveacceptaccuseadviseagreeapologizeauthorizebaptizechallengeconfesscongratulateconsentdeclarededicatedefyforbidforgivenamenominateobjectorderpronounceprotestrefuserenounceresignsecondsentence

7.66 Theverbsintheabovelistsaresometimescalledperformativeverbsorperformatives,becausetheyperformtheactiontheyreferto.

USAGENOTE

7.67 Some of these verbs are used with modals when people want to beemphatic,polite,ortentative.ImustapologizeforMayfield.Iwouldagreewithalotoftheirpoints.Shewasverythoroughlychecked,Icanassureyou.MayIcongratulateyouagainonyourexcellentperformance.

Avoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinking7.68 There are several reporting structures that you can use if you want to

avoidsayingwhoseopinionorstatementyouaregiving.

useofpassivestoexpressgeneralbeliefs

7.69 Ifyouwant toshoworsuggest thatsomething isanopinionheldbyanunspecified group of people, you can use a passive formof a reportingverbwithitastheimpersonalsubject.Itisassumedthatthegovernmentwillremaininpower.In former times it was believed that all enlarged tonsils should beremoved.Itisnowbelievedthatforeignlanguagesaremosteasilytaughttoyoungchildren.Itwassaidthathalfamilliondollarshadbeenspentonthesearch.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareusedinthepassivewithitastheirsubject:

acceptacknowledgeadmitagreeallege

announceargueassertassumebelieveclaimcommentconcedeconcludeconfirmconsiderdecidedecreediscoverestimateexpectexplainfearfeelfindforeseeforgetguaranteeholdhopeimplyknowmentionnotenoticeobjectobservepredictproposerealizerecall

reckon

recommendrecordrememberreportrequestrevealrulerumoursaystatestipulatesuggestsupposethinkunderstand

This structure has much in common with a structure using a passivereportingverbandato-infinitiveclause.Inthisstructure,themainpersonor thing involved in the reported opinion is put as the subject of thereportingverb.Intelligenceisassumedtobeimportant.Heissaidtohavediedanaturaldeath.HeisbelievedtohavefledtoFrance.Note that the to-infinitive is most commonly be or have, or a perfectinfinitive.Hereisalistofreportingverbs,fromthelistabove,thatarealsousedinthistypeofstructure:

agreeallegeassumebelieveclaim

considerdiscoverestimateexpectfeelfindguaranteeholdknowobservethinkunderstand

seemandappear

7.70 If youwant to say that something appears to be the case, you can useeitheroftheverbsseemandappear.Theseverbscanbeusedasreportingverbsfollowedbya that-clauseor theycanbeusedwitha to-infinitive.Youcanuse this structure togiveyourownopinionor thatof someoneelse.Thesubjectofseemorappearisit,usedimpersonally.ItseemedthatshehadnotbeencarefulenoughItseemedthathehadlosthischancetowin.Itappearsthathefollowedmyadvice.Alternatively,youcanuseastructureinvolvingseemorappearandato-infinitive clause. The main person or thing involved in the fact thatappearstobetrueisputasthesubjectofthereportingverb.Sheseemedtolikeme.Heappearstohavebeenaninterestingman.Thesystemappearstoworkwell.Ifyouwant tomention thepersonwhoseviewpointyouaregiving,youcanaddaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithtoafterseemorappear.ItseemedtoJanethateveryonewasagainsther.

USAGENOTE

7.71 There are a few expressions containing impersonal it that are used asreporting clauses before that-clauses to show that someone suddenlythoughtofsomething:Itoccurredtome,Itstruckme,andItcrossedmymind.Itoccurredtoherthatsomeonewasmissing.Itcrossedmymindthatsomebodymusthavebeenkeepingthingssecret.

Referringtothespeakerandhearer

referringtothespeaker

7.72 Youusually use a reporting verb to reportwhat one person has said orthought,sothesubjectofareportingverbisusuallyasingularnoun.Henrysaidthathewantedtogohome.Heclaimedhishealthhadbeencheckedseveraltimesataclinic.Whenyoureportthestatements,opinions,orders,orquestionsofagroupofpeople,youcanuseapluralnounoracollectivenounasthesubjectofthereportingverb.Thejudgesdemandedthattheraceberunagain.Thecommitteenotedthatthiswasnotthefirstcaseofitskind.Whenyoureportwhatwassaidontelevisionorradio,orwhatisprintedorwritteninanewspaperorotherdocument,youcanmentionthesourceormeansofcommunicationasthesubjectofareportingverb.ThenewspapersaidhewashidingsomewherenearKabul.Hiscontractstatedthathissalarywouldbe£50,000ayear.Notethatyoucanalsousesaywithnounssuchassign,notice,clock,andmapasthesubject.Thenoticesaidthatattendantsshouldnotbetipped.AsignoverthedoorsaidDreamlandCafe.Theroadmapsaiditwas210kilometrestotheFrenchfrontier.

useofthepassive

7.73 Asexplainedinparagraph7.69,whenyouwanttoavoidmentioningthepersonwhosaidsomething,youcanuseareportingverbinthepassive.

Itwassaidthatsomeofthemhadbecomeinsane.Hewassaidtobetheoldestmaninthefirm.If you want to avoid mentioning the person giving an order or givingadvice,youuseapassivereportingverbwiththepersonwhoreceivestheorderoradviceasthesubject.Harrietwasorderedtokeepawayfrommyroom.

USAGENOTE

7.74 If youwant to distance yourself from a statement you aremaking, youcan show thatyouare reportingwhat someoneelsehas saidbyusingaphrasebeginningwithaccordingto,ratherthanusingreportedspeech.AccordingtoDime,hehadstrangledJedinthecourseofastruggle.

referringtothehearer

7.75 Aftersomereportingverbsthatrefertospeech,youhavetomentionthehearerasadirectobject.Tellisthemostcommonoftheseverbs.Itoldthemyouwereatthedentist.IinformedherthatIwasunwellandcouldnotcome.Smithpersuadedthemthattheymustsupportthestrike.Youcanusetheseverbsinthepassive,withthehearerasthesubject.Shehadbeentoldshecouldleavehospital.Membershadbeeninformedthatthepurposeofthemeetingwastoelectanewchairman.Shewaspersuadedtolookagain.Here is a list of reporting verbs thatmust have the hearer as the directobjectwhentheyareusedwithathat-clause:

assureconvinceinformnotifypersuadereassure

remindtell

Here is a list of reporting verbs thatmust have the hearer as the directobjectwhentheyareusedwithato-infinitiveclause:

advisebegcommandforbidinstructinviteorderpersuaderemindteachtellurgewarn

verbswithorwithoutthehearerasobject

7.76 Afterafewreportingverbsthatrefertospeech,youcanchoosewhetherornottomentionthehearer.IpromisedthatIwouldtrytophoneher.IpromisedMyraI’dbehomeatseven.Thephysicianswarnedthat,withouttheoperation,thechildwoulddie.Thomaswarnedherthathismotherwasslightlydeaf.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatcanbeusedwithorwithoutthehearerasobjectwhenusedwithathat-clause:

askpromiseteach

warn

Promisecanalsobeusedwithorwithoutanobjectwhenitisusedwithato-infinitive.Askhastobeusedwithanobjectwhenitisusedwithato-infinitiveclausetoreportarequestforthehearertodosomething,butitisusedwithoutanobjectwhentherequestisforpermissiontodosomething(seeparagraphs7.39and7.42).

thehearerinprepositionalphrases

7.77 Withmanyotherreportingverbs,ifyouwanttomentionthehearer,youdosoinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithto.IexplainedtoherthatIhadtogohome.‘Margaret’,Isaidtoher,‘I’msogladyoucame.’Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareusedwiththat-clausesorquotesandthatneedtheprepositiontoifyoumentionthehearer:

admitannounceboastcomplainconfessdeclareexplainhintinsistmentionmurmurproposereportrevealsayshoutsuggestswear

whisper

Propose and swear can also be usedwith a to-infinitive, but not if youmentionthehearer.Iproposetomentionthisatthenextmeeting.

7.78 When you are describing a situation in which a speaker is speakingforcefullytoahearer,youcanmentionthehearerinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithat.Thetallboyshoutedatthem,Choir!Standstill!Shutup!hebellowedatme.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareusedtodescribeforcefulspeech.If you want to mention the hearer, you use a prepositional phrasebeginningwithat:

barkbellowgrowlgrumblehowlroarscreamshoutshrieksnapstormthunderwailyell

7.79 Withverbsthatdescribesituationswhereboththespeakerandthehearerare involved in the speech activity, you can mention the hearer in aprepositionalphrasebeginningwithwith.Heagreedwithusthatitwouldbebettertohavenobreak.

CanyouconfirmwithRaythatthisdateisok?Here is a list of reporting verbs that take the preposition with if youmentionthehearer:

agreeargueconfirmpleadreason

7.80 Withverbsthatdescribesituationswheresomeoneisgettinginformationfrom someone or something, you use a prepositional phrase beginningwithfromtomentionthesourceoftheinformation.Idiscoveredfromherthatawomanprisonerhadkilledherself.Here is a list of reporting verbswhere the source of the information ismentionedusingfrom:

discoverelicitgatherhearinferlearnsee

reflexivepronouns

7.81 Areflexivepronounissometimesusedastheobjectofareportingverborprepositioninordertosaywhatsomeoneisthinking.Forexample,tosaysomethingtoyourselfmeanstothinkitratherthantosayitaloud.Itoldmyselfthathewascrazy.Itwillsoonbeover,Ikeptsayingtomyself.

Otherwaysofindicatingwhatissaid

objectswithreportingverbs

7.82 Sometimesyouuseanounsuchasquestion,story,orapologytorefertowhatsomeonehassaidorwritten.Youcanuseareportingverbwithoneofthesenounsasitsobjectinsteadofareportedclause.Heaskedanumberofquestions.Simonwhisperedhisanswer.Hetoldfunnystoriesandmadeeveryonelaugh.Philiprepeatedhisinvitation.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareoftenusedwithnounsthatrefertosomethingspokenorwritten:

acceptacknowledgeaskbeginbelievecontinuedemanddenyexpectexplainforgetguesshearimagineknowlayoutlearnmentionmutternotenoticepromiserefuse

rememberrepeatreportsetdownshoutstatesuggesttellunderstandwhisperwrite

7.83 Somereportingverbscanhaveastheirobjectsnounsthatrefertoeventsorfacts.Thesenounsareoftencloselyrelatedtoverbs.Forexample,lossiscloselyrelated to lose,and insteadofsayingHeadmitted thathehadlosthispassport,youcansayHeadmittedthelossofhispassport.BritishAirwaysannouncethearrivalofflightBA5531fromGlasgow.Thecompanyreporteda45percentdropinprofits.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareoftenusedwithnounsthatrefertoeventsorfacts:

acceptacknowledgeadmitannouncedemanddescribediscoverdiscussdoubtexpectexplainfearforesee

forgetimaginemeanmentionnotenoticeobservepredictpreferpromiserecommendrecordrememberreportseesensesuggesturge

USAGENOTE

7.84 Note thatsay isusuallyonlyusedwithanobject if theobject is averygeneralwordsuchassomething,anything,ornothing.Imusthavesaidsomethingwrong.Themannoddedbutsaidnothing.

prepositionalphraseswithreportingverbs

7.85 A few verbs referring to speech and thought can be used with aprepositionalphraseratherthanareportedclause,toindicatethegeneralsubjectmatterofastatementorthought.ThomasexplainedabouttherequestfromParis.Herearethreelistsofverbsthatcanbeusedwithaprepositionalphrasereferringtoafactorsubject.Ineachlist,theverbsinthefirstgroupareusedwithoutanobject,andtheverbsinthesecondgroupareusedwithanobjectreferringtothehearer.Notethataskandwarncanbeusedwithor

withoutanobject.Thefollowingverbsareusedwithabout:

agreeaskboastcomplaindecidedreamexplainforgetgrumblehearinquireknowlearnmutterreadwonderworrywrite~askteachtellwarn

Nooneknewaboutmyinterestinmathematics.Iaskedhimaboutthehorses.Thefollowingverbsareusedwithof:

complaindreamhear

knowlearnreadthinkwarnwrite~assureconvinceinformnotifypersuadereassureremindwarn

Theynevercomplainedoftheincessantrain.Noonehadwarnedusofthedangers.The following verbs are used with on. None of them take an objectreferringtothehearer.

agreecommentdecidedetermineinsistremarkreportwrite

Hehadalreadydecidedonhisstory.Theyareinsistingonthereleaseofallpoliticalprisoners.Notethatspeakandtalkareusedwithaboutandofbutnotwithreportedclauses.

Otherwaysofusingreportedclauses

nounsusedwithreportedclauses

7.86 Therearemanynouns,suchasstatement,advice,andopinion, that refertowhatsomeonesaysorthinks.Manyofthenounsusedinthiswayarerelatedtoreportingverbs.Forexample, information is related to inform,anddecision is related todecide. These nouns can be used in reportingstructuresinasimilarwaytoreportingverbs.Theyareusuallyfollowedbyareportedclausebeginningwiththat.He referred to Copernicus’ statement that the Earth moves around thesun.TheyexpressedtheopinionthatImustbemisinformed.Therewaslittlehopethathewouldsurvive.Here isa listofnouns thathave related reportingverbsand thatcanbeusedwiththat-clauses:

admissionadviceagreementannouncementanswerargumentassertionassumptionbeliefclaimconclusiondecisiondeclarationdreamexpectationexplanationfeelingguess

hopeinformationknowledgepromisereplyreportresponserevelationrulerumoursayingsensestatementthoughtthreatunderstandingwarningwish

Someofthesenounscanalsobefollowedbyato-infinitiveclause:

agreementclaimdecisionhopepromisethreatwarningwish

Thedecisiontogohadnotbeenaneasyonetomake.Barnaby’sfatherhadfulfilledhispromisetobuyhissonahorse.Note that some nouns that are not related to reporting verbs can befollowedby that-clauses,because they referor relate to factsorbeliefs.

Hereisalistofsomeofthesenouns:

advantagebenefitconfidencedangerdisadvantageeffectevidenceexperiencefactfaithideaimpressionnewsopinionpossibilityprinciplerisksignstorytraditionviewvisionword

Hedidn’twanthertogettheideathathewasrich.Shecan’tacceptthefactthathe’sgone.Eventually a distraughtMcCoo turned upwith the news that his househadjustburneddown.

Chapter8Combiningmessages

8.6–82 Adverbialclauses8.8–24 Timeclauses:WhenIwasyoung,…8.25–42 Conditionalclauses:IfIhadmoremoney,…8.43–48 Purposeclauses:Hediditinordertomakeherhappy8.49–53 Reasonclauses:…becauseIwantedtowin8.54–64 Resultclauses:I’lldriveyoutheresothatyouwon’tbelate8.65–72 Concessiveclauses:Ilovebooks,althoughIdon’treadmuch8.73–77 Placeclauses:Staywhereyouare8.78–82 Clausesofmanner:Idon’tknowwhyhebehavesashedoes

8.83–116 Relativeclauses8.89–91 Usingrelativepronounsindefiningclauses8.92–94 Usingrelativepronounsinnon-definingclauses8.95–100 Usingrelativepronounswithprepositions8.101–102 Usingwhose8.103–108 Usingotherrelativepronouns8.109–111 Additionalpointsaboutnon-definingrelativeclauses8.112–116 Nominalrelativeclauses:Whatyouneedis…

8.117–128 Nominalthat-clauses

8.129–148 Non-finiteclauses8.132–143 Usingnon-definingclauses8.144–145 Usingdefiningclauses8.146–148 Otherstructuresusedlikenon-finiteclauses

8.149–201 Linkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether8.151–163 Linkingclauses8.164–170 Linkingverbstogether8.171–179 Linkingnounphrases

8.180–189 Linkingadjectivesandadverbs8.190–193 Linkingotherwordsandphrases8.194–199 Emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.200–201 Linkingmorethantwoclauses,phrases,orwords

8 Combiningmessages

8.1 Sometimes a statement is too complex or detailed to be expressed in asingleclause.Youmakestatementsof thiskindbyputting twoormoreclausestogetherinonesentence.There are two ways in which you can do this. One way is to use oneclause as a main clause and to add other subordinate clauses. Asubordinate clause is a clause that depends on the main clause tocompleteitsmeaning,andthatcannotformasentenceonitsown.Forthisreason,insomegrammars,itiscalledadependentclause.IcamebecauseIwantyoutohelpme.Ididn’tlikethemanwhodidthegardeningforthem.You have no right to keep people off your land unless they are doingdamage.Whenhehadgone,Valentinasighed.Theotherwayissimplytolinkclausestogether.I’manoldmanandI’msick.IlikefilmsbutIdon’tgotothecinemaveryoften.Questionsandorderscanalsoconsistofmorethanoneclause.WhatwillIdoifhedoesn’tcome?Ifsheisambitious,don’ttrytoholdherback.ClausesareexplainedinChapters3and5.

conjunctions

8.2 Whenyouput twoclauses intoone sentence,youuseaconjunction tolinkthemandtoshowtherelationshipbetweenthem.Whenhestopped,noonesaidanything.Theyweregoingbycarbecauseitwasmorecomfortable.

ThetelephonerangandJudypickeditup.Thefoodlookedgood,butIwastoofulltoeat.

8.3 There are two types of conjunction. They show the different types ofrelationshipbetweenclausesinasentence.

subordinatingconjunctions

8.4 Whenyouareaddingaclauseinordertodevelopanaspectofwhatyouaresaying,youuseasubordinatingconjunction.Thecatjumpedontomyfather’slapwhilehewasreadinghisletters.Hehadcanceralthoughitwasdetectedatanearlystage.Whenthejarwasfull,heturnedthewateroff.A clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction is called asubordinateclause.Whenanatomissplit,itreleasesneutrons.Ifhehadwon,hewouldhavesharedthemoney.ThehousewascalledSeaView,althoughtherewerenoseaanywhereinsight.Youcanalsoaddsubordinateclausestoquestionsandimperativeclauses.Howlongisitsinceyou’veactuallytaught?Makeaplanbeforeyoustart.Sentencescontainingamainclauseandoneormoresubordinateclausesareoftencalledcomplexsentences.Therearethreemainkindsofsubordinateclause:Adverbialclauses:thesearedealtwithinparagraphs8.6to8.82.Relativeclauses:thesearedealtwithinparagraphs8.83to8.116.Nominal that-clauses: thoserelating to reportedspeechand thoughtarereferred to as reported clauses, and are dealtwith in Chapter 7; thoserelatingtofactsaredealtwithinparagraphs8.117to8.128.

coordinatingconjunctions

8.5 Ifyouaresimplylinkingclauses,youuseacoordinatingconjunction.

Hersonlivesathomeandhasasteadyjob.He’sashyman,buthe’snotscaredofanythingoranyone.You can also put coordinating conjunctions between questions andbetweenimperativeclauses.Didyoubuythosecurtainsordoyoumakeyourown?Visityourlocaldealerorphoneforabrochure.Clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction are called coordinateclauses.Sheturnedandlefttheroom.Sentences that contain coordinate clauses are sometimes calledcompoundsentences.Afullexplanationofcoordinateclauses isgiveninparagraphs8.149 to8.163. Other uses of coordinating conjunctions are explained inparagraphs8.164to8.201.

Adverbialclauses8.6 Thereareeighttypesofadverbialclause:

typeofclause usualconjunction paragraphstimeclauses when, before, after since,

while,as,untilparagraphs8.8to8.24

conditionalclauses if,unless paragraphs8.25to8.42purposeclauses inorderto,sothat paragraphs8.43to8.48reasonclauses because,since,as paragraphs8.49to8.53resultclauses sothat paragraphs8.54to8.64concessiveclauses although,though,while paragraphs8.65to8.72placeclauses where,wherever paragraphs8.73to8.77clausesofmanner as,like,theway paragraphs8.78to8.82

Non-finite clauses, when they begin with a subordinating conjunction,are dealtwith in the sections dealingwith adverbial clauses.Non-finiteclausesthatdonotbeginwithasubordinatingconjunctionaredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphs8.129to8.145.Otherstructuresthatfunctionlikenon-finiteclausesaredescribedinparagraphs8.146to8.148.

positionofadverbialclause

8.7 Theusualpositionforanadverbialclauseisjustafterthemainclause.Icouldn’tthinkofasinglethingtosayafterhe’drepliedlikethat.Theperformanceswerecancelledbecausetheleadingmanwasill.However,most types of adverbial clause can be put in front of amainclause.Whenthecityisdark,wecanmovearoundeasily.Althoughcrocodilesare inactive for longperiods,onoccasion theycanrunveryfastindeed.Occasionally, you can put an adverbial clause in themiddle of anotherclause.Theymake allegationswhich, when you analyse them, do not have toomanyfactsbehindthem.There are a few types of adverbial clause that always go after a mainclause; other types always go in front of one. This is explained in thesectionsdealingwiththedifferenttypesofclause.

Timeclauses:WhenIwasyoung,…8.8 Timeclausesareusedforsayingwhensomethinghappens,byreferring

toaperiodoftimeortoanotherevent.Herfatherdiedwhenshewasyoung.Stocksoffoodcannotbebroughtinbeforetherainsstart.He was detained last Monday after he returned from a business tripoverseas.WhenIfirstarrivedIdidn’tknowanyone.Timeclausescanbeusedaftertimeadverbials.We’llgivehimhispresentstomorrow,beforehegoestoschool.I want to see you for a fewminutes at twelve o’clock, when you go tolunch.TimeadverbialsareexplainedinChapter4.

tensesintimeclauses

8.9 When you are talking about the past or the present, the verb in a timeclause has the same tense that it would have in a main clause or in asimplesentence.IwasstandingbythewindowwhenIheardherspeak.IlookafterthechildrenwhileshegoestoDenver.However,ifthetimeclausereferstosomethingthatwillhappenorexistinthefuture,youusethepresentsimple,notthefuture.Forexample,yousayWhenhecomes,Iwillshowhimthebook,notWhenhewillcome,Iwillshowhimthebook.Assoonaswegetthetickets,we’llsendthemtoyou.Hewantstoseeyoubeforehedies.LetmestayheretillJeanniecomeshome.Ifyoumentionaneventinatimeclausethatwillhappenbeforeaneventreferred to in themain clause, you use thepresentperfect in the timeclause,notthefutureperfect.Forexample,yousayWhenyouhavehadyoursupper,comeandseeme,notWhenyouwillhavehadyoursupper,comeandseeme.Wewon’tbegettingmarrieduntilwe’vesavedenoughmoney.Comeandtellmewhenyouhavefinished.

8.10 Themostcommonconjunctionintimeclausesiswhen.When isused tosay that something happened, happens, or will happen on a particularoccasion.WhenthetelegramcameandIreadofhisdeath,Icouldn’tbelieveit.Hedidn’tknowhowtobehavewhentheynextmet.

8.11 You can mention the circumstances in which something happens orhappenedbyusingwhen,while,oras.Thetrainhasautomaticdoorsthatonlyopenwhenthetrainisstationary.Whilehewasstillinthestable,therewasaloudknockatthefrontdoor.HewouldswimbesidemeasIrowedinthelittledinghy.Whilstisamoreformalformofwhile.Wechattedwhilstthechildrenplayedinthecrèche.

WhilstisnotusedinmodernAmericanEnglish.

USAGENOTE

8.12 If youwant to emphasize that somethinghappened at a particular time,youcanuseItwasfollowedbyanexpressionsuchassixo’clockorthreehourslater,followedbyawhen-clause.For example, instead of saying I left at six o’clock, you say It was sixo’clockwhenIleft.ItwasabouthalfpasteightwhenhearrivedatGatwick.Itwaslatewhenhereturned.This is anexampleof a splitsentence. Split sentences are explained inparagraphs9.25to9.30.

repeatedevents

8.13 If you want to say that something always happened or happens inparticular circumstances, you usewhen, whenever, every time, or eachtime.WhenhetalksaboutIreland,hedoessoundlikeanoutsider.Whenevershehadacold,sheateonlyfruit.EverytimeIgotothatclassIpanic.Helookedawayeachtimeshespoketohim.

8.14 Youuse an expression such as the first time, the next time, or the thirdtimetosaythatsomethinghappenedduringoneoccurrenceofanevent.Thelasttimewetalkedhesaidheneededanothertwodays.ThenexttimeIcomehere,I’mgoingtobebetter.

eventsinsequence

8.15 Youcanalsousewhen,after,oronce to talkaboutoneeventhappeningimmediatelyafteranother.Whenhiswifelefthimhesufferedterribly.Stopmewhenyou’vehadenough.Theturtlereturnstotheseaafterithaslaiditseggs.Oncethedamageisdone,ittakesmanyyearsforthesystemtorecover.Ifyouwanttosayhowlongoneeventhappenedafteranother,youputa

nounphrasesuchastwodaysorthreeyearsinfrontofafter.Exactlysixweeksaftershehadarrived,shesentacabletoherhusbandandcaughttheplanebacktoNewYork.Assoonas,directly,immediately,themoment,theminute,andtheinstantare all used to talk about one event happening a very short time afteranother.Theyheardvoicesassoonastheypushedopenthedoor.Theminutesomeonelefttheroom,theothersstartedtalkingaboutthem.Immediatelythemealwasover,itwastimeforprayer.

The words directly and immediately are not used as conjunctions inAmericanEnglish.

8.16 Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethinghappened,happens,orwillhappenatanearliertimethansomethingelse,youusebefore.Itwasnecessaryforthemtofindahomebeforethecoldweatherarrived.Beforetheymovedtothecityshehadneverseenacar.Ifyouwanttosayhowlongoneeventhappenedbeforeanother,youputanounphrasesuchasthreeweeksorashorttimeinfrontofbefore.He had a review with the second organiser, about a month before thereportwaswritten.Longbeforeyoureturnshewillhaveforgottenyou.

8.17 When you are telling a story, you sometimes want to say what washappening when a particular event occurred. You first say what washappening,thenaddaclausebeginningwithwheninwhichyoumentiontheevent.IhadjustfinishedmymealwhenIheardvoices.Hewashavinghisdinnerwhenthetelephonerang.Ifyouwanttosaythatoneeventhappenedaveryshorttimeafteranother,youuseaclauseinthepastperfect,followedbyatimeclauseinthepastsimple.Afterhadinthefirstclause,youputnosoonerorhardly.Whenyouusenosooner,thetimeclausebeginswiththan.I had no sooner checked into the hotel than he arrived with theappropriatedocuments.

Whenyouusehardly,thetimeclausebeginswithwhenorbefore.He had hardly got his eyes open before she told him that they wereleaving.Nosooner or, less frequently,hardly can be put at the beginning of thefirstclause,followedbyhadandthesubject.Nosoonerhadheaskedthequestionthantheanswercametohim.HardlyhadhesettledintohisseatwhenAlancameburstingin.Hardlyhadhegotonhishorsebeforepeoplestartedfiringathim.

8.18 Whensomethingisthecasebecauseofanewsituation,youcansaywhatis the case and then add a subordinate clause saying what the newsituation is. The subordinate clause begins with now that. In BritishEnglishyoucanleaveoutthat.Hecouldtravelmuchfasternowthathewasalone.IfeelbetternowI’vetalkedtoyou.

sayingwhenasituationbegan

8.19 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationstartedtoexistataparticulartimeandstill exists, youuse since oreversince. In the time clause, you use thepastsimple.I’vebeeninpoliticssinceIwasatuniversity.It’sbeenmakingmoneyeversinceitopened.Youalsousesinceoreversincetosaythatasituationstartedtoexistataparticulartime,andstillexistedatalatertime.Inthetimeclause,youusethepastsimpleorthepastperfect.Hehadbeentiredeversincehestartedwork.Janinehadbeenbusyeversinceshehadheardthenews.Ifyouarementioningsomeone’sageatthetimewhenasituationstarted,youalwaysusethepastsimple.Iwas seven years older thanWendy and had known her since shewastwelve.Sinceisalsousedinreasonclauses.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.50.

sayingwhenasituationends

8.20 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationstoppedwhensomethinghappened,youuseuntilortill.IstayedtheretalkingtothemuntilIsawSamWardleavethebuilding.Wewaitedtilltheyarrived.Youalsouseuntilortilltosaythatasituationwillstopwhensomethinghappensinthefuture.Inthetimeclauseyouusethepresentsimpleorthepresentperfect.StaywithmeuntilIgo.We’llsupportthemtilltheyfindwork.TellhimIwon’tdiscussanythinguntilI’vespokentomywife.

8.21 Bywhich time,atwhichpoint,afterwhich,whereupon,anduponwhicharealsousedatthebeginningoftimeclauses.Youusebywhichtimetosaythatsomethinghadalreadyhappenedorwillalreadyhavehappenedbeforetheeventyouhavejustmentioned.Hewasdiagnosedin1999,bywhichtimehewasalreadyveryill.Youuseatwhichpointtosaythatsomethinghappenedimmediatelyaftertheeventyouhavejustmentioned.Thecompanyclosedinthelateseventies,atwhichpointheretired.Youuseafterwhichtosaythatasituationstartedtoexistorwillstarttoexistaftertheeventyouhavejustmentioned.The items were removed for chemical analysis, after which they wereneverseenagain.You use whereupon or upon which to say that something happenedimmediatelyaftertheeventyouhavejustmentionedandwasaresultofit.Bothoftheseusesareratherformal.Hisdepartmentwasshutdown,whereuponhereturnedtoCalcutta.ItoldDrJohnsonofthis,uponwhichhecalledforJoseph.

USAGENOTE

8.22 Youcanuseaclausebeginningwithwhenafteraquestionbeginningwithwhy. For example, you can sayWhy should I help her when she neverhelpsme?Howeverthisclauseisnotatimeclause.Inyourquestion,youareexpressingsurpriseordisagreementatsomething thathasbeensaid,

and the when-clause indicates the reason for your surprise ordisagreement.Whyshouldhedomeaninjurywhenhehasalreadysavedmylife?Whyworryherwhenit’sallover?

usingnon-finiteclauses

8.23 Instead of using a finite time clause, you can often use a non-finiteclause,thatis,aclausethatcontainsan-ingor-edparticiple.For example, youcan say I often readabookwhen travellingby train,meaningIoftenreadabookwhenIamtravellingbytrain,andyoucansayWhen finished, the buildingwill be opened by thePrince ofWales,meaningWhenitisfinished,thebuildingwillbeopenedbythePrinceofWales.Adults sometimes do not realize their own strength when dealing withchildren.Markwatcheduswhilepretendingnotto.Ideliberatelydidn’treadthebookbeforegoingtoseethefilm.After complainingof a headache for a fewdays,Gerryagreed to seeadoctor.Theyhadnotspokenawordsinceleavingtheparty.Michaelusedtolooksurprisedwhenpraised.Onceconvincedaboutanidea,hepursueditrelentlessly.Notethatyoucanonlyuseaclauselikethiswhenitdoesnotneedtohaveanewsubject,thatis,whenitisaboutthesamethingasthemainclause.

usingprepositionalphrasesandadjectives

8.24 Forsomestatementsabouttime,youcanuseaphraseconsistingofwhen,while, once, until, or till, followed by a prepositional phrase or anadjective.For example, you can say,When in Paris, you should visit the Louvre,meaningWhenyouareinParis,youshouldvisittheLouvre.HehadreadofherexperienceswhileatOxford.Whenunderthreat,theycanbecomeviolent.Steamorboilthemuntiljusttender.

Youcanuseaphraseconsistingofwhen,whenever,where, orwhereverandanadjectivesuchasnecessaryorpossible.For example, you can sayYou should take exercise whenever possible,meaningYoushouldtakeexercisewheneveritispossible.Shespokerarely,andthenonlywhennecessary.Trytospeakthetruthwheneverpossible.Helpmustbegivenwherenecessary.Allexpertsagreethat,whereverpossible,childrenshouldlearntoreadintheirownway.

Conditionalclauses:IfIhadmoremoney,…8.25 Whenyouwant to talk about a possible situation and its consequences,

youuseaconditionalclause.Conditionalclausesareused:totalkaboutasituationthatsometimesexistsorexisted

Iftheyloseweightduringanillness,theysoonregainitafterwards.Government cannot operate effectively unless it is free to take its owndecisions.IfIsawhiminthestreet,he’djustsayGoodmorning.totalkaboutasituationthatyouknowdoesnotexist

IfEnglandhadahotclimate,theattitudewouldbedifferent.IfIcouldafforditIwouldbuyaboat.totalkaboutasituationwhenyoudonotknowwhetheritexistsornot

Ifheisrightitwouldbepossibleoncemoretomanagetheeconomyintheoldway.Theintervalseemedunnecessary,unlessitwastogivethemabreak.totalkaboutasituationthatmayexistinthefuture.

IfIleavemyjobI’llhavenomoneytoliveon.IfIwentbackonthetrainit’dbecheaper.Don’tbringherunlessshe’sready.

8.26 Conditionalclausesusuallybeginwithiforunless.Youuseiftosaythataconsequenceofsomethinghappeningorbeingthecasewouldbethatsomethingelsewouldhappenorbethecase.

IfyoudothatIshallbeverypleased.IfIaskedforsomethingIgotit.Theywillevencleanyourcarifyouaskthemto.Whenan if-clause isput first, then issometimesputat thebeginningofthemainclause.IfthisiswhatwashappeningintheSixties,thenI’mgladIwasn’taroundthen.Unlessmeansexceptif.Forexample,YouwillfailyourexamsunlessyouworkhardermeansYouwillfailyourexamsexceptifyouworkharder.Therecanbenonewgrowthunlessthegroundiscleared.Nobodygetsanythingunlesstheyaskforit.Clausesbeginningwithunlessusuallygoafteramainclause.

modalsandimperatives

8.27 Whenyouareusinga conditional clause,youoftenuse amodal in themainclause.Youalwaysuseamodalinthemainclausewhenyouaretalkingaboutasituationthatdoesnotexist.Ifyouweren’there,shewouldgetridofmeinnotime.Ifanybodyhadaskedme,Icouldhavetoldthemwhathappened.Modalsareexplainedinparagraphs5.94to5.258.Conditionalclausesareoftenusedwithimperativestructures.Ifyoudryyourwashingoutdoors,wipethelinefirst.Ifit’sfouro’clockinthemorning,don’texpectthemtobepleasedtoseeyou.Imperativestructuresareexplainedinparagraphs5.4and5.37to5.41.

verbformsinconditionalsentences

8.28 There are special rules about which verb form to use in conditionalsentences.People often describe conditional structures in terms of three, orsometimesfour(seezeroconditionalbelow),categories:

the firstconditional, inwhich the verb in themain clause iswill orshallandtheverbintheconditionalclauseisinthepresentsimple.I’llscreamifyousaythatagain.thesecondconditional,inwhichtheverbinthemainclauseiswould

orshouldandtheverbintheconditionalclauseisinthepastsimple.IfIhadmoretime,Iwouldhappilyoffertohelp.the thirdconditional, inwhich theverb in themain clause iswould

haveorshouldhaveandtheverbintheconditionalclauseisinthepastperfect.IfIhadtriedabitharder,Iwouldhavepassedthatexam.the zero conditional, in which the verb in both clauses is in the

presentsimple.Waterboilsifyouheatitto100°C.Manyconditionalsdofollowthesepatterns.Thereare,however,variousothernormalpatternsoftenseinconditionalclauses,whicharesetoutinthefollowingparagraphs.

talkingaboutthingsthatoftenhappen

8.29 When you are talking about something that often happens, you use thepresentsimpleorthepresentprogressive in theconditionalclauseandinthemainclause.Ifabigdogapproachesme,Ipanic.Heneverringsmeupunlesshewantssomething.Ifthebaby’scrying,sheprobablyneedsfeeding.Ifanadvertisementconveysinformationwhichisfalseormisleading,theadvertiseriscommittinganoffence.

talkingaboutthingsthatoftenhappenedinthepast

8.30 Whenyou are talking about something that often happened in the past,youusethepastsimpleorthepastprogressiveintheconditionalclause.Inthemainclause,youusethepastsimpleoramodal.Theysatonthegrassifitwasfine.

Ifitwasraining,weusuallystayedindoors.Ifanyonecame,they’dsayHowareyou?Iftheywantedtogoout,Iwouldstaywiththebaby.IcouldnotfallasleepunlessIdidanhourofyoga.

possiblesituations

8.31 When you are talking about a possible situation in the present, youusuallyusethepresentsimpleorthepresentperfect in theconditionalclause.Inthemainclauseyouusuallyuseamodal.Ifanyonedoubtsthis,theyshouldlookatthefacts.Unlessyou’vetriedit,youcan’timaginehowpleasantitis.If-clauses of this kind are sometimes usedwhen you are offering to dosomething, or giving permission for something to be done. You use amodal in the main clause, and the subordinate clause consists of if, apronoun,andwant,like,orwish.I’llteachyou,ifyouwant.Youcanleaveifyoulike.

thingsthatmighthappeninthefuture

8.32 Whenyou are talking about something thatmight happen in the future,youusethepresentsimpleintheconditionalclause,andwillorshall inthemainclause.IfIsurvivethisexperience,I’llneverleaveyouagain.Williewillneverachieveanythingunlessheispushed.

USAGENOTE

8.33 Amoreformalwayof talkingaboutapossiblefuturesituation is touseshould in the conditional clause. For example, instead of saying Ifanything happens, I will return immediately, you can say If anythingshould happen, Iwill return immediately. In themain clause you use amodal,usuallywillorwould.Ifthatshouldhappen,youwillbeblamed.Anotherwayoftalkingaboutapossiblefuturesituationistousewereand

ato-infinitiveinaconditionalclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingIfhegoes,Iwillgotoo,youcansay Ifhewere togo, Iwouldgo too. In themainclauseyouusewould,should,ormight.Ifweweretomovenorth,wewouldbeabletobuyabiggerhouse.

unlikelysituations

8.34 Whenyouaretalkingaboutanunlikelysituation,youusethepastsimpleintheconditionalclause,andwould,should,ormightinthemainclause.Theoldermenwouldfinditdifficulttogetajobiftheyleftthefarm.Ishouldbesurprisedifitwaslessthanfivepounds.If I frightened them, they might run away and I would never see themagain.In the conditional clause, were is sometimes used instead of was,especiallyafterI.IfIwereaguy,Iwouldlooklikemydad.IfIwereaskedtodefinemycondition,I’dsaybored.

whatmighthavebeen

8.35 Whenyouare talkingaboutsomething thatmighthavehappened in thepast but did not happen, you use the past perfect in the conditionalclause.Inthemainclause,youusewouldhave,couldhave,shouldhave,ormighthave.Perhapsifhehadrealizedthat,hewouldhaverunawaywhiletherewasstilltime.Ifshehadnotbeenill,shewouldprobablyhavewonthatrace.

puttingtheverbfirst

8.36 In formal or literary English, if the first verb in an if-clause is should,were,orhad,thisverbissometimesputatthebeginningoftheclauseandifisomitted.Forexample,insteadofsayingIfanyvisitorsshouldcome,Iwillsayyouarenothere,someonemightsayShouldanyvisitorscome,Iwillsayyouarenothere.Shouldministersdemandaninquiry,wewouldwelcomeit.

Wereitalltrue,itwouldstillnotexcusetheiractions.Weretheytostopadvertising,priceswouldbesignificantlyreduced.HadIknownhowimportantitwas,Iwouldhavefilmedtheoccasion.

USAGENOTE

8.37 Instead of using a conditional clause containing the word be, you cansometimes use a phrase consisting of if followed by an adjective or aprepositionalphrase.Forexample,insteadofsayingWewillsellthecar,ifitisnecessary,youcansayWewillsellthecar,ifnecessary.Thisunfortunatesituationistobeavoidedifpossible.IfIwereinnocent,I’dratherbetriedhere;ifguilty,inAmerica.Ifindoubt,askatyourlocallibrary.

necessaryconditions

8.38 If youwant to say that one situation is necessary for another, you useprovided, providing, as long as, so long as, or only if. Provided andprovidingareoftenfollowedbythat.Orderingisquickandeasyprovidedyouhaveaccesstotheinternet.Providedthatit’snottoomuchmoneyI’dlovetocometoSpain.Theovenbakesmagnificentbreadprovidingitishotenough.They are happy for the world to stay as it is, as long as they arecomfortable.These activities can flourish only if agriculture and rural industry areflourishing.When you are using only if, you can put the only in the main clause,separatedfromtheif.Forexample,insteadofsayingIwillcomeonlyifhewantsme,youcansayIwillonlycomeifhewantsme.HetoldthemthatdisarmamentwasonlypossibleifBritainchangedherforeignpolicy.Anotherwayofsayingthatonesituationisnecessaryforanotheristouseaconditionalclauseconsistingofiffollowedbythesubject,aformofbe,anda to-infinitiveclause. In themainclause,yousaywhat isnecessaryusingmust.It’slate,andifIamtogetanysleepImustgo.

Ifyouaretoescape,youmustleavemeandgoonalone.8.39 Ifyouwanttosaythatonesituationwouldnotaffectanother,youcanuse

evenif.Iwouldhavemarriedherevenifshehadbeenpenniless.Even if you don’t get the job this time, there will be many excitingopportunitiesinthefuture.Evenifisalsousedinconcessiveclauses.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.67.

8.40 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationwouldnotbeaffectedbyanyoftwoormore things, you use whether. You put or between the differentpossibilities.Catchingafrogcanbeadifficultbusiness,whetheryou’reahumanorabirdorareptile.Whetheryougotoalaunderetteordoyourwashingathome,theroutineisthesame.Ifyouwant tosaythatwhathappenswouldnotbeaffectedbyeitheroftwooppositesituations,youuseaclausebeginningwithwhetherornot.Whetherornotpeoplehavereligiousfaith,theycanbelieveinthepoweroflove.I get an electrician to check allmy electrical appliances every autumn,whetherornottheyaregivingtrouble.Ornotcanbeputattheendoftheclause.WhetherIagreedornot,thesearchwouldtakeplace.

USAGENOTE

8.41 When theverb in awhether-clause isbe, the subjunctive is sometimesused.When you use the subjunctive, you use thebase form of a verbrather than the thirdperson singular.This is considered rather formal inBritishEnglish,butiscommoninAmericanEnglish.

Alwaysreportsuchbehaviourtothenearestpersoninauthority,whetheritbeaschoolteacherorapoliceman,oranyoneelse.When the verb in awhether-clause is be and the subject is a personalpronounsuchastheyorit,youcanomitbeandthepronoun.Forexample,

instead of sayingAll the villagers,whether they are young or old, helpwiththeharvest,youcansayAllthevillagers,whetheryoungorold,helpwiththeharvest.Afreshpepper,whetherredorgreen,lastsaboutthreeweeks.Theyhelppeople,whethertouristsorstudents,tolearnmoreofourpast.

8.42 When you want to say that something is the case and that it does notmatterwhichperson,place,cause,method,orthingisinvolved,youusewhoever,wherever,however,whatever,orwhichever.Whoeverwinsthiscivilwar,therewillbelittlerejoicingatthevictory.Whereveritis,youaren’tgoing.However it began, the battle would always develop into a large-scaleconflict.Whateverandwhicheverareusedeitherasdeterminersorpronouns.Whatevercaryoudrive,keepfixingitandkeepitforever.Thedeficitisextremelyimportantthisyear,whatevertheysay.Whicheverwayyoudoit,it’shardwork.Whicheveryoudecide,I’msureitwillbejustfine.Anotherwayofsayingthatitdoesnotmatterwhoorwhatisinvolvedistousenomatterfollowedbywho,where,how,what,orwhich.Mostpeople,nomatterwhotheyare,seemtohaveatleastone.Ouraimistorecruitthebestpersonforthejob,nomatterwheretheyarefrom.NomatterhowI’mplaying,Ialwaysgetthatspecialfeeling.

Purposeclauses:Hediditinordertomakeherhappy8.43 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutthepurposeofanaction,youuseapurpose

clause.Hereisalistofthemostcommonconjunctionsusedinpurposeclauses:

inorderthatinordertososoastosothat

to

typesofpurposeclause

8.44 Therearetwokindsofpurposeclause.Clausescontainingato-infinitivearethemostcommon.Theyhadtotakesomeofhislandinordertoextendthechurchyard.Farmers have put up barricades to prevent people moving on to theirland.The subject of this type of purpose clause is always the same as thesubjectofthemainclause.Thistypeofpurposeclauseisexplainedinparagraphs8.45to8.46.Otherpurposeclausesusuallycontainthat.Be as clear and factual as possible in order that there may be nomisunderstanding.Thistypeofpurposeclauseisexplainedinparagraphs8.47to8.48.

to-infinitiveclauses

8.45 To-infinitivepurposeclausesusuallybeginwithinordertoorsoasto.Theywerepushinginordertogettothefront.Wehadtoborrowmoneyinordertobuythehouse.Wefixedupascreensoastoletinthefreshairandkeepouttheflies.Ifyouwanttomakeoneoftheseclausesnegative,youputnotinfrontoftheto.Rosetrodwithcareinordernottospreadthedirt.Whenremovingastain,workfromtheedgeinwardssoasnottoenlargetheareaaffected.

8.46 Somepurposeclausescansimplybeto-infinitiveclauses.Peoplewouldstrolldownthepathtoadmirethegarden.Thechildrensleeptogethertokeepwarm.Tounderstandwhat ishappeningnow,weneed to thinkaboutwhathasbeenachieved.

However, you cannot use a negative with one of these structures. Youcannotsay,forexample,Wekeepthewindowshutnot to let the flies in.Youwouldhavetosay,Wekeep thewindowshut inordernot to let thefliesin.

that-clauses

8.47 Other purpose clauses usually begin with in order that, so that, or so.Theyusuallycontainamodal.Iftheverbinthemainclauseisinthepresentorinthepresentperfect,youusuallyuseoneofthemodalscan,may,will,orshall inthepurposeclause.…people who are learning English in order that they can study aparticularsubject.Iftheverbinthemainclauseisinthepast,youusuallyusecould,might,should,orwouldinthepurposeclause.AstrangerhadliftedPhilipuponhisshouldersothathecouldseebetter.Iboughtsixcowssothatwewouldhavesomemilktosell.Shewantedthemealreadyatsixsoshecouldgooutateight.Ordinary verbs are occasionally used instead of modals, especially innegativepurposeclauses.Makesureyougetplentyofrest,sothatyoudon’tfallasleepatwork.Sothatisalsousedinresultclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs8.55and8.56.

8.48 In formal or old-fashioned English, lest is sometimes used at thebeginningofapurposeclausetosaywhatanactionisintendedtoprevent.Forexample,Theybuiltastatueofhimlestpeopleshouldforgetwhathehad donemeans the same asThey built a statue of him so that peoplewouldnotforgetwhathehaddone.Hespokeinwhisperslesttheservantsshouldhearhim.Inclausesbeginningwithlest,youuseeitherthesubjunctiveoramodal.

Reasonclauses:…becauseIwantedtowin8.49 When you want to give the reason for something, you use a reason

clause.Hereisalistofthemainconjunctionsusedinreasonclauses:

asbecauseincasejustincasesince

8.50 Ifyouaresimplygivingthereasonforsomething,youusebecause,since,oras.Icouldn’tbeangrywithhimbecauseIlikedhimtoomuch.Ididn’tknowthatshewasmarried,sincesherarelytalkedaboutherself.Aswehadplentyoftime,wedecidedtogoforacoffee.

8.51 Youuseincaseorjustincasewhenyouarementioningapossiblefuturesituationwhich is someone’s reason for doing something. In the reasonclause,youusethepresentsimple.MrWoods,Iamherejustincaseanythingoutoftheordinaryhappens.Whenyouaretalkingaboutsomeone’sreasonfordoingsomethinginthepast,youusethepastsimpleinthereasonclause.Hedidnotsitdownincasehistrousersgotcreased.

8.52 Inthat,inasmuchas,insofaras,andtotheextentthatareusedtosaywhyastatementyouhavejustmadeistrue.Theseareformalexpressions.I’m inadifficultsituation in that Ihavebeenoffered two jobsand theybothsoundinteresting.Censorshipisineffectiveinasmuchasitdoesnotprotectanyone.Wearetraditionalinsofaraswewritetraditional-stylesongs,butwetryandwriteaboutmodernissues.Hefeelshimselftobedependenttotheextentthatheisnotfreetomakehisowndecisions.Inasmuch as is sometimes written as In as much as, and insofar as issometimeswrittenasinsofaras.

8.53 People sometimes use reason clauses beginningwith for or seeing that.For means the same as because. Its use in reason clauses is nowconsideredtobeold-fashioned.Ihesitate,forIamnotquitesureofmyfacts.

Seeingthatmeansthesameassince.Itisusedonlyininformalspeech.Seeingthatyou’retheguestonthislittletrip,Iwon’ttellyouwhatIthinkofyourbehaviourlastnight.Nowandnowthat areused to say that anewsituation is the reason forsomething.Clausesbeginningwithnowornowthataredealtwithastimeclauses.Theyareexplainedinparagraph8.18.

Resultclauses:I’lldriveyoutheresothatyouwon’tbelate8.54 When youwant to talk about the result of something, you use a result

clause.Resultclausesalwayscomeafterthemainclause.

8.55 Resultclausesusuallybeginwithsothat.Youcanusesothatsimplytosaywhattheresultofaneventorsituationwas.Mysuitcasehadbecomedamaged,sothatthelidwouldnotstayclosed.Astormhadbroughttheseaintothehouse,sothattheyhadbeenforcedtoescapebyawindow.There’s awindow above the bath so that when I’m relaxing here I canwatchthesky.So,andso,andandcanalsobeused.Shewashavinggreatdifficultygettinghercarout,andsoIhadtomovemycartoletherout.Hewasshotinthechestanddied.Withtheseresultclauses,youusuallyputacommaafterthemainclause.

8.56 You can also use so that to say that something is or was done in aparticularwaytoachieveadesiredresult.Forexample,HefixedthebellsothatitwouldringwhenanyonecameinmeansHe fixed the bell in such away that it would ringwhen anyonecamein.

Explainitsothata10-year-oldcouldunderstandit.Theyarrangedthingssothattheynevermet.Withtheseresultclauses,youdonotputacommaafterthemainclause.

8.57 So that is also used in purpose clauses. This use is explained inparagraph8.47.

USAGENOTE

8.58 Soandthatarealsousedinaspecialkindofstructuretosaythataresulthappensbecausesomethinghasaqualitytoaparticularextent,orbecausesomethingisdoneinanextremeway.In thesestructures,so isused in frontofanadjectiveoradverb.A that-clauseisthenadded.Thecrowdwassolargethatitoverflowedtheauditorium.Theyweresosurprisedtheydidn’ttrytostophim.Hedressedsoquicklythatheputhisbootsonthewrongfeet.Shehadfallendownsooftenthatshewascoveredinmud.Sometimes as is used instead of that. As is followed by a to-infinitiveclause.…smallbeachesofsandsowhiteastodazzletheeye.Ihopethatnobodywassostupidastogoaroundsayingthosethings.

8.59 Soandthatcanalsobeusedinthiswaywithmany,few,much,andlittle.We found so much to talk about that it was late at night when werememberedthetime.Thereweresomanychildrenyoucouldhardlygetintheroom.

USAGENOTE

8.60 Whentheverbinthemainclauseisbeorwhenanauxiliaryisused,thenormalorderofwordsisoftenchangedforgreateremphasis.Soisputatthebeginningofthesentence,followedbytheadjective,adverb,ornoun.Beortheauxiliaryisplacedinfrontofthesubject.Forexample, insteadofsayingTheroomwasso tiny thatyoucouldnotgetabedintoit,youcansaySotinywastheroomthatyoucouldnotgetabedintoit.

SosuccessfulhavetheybeenthattheyaremovingtoBondStreet.So rapid is the rate of progress that advance seems to be followingadvanceonalmostamonthlybasis.

8.61 Suchandthatarealsousedtosaythataresulthappensbecausesomethinghasaqualitytoaparticularextent.Youputsuch infrontofanoun,andthenaddathat-clause.Ifthenounisasingularcountablenoun,youputaoraninfrontofit.Islappedherhandandshegotsuchashockthatshedroppedthebag.Shewasinsuchpainthatshealmostcollapsed.Thesebirdshavesuchsmallwingsthattheycannotgetintotheair.

8.62 Such is sometimes used in a similar structure as an adjective with themeaningsogreat.Thethat-clausegoesimmediatelyafterit.Theextentof thedisasterwassuch that the localauthoritieswerequiteunabletocope.Sometimessuch isputat thebeginningofasentence, followedbybe,anoun phrase, and the that-clause. For example, instead of saying Herbeauty was such that they could only stare, you can saySuch was herbeautythattheycouldonlystare.Such is the power of suggestion thatwithin a very fewminutes she fellasleep.

8.63 Youcanalsousesuchasanadjective tosay thata result isobtainedbysomethingbeingofaparticularkind.Suchisfollowedbyathat-clauseorbyasandato-infinitiveclause.Thedangersaresuchthatanorganizedtourisamoresensibleoption.Conditionsinprisonshouldbesuchastolessenthechancesofprisonersreoffending.Youcanusetheexpressioninsuchawaytosaythataresultisobtainedby something being done in a particular way. It is followed by a that-clauseorbyasandato-infinitiveclause.Shehadbeentaughttobehaveinsuchawaythatherparentswouldhaveasquietalifeaspossible.Is it right that this high tax should be spent in such a way as to givebenefitmainlytothemotorist?

8.64 Youuseotherwise,else,ororelse to say that a resultof somethingnothappening or not being the case would be that something else wouldhappenorbethecase.For example, Give me back my money, otherwise I’ll ring the policemeansIfyoudon’tgivemebackmymoney,I’llringthepolice.IwantahouseI’lllike,otherwiseI’llgetdepressed.Imust have done somethingwrong, orelse theywouldn’t have keptmehere.

Concessiveclauses:Ilovebooks,althoughIdon’treadmuch8.65 Sometimesyouwanttomaketwostatements,oneofwhichcontrastswith

theotherormakes it seemsurprising.Youcanputboth statements intoonesentencebyusingaconcessiveclause.Hereisalistofconjunctionsusedinconcessiveclauses:

althoughdespiteevenifeventhoughexceptthatinspiteofmuchasnotthatthoughwhereaswhilewhilst

contrast

8.66 Ifyousimplywanttocontrasttwostatements,youusealthough,though,eventhough,orwhile.IusedtoreadalotalthoughIdon’tgetmuchtimeforbooksnow.ThoughhehaslivedforyearsinLondon,hewritesinGerman.

Iusedtolovelisteningtoher,eventhoughIcouldn’tunderstandwhatshesaid.WhileIdidwellinclass,Iwasapoorperformeratgames.Thefairlyformalwordswhilstandwhereascanalsobeused.Raspberrieshaveahairysurfacewhilstblackberrieshaveashinyskin.Toeverychild,adultapprovalmeanslove,whereasdisapprovalcancausestrongfeelingsofrejection.

WhilstisnotusedinAmericanEnglish.8.67 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingwhichisprobablytruedoesnotaffect

thetruthofsomethingelse,youuseevenif.All this is part of modern commercial life (even if it is an essentialactivity).He’sbeginningtobeadifferentperson,evenifhedoesn’trealizeit.Even if is also used in conditional clauses. This use is explained inparagraph8.39.

8.68 You can use not that instead of using although and a negative. Forexample,insteadofsayingIhavedecidedtoleave,althoughnoonewillmissme,youcansay Ihavedecided to leave,not thatanyonewillmissme.Clausesbeginningwithnotthatalwaysgoafteramainclause.He’sgotanewgirlfriend,notthatIcare.IthinkIlookedverychicfortheparty,notthatanyonenoticed.

exceptions

8.69 If youwant tomention an exception to a statement that you have justmade,youuseexceptthat.Shetreatsherdaughterthesameasheryoungerboyexceptthatshetakesherseveraltimesaweektoaspecialclinic.NobodysaidathingexceptthatoneortwoaskedmeifIwasbetter.Thiskindofclauseissometimescalledanexceptionclause.

USAGENOTE

8.70 Whenaclausebeginningwiththoughendswithalinkingverblikebeorseemandanounoranadjective(=acomplement),thecomplementcanbebroughtforwardtothebeginningoftheclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingThoughhewastired,heinsistedoncomingtothemeeting,youcansayTiredthoughhewas,heinsistedoncomingtothemeeting.Temptingthoughitmaybetodiscussthispoint,itisnotreallyrelevant.Ihadtoacceptthefact,improbablethoughitwas.Astute business man though he was, Philip was capable of makingmistakes.Whenthecomplementisanadjective,youcanuseasinsteadofthough.Stupidasitsounds,Ibelievedher.Whenaclausebeginningwiththoughendswithanadverb,youcanoftenputtheadverbatthebeginningoftheclause.Somemembersof staff couldn’thandleMurray’scondition,hard thoughtheytried.Whenyouaretalkingaboutastrongfeelingordesire,youcanusemuchas instead of although. For example, instead of sayingAlthough I likeVenice,Icouldn’tlivethereyoucansayMuchasIlikeVenice,Icouldn’tlivethere.Muchasheadmiredher,hehadnowishtomarryher.

-ingparticipleclauses

8.71 Although,though,while,andwhilstaresometimesusedin-ingparticipleclauses.Forexample, insteadofsayingWhilehelikedcats,heneverletthemcomeintohishouse,youcansayWhilelikingcats,heneverletthemcomeintohishouse.Whileacceptingtheimportanceoffreedomofspeech,Ibelieveitmustbeexercisedwithresponsibility.Despiteandinspiteofcanalsobeusedatthebeginningof-ingparticipleclauses.Despiteworkinghard,IfailedmyexamsmeansAlthoughIworkedhard,Ifailedmyexams.Sensible, interestedparents still playabigpart in their children’s lives,

despiteworkinglonghours.Wehadtwomoreyearsofprofitinspiteofpayinghigherwagesthanthepreviousowner.

8.72 Although, though, while, and whilst are also used in front of noun,adjective, and adverb phrases. For example, instead of sayingAlthoughshewasfondofGregory,shedidnotlovehim,youcansayAlthoughfondofGregory,shedidnotlovehim.Similarly,insteadofsayingTheyagreedto his proposal, though they had many reservations, you can say Theyagreedtohisproposal,thoughwithmanyreservations.Itwasanunequalmarriage,althoughastableandlong-lastingone.Thoughnotveryattractivephysically,shepossessedasenseofhumour.Theyhadfollowedhersuggestion,thoughwithoutmuchenthusiasm.Evenif,if,andalbeitcanalsobeusedinthisway.Albeitisaformalword.Other species have cognitive abilities, even if not as developed as ourown.…apleasant,ifunexciting,novel.Likemercury,leadaffectsthebrain,albeitindifferentways.

Placeclauses:Staywhereyouare8.73 Sometimes, when you want to talk about the location or position of

something,youneedtouseaclause.Thekindofclauseyouuseiscalledaplaceclause.

8.74 Placeclausesusuallybeginwithwhere.Hesaidhewashappywherehewas.Heleftitwhereitlay.Staywhereyouare.Whereisalsousedinrelativeclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs8.104to8.106.

8.75 InformalorliteraryEnglish,where-clausesaresometimesputinfrontofamainclause.WhereKatehadstoodlastnight,Maureennowstood.Wherethepinkcliffsroseoutofthegroundtherewereoftennarrowtrackswindingupwards.

8.76 Whenyouwant to say that something happens orwill happen in every

placewheresomethingelsehappens,youusewherever.Softfernsspreadacrossthegroundwherevertherewasenoughlight.InBali,whereveryougo,youcomeacrossceremonies.WhereverIlooked,Ifoundpatterns.Everywherecanbeusedinsteadofwherever.EverywhereIwent,peoplewereangryorsuspicious.

8.77 Where andwherever are sometimes used in front of adjectives such aspossibleandnecessary.Whentheyareusedlikethis,theymeanwhenorwhenever, rather than where. For a full explanation of this use, seeparagraph8.24.

Clausesofmanner:Idon’tknowwhyhebehavesashedoes8.78 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutsomeone’sbehaviourorthewaysomething

isdone,youuseaclauseofmanner.Hereisalistofconjunctionsusedinclausesofmanner:

asasthoughlikeasifjustasmuchas

Theway,inaway,andinthewayarealsousedinclausesofmannerinasimilarwaytoconjunctions.Theseexpressionsareoftenfollowedbythat.

sayinghowsomethingisdone

8.79 If you simply want to talk about someone’s behaviour or the waysomethingisdone,youuselike,as,theway,inaway,orintheway.Issheoftenrudeandcrosslikeshe’sbeenthislastmonth?Idon’tunderstandwhyhebehavesashedoes.IwasneverallowedtodothingsthewayIwantedtodothem.Hewaslookingatherinawayshedidnotrecognize.

Wehavetomakeitworkinthewaythatwewantitto.

makingcomparisons

8.80 Youcanalsousetheseexpressionstocomparethewaysomethingisdonewiththewaysomeoneorsomethingelsedoesit.Surelyyoudon’tintendtolivebyyourselflikeshedoes?Joycelookedatherthewayalotofgirlsdid.Ifyouwanttomakeastrongcomparison,youusejustas.Youcanthinkofhimandfeelproud,justasIdo.Ifyouwanttomakeafairlyweakcomparison,youusemuchas.Thesetanksspeedacrossthedesert,muchastheydidinWorldWarII.

8.81 You sometimes want to say that something is done in the way that itwouldbedoneifsomethingwerethecase.Youdothisbyusingasiforasthough.Youuseapasttenseintheclauseofmanner.Heholdshisheadforwardasifhehashitittoooftenonlowdoorways.Presidentscan’tdisposeofcompaniesasifpeopledidn’texist.I put some water on my clothes to make it look as though I had beensweating.Hebehavedasthoughitwasnothingtobeashamedof.Youalsouseas iforas though after linkingverbs such as feel or look.Youdothiswhenyouarecomparingsomeone’sfeelingsorappearancetothefeelingsorappearancetheywouldhaveifsomethingwerethecase.Shefeltasifshehadafever.Hishairlookedasifithadbeencombedwithhisfingers.Herpinkdressandherfrillyumbrellamadeherlookasthoughshehadcometoagardenparty.In formal English, were is sometimes used instead of was in clausesbeginningwithasiforasthough.Sheshookasifshewerecrying,butshemadenosound.IfeltasifIwerethecentreoftheuniverse.Youtalkasthoughhewerealreadydead.Youcanusejustinfrontofasiforasthoughforemphasis.

He shouldn’t have left her alone, just as if she was someone of noimportanceatall.

8.82 You can also use as if and as though in clauses that begin with a to-infinitiveoraparticiple.Forafewmoments,hesatasifstunned.Heranofftothehouseasifescaping.Heshookhisheadasthoughdazzledbyhisownvision.You can also use as if and as though in front of adjectives andprepositionalphrases.Onemustrowsteadilyonwardsasifintentonone’sownbusiness.Heshiveredasthoughwithcold.

Relativeclauses8.83 Whenyoumentionsomeoneorsomethinginasentence,youoftenwant

to give further information about them.Oneway to do this is to use arelativeclause.You put a relative clause immediately after the noun that refers to theperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout.Themanwhocameintotheroomwassmallandslender.OppositeisSt.Paul’sChurch,whereyoucanhearsomelovelymusic.Relative clauses have a similar function to adjectives, and they aresometimescalledadjectivalclauses.Nominalrelativeclauses,whichhaveasimilarfunctiontonounphrases,areexplainedinparagraphs8.112to8.116.

relativepronouns

8.84 Many relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun. The relativepronoun usually acts as the subject or object of the verb in the relativeclause.Heistheonlypersonwhomightbeabletohelp.Most of them have a job, which they take both for the money and thecompany.

Hereisalistofthemostcommonrelativepronouns:

thatwhichwhowhomwhose

Relativepronounsdonothavemasculine,feminine,orpluralforms.Thesame pronoun can be used to refer to a man, a woman, or a group ofpeople.Shedidn’trecognizethemanwhohadspoken.ImetagirlwhoknewMrsTownsend.Therearemanypeoplewhofindthisintolerable.Somerelativeclausesdonothavearelativepronoun.NearlyallthepeopleIusedtoknowhavegone.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs8.90,8.91,and8.96.

typesofrelativeclause

8.85 Therearetwotypesofrelativeclause.Some relative clauses explain which person or thing you are talkingabout.Forexample,ifyousayImetthewoman,itmightnotbeclearwhoyoumean,soyoumightsay,Imetthewomanwholivesnextdoor.Inthissentence,wholivesnextdooriscalledadefiningrelativeclause.Shortlyaftertheshooting,themanwhohaddoneitwasarrested.MooresvilleisthetownthatJohnDillingercamefrom.Other relative clauses give further information that is not needed toidentifytheperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout.Forexample,ifyousayIsawMileyCyrus,itisclearwhoyoumean.Butyoumightwantto add more information about Miley Cyrus, so you might say, forexample,IsawMileyCyrus,whowasstayingatthehotelopposite.Inthissentence,whowasstayingatthehotelopposite iscalledanon-definingrelativeclause.

Hewaswavingtothegirl,whowasrunningalongtheplatform.He walked down to Broadway, the main street of the town, which ranparalleltotheriver.Thistypeofrelativeclauseisusedmainlyinwritingratherthanspeech.Notethatyoucannotbeginanon-definingrelativeclausewiththat.

punctuation

8.86 Arelativeclausethatsimplygivesextrainformationusuallyhasacommainfrontofitandacommaafterit,unlessitisattheendofasentence,inwhichcaseyoujustputafullstop.Dashesaresometimesusedinsteadofcommas.Myson,whoisfour,lovesSpiderman.Youneverputacommaoradashinfrontofadefiningrelativeclause.Thewomanwhoownsthiscabinwillcomebackintheautumn.

useafterpronouns

8.87 Relative clauses that distinguish one noun from all others can be usedaftersomepronouns.They are used after indefinitepronouns such as someone,anyone, andeverything.ThisissomethingthatI’mveryproudof.Intheoryanyonewholivesorworksintheareamaybeatrisk.Wewanttothankeveryonewhosupportedusthroughthis.Theyaresometimesusedaftersome,many,much,several,all,orthose.LikemanywhomethimIwassooninlove.…thefeelingsofthosewhohavesufferedfromtheeffectsofcrime.Theycanalsobeusedafterpersonalpronouns,butonlyinformalorold-fashionedEnglish.Hewhoisnotforreformisagainstit.…wewhoaresupposedtobesogoodatwriting.

-ingparticipleclauses

8.88 Relativeclausescansometimesbereducedto-ingparticipleclauses.For example, instead of sayingGive it to the man who is wearing thesunglasses, you can say Give it to the man wearing the sunglasses.Similarly, insteadofsayingThebride,whowassmilinghappily,chattedto the guests, you can say The bride, smiling happily, chatted to theguests.These uses are explained in paragraphs 8.129 to 8.145. See alsoparagraphs2.300and2.301.

Usingrelativepronounsindefiningclauses8.89 The following paragraphs explain which pronouns you use indefining

relativeclauses.

referringtopeople

8.90 Whenyouare referring toapersonorgroupofpeople,youusewhoorthatasthesubjectofadefiningclause.Whoismorecommonthanthat.ThemanwhoemployedmewascalledTom.…thepeoplewholiveinthecottage.…somebodywhoisreallyill.…themanthatmadeit.Youusewho,that,orwhomastheobjectofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronounatall.…someonewhoIhaven’tseenforalongtime.…awomanthatIdislike.…distantrelativeswhomhehadneverseen.…amanIknow.Youusethatasthecomplementofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronoun.…thedistinguishedactressthatshelaterbecame.Littleisknownaboutthekindofpersonshewas.Afterasuperlative,youdonotusuallyuseapronoun.HewasthecleverestmanIeverknew.…thebestthingIeverdid.

Formoreinformationaboutsuperlativesseeparagraphs2.112to2.122.

referringtothings

8.91 Whenyouare referring toa thingorgroupof things,youusewhichorthatasthesubjectofadefiningclause.ThatismuchmorecommonthanwhichinAmericanEnglish.…pastawhichcamefromMilan.Weneedtounderstandthethingswhichareimportanttopeople.Therearealotofthingsthatarewrong.Youusewhichorthatastheobjectofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronoun.…shellswhichmysisterhadcollected.…theoxygenthatitneeds.…oneofthethingsI’llneverforget.Aftermuchorall,youusethat.Youdonotusewhich.Therewasnotmuchthatthemilitarymencoulddo.Happinessisallthatmatters.

Usingrelativepronounsinnon-definingclauses8.92 The following paragraphs explain which pronouns you use in non-

definingrelativeclauses.Theseclausescannotbeusedwithoutarelativepronoun.

referringtopeople

8.93 Whenyouarereferringtoapersonorgroupofpeople,youusewhoasthesubjectofanon-definingclause.HeathRobinson,whodiedin1944,wasagraphicartistandcartoonist.Thehorse’srider,whohasnotbeennamed,wastoodistressedtotalktopolice.Youusewhoorwhomastheobjectofanon-definingclause.Brian,whoIdonotlike,hadnoideahowtobehaveproperly.He then became involved in a row with the party chairman, whom heaccusedoflying.

referringtothings

8.94 Whenyouarereferringtoathingorgroupofthings,youusewhichasthesubjectorobjectofanon-definingclause.The treatment, which is being tried by researchers, has helped a largenumberofpatients.Thecompany,whichhasabout160shops,isinfinancialtrouble.Hewasamanofconsiderablewealth,whichhespentonhisexperiments.…thisoffer,whichfewcanresist.

Usingrelativepronounswithprepositions8.95 A relative pronoun can be the object of a preposition. Usually the

preposition goes towards the end of the clause, and not in front of thepronoun.…thejobwhichI’dbeentrainingfor.…theuniversethatwelivein.…thewomanwhoMullerlefthismoneyto.

nopronoun

8.96 Often,inordinaryspeech,nopronounisused.

AngelawastheonlypersonIcouldtalkto.…thatplaceIusedtogotolastterm.That’sallwehavetimeforthisweek.

indirectobjects

8.97 Whenarelativepronounistheindirectobjectofaverb,youusetoorfor.For example, you say theman that shewrote the letter to, not themanthatshewrotetheletter.…piecesofworkthatwegiveamarkto.Youalsousetoorforwhenthereisnorelativepronoun.…thegirlIsangthesongfor.

formaluse

8.98 InformalEnglish,theprepositioncangoatthebeginningofaclauseinfrontofwhomorwhich.ThesearethepeopletowhomCatherinewasreferring.…awomanfriendwithwhomRoseusedtogoforwalks.…questionstowhichtherewerenoanswers.Notehowever that you cannot put thepreposition at thebeginningof aclauseinfrontofwhoorthat.

phrasalverbs

8.99 If the verb in a relative clause is a phrasal verb ending with apreposition, you cannot move the preposition to the beginning of theclause.…allthethingsI’vehadtoputupwith.…thekindoflifehewaslookingforwardto.Thereareotherproblems,whichIdon’tproposetogointoatthemoment.

USAGENOTE

8.100 Wordssuchassome,many,andmostcanbeputinfrontofofwhomorofwhichatthebeginningofanon-definingrelativeclause.Attheschoolweweregreetedbytheteachers,mostofwhomwerewomen.It isa language sharedby severalquitediversecultures, eachofwhichusesitdifferently.Numberscanbeputbeforeorafterofwhom.Theyactmostlyonsuggestionsfrompresentmembers(fourofwhomarewomen).Therewere80patients,ofwhomonlyonedied.

Usingwhose8.101 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutsomethingrelatingtotheperson,thing,orgroup

youaretalkingabout,youusearelativeclausebeginningwithwhoseandanounornounphrase.Forexample,insteadofsayingIamwritingalettertoNigel.Hisfatherisill,youcansayIamwritingalettertoNigel,whosefatherisill.

Whosecanbeusedindefiningornon-definingclauses.…workerswhosebargainingpowerisweak.…anyonewhosecreditcardisstolen.Sheaskedfriendswhoseopinionsherespected.…acountrywhosepopulationwasgrowing.Theman,whose identitywas not released,was attackedat 10 p.m. lastnight.The noun afterwhose can be the subject or object of the verb in theclause, or it can be the object of a preposition. If it is the object of apreposition, the preposition can come at the beginning or end of theclause.…thegovernmentsinwhoseterritoriestheyoperate.…writerswhosecompanyhedidnotcarefor.

8.102 InwrittenEnglish,ofwhichandofwhomaresometimesused insteadofwhose.Youputtheseexpressionsafteranounphrasebeginningwiththe.Forexample, insteadofwritingatownwhoseinhabitantsspeakFrench,youcanwriteatowntheinhabitantsofwhichspeakFrench.…acompetitiontheresultsofwhichwillbeannouncedtoday.Itravelledinalorrythebackofwhichtheownerhadloadedwithyams.

Usingotherrelativepronouns8.103 Someotherwordsandexpressionscanbeusedasrelativepronouns.

non-definingclauses

8.104 When andwhere are used innon-definingclauses (that is, clauses thatsimplyaddextrainformation).Iwanttoseeyouat12o’clock,whenyougotoyourlunch.Myfavouriteholidaywasin2009,whenIwenttoJamaica.HecamefromBrighton,whereLisahadoncespentaholiday.Shetookthemupthestairstotheartroom,wherethebrushesandpaintshadbeensetout.

definingclauses

8.105 Whenandwherecanalsobeusedindefiningclauses(thatis,clausesthatdistinguish one noun from all others), but only when the clause isprecededbyaparticularkindofnoun.When-clausesmust be preceded by theword time or by the name of aperiodoftimesuchasdayoryear.Therewasatimewhenshethoughttheywerewonderful.Thisistheyearwhentheprofitsshouldstart.Where-clausesmustbeprecededby thewordplaceorby thenameofakindofplacesuchasroomorstreet.…theplacewheretheywork.…theroomwhereIdidmyhomework.…thestreetwheremygrandmotherhadlived.Note that place names such asChina areproper nouns and so do notneedtohavedefiningrelativeclausesafterthem.

8.106 Where can also be used in defining clauses after words such ascircumstances,point,situationandstage.Increasingpovertyhasledtoasituationwherethepoorestcannotaffordtohavechildren.Intimewereachedastagewherewehadmoremalereadersthanfemaleones.Therecomesapointwhereit’simpossibletoanswer.Compensation was sometimes granted even in circumstanceswhere noinjuryhadoccurred.

8.107 Whyisusedindefiningclausesafterthewordreason.Thatisamajorreasonwhytheyweresuchpoorcountries.Wherebyisusedindefiningclausesafterwordssuchasarrangementandsystem.…thenewsystemwherebyeveryonepaysafixedamount.Counselling is a process whereby the person concerned can learn tomanagetheemotionalrealitiesthatfacethem.

USAGENOTE

8.108 Other expressions can be used in defining clauses in place of when,

where,why,andwhereby.Aftertimeyoucanuseatwhichinsteadofwhen.…thetimeatwhichtheoriginalmineralwasformed.Afterplace,room,street,andwordssuchasyearandmonth,youcanuseinwhichinsteadofwhereorwhen.…theplaceinwhichtheyfoundthemselves.…theroominwhichthemeetingwouldbeheld.…theyearinwhichLloydGeorgelostpower.Afterdayyoucanuseonwhichinsteadofwhen.Sundaywasthedayonwhichwewereexpectedtospendsometimewithmyfather.Afterreasonyoucanusethatornopronouninsteadofwhy.…thereasonthatnon-violenceisconsideredtobeavirtue.That’sthereasonI’mcheckingitnow.Afterwordssuchassituation,stage,arrangement,orsystemyoucanuseinwhichinsteadofwhereorwhereby.…asituationinwhichthere’sarealpoliticalvacuum.

Additionalpointsaboutnon-definingrelativeclauses8.109 InwrittenEnglish,youcanuseanon-definingclause,thatis,aclausethat

simply gives extra information, to say that one event happened afteranother.For example, insteadof saying Igave thebook toGeorge.George thengave it toMary,youcansay Igave thebook toGeorge,whogave it toMary.Isoldmycartoagarage,whosoldittoacustomerattwicetheprice.Thehotwaterranontotheice,whichpromptlymelted.LaterhewenttoNewZealand,wherehebecameateacher.

commentingonafact

8.110 Youcanuseanon-definingclausebeginningwithwhichtosaysomethingabout thewhole situation described in amain clause, rather than about

someoneorsomethingmentionedinit.Thesecomputersneedonlytinyamountsofpower,whichmeansthattheywillrunonsmallbatteries.InevermetBrandoagain,whichwasapity.Beforetheexamshewasalittletense,whichwasunderstandable.

commentingonatimeorsituation

8.111 Whenyouwanttoaddsomethingtowhatyouhavesaid,yousometimesuse a non-defining clause beginning with a preposition, which, and anoun, to add extra information. The noun is often a word like time orpoint,oraverygeneralwordforasituationlikecaseorevent.Theyremain in thepouchforsomesevenweeks,bywhich time theyareabout10cmlong.Iwastoldmyworkwasnotgoodenough,atwhichpointIdecidedtogetanotherjob.Sometimesyoumay feel tooweak tocopewith things, inwhichcasedothemassoonasitisconvenient.

Nominalrelativeclauses:Whatyouneedis…8.112 Whenitisdifficulttorefertosomethingbyusinganounphrase,youcan

sometimesuseaspecialtypeofrelativeclausecalledanominalrelativeclause.Whathereallyneedsisanicecupoftea.Whatevershedoeswillaffectthewholefamily.

8.113 Nominal relative clauses that begin with what can be used.What canmeaneitherthethingthatorthethingsthat.Whathesaidwasperfectlytrue.Theydidnotlikewhathewrote.Ibelievethatisaverygoodaccountofwhathappened.I’mwhat’sgenerallycalledadustman.Peopleoftenuseawhat-clause in frontof isorwas tosaywhatkindofthingtheyareabouttomention.WhatIneedisalawyer.Whatyouhavetodoistochoosefivecompaniestoinvestin.

Thesestructuresareexplainedinparagraphs9.28to9.30.Foranotheruseofwhatinnominalrelativeclausesseeparagraph8.116.

8.114 Nominal relative clauses that beginwithwhere are usually used after aprepositionoraftertheverbbe.Wheremeanstheplacewhere.Icrossedtheroomtowhereshewassitting.HelivestwostreetsdownfromwhereMrSuttonworks.ThisiswhereIcrashedthecar.

8.115 Nominalrelativeclausesbeginningwithwhatever,whoever,orwhicheverareusedtorefertosomethingorsomeonethatisunknownorindefinite.Whatever is used only to refer to things.Whoever is used to refer topeople.Whicheverisusedtorefertoeitherthingsorpeople.Whatever,whoever,andwhichevercanbeusedaspronouns.Whicheverisoftenfollowedbyof.I’lldowhateveryouwant.IwanttodowhateverIcantohelpthem.You’llneedwrittenpermissionfromwhoeverisincharge.Peoplewillchoosewhicheverofthesesystemstheyfindsuitsthembest.Whateverandwhichevercanalsobeusedasdeterminers.Shehadhadtorelyonwhateverbookswerelyingaroundthere.Choosewhicheveroneofthethreemethodsyoufancy.For more information about whatever, whoever, and whichever seeparagraph8.42.

8.116 Whatcanbeusedwiththesamemeaningaswhatever,bothasapronounandadeterminer.Dowhatyoulike.Wegivewhathelpwecan.The main use of what in nominal relative clauses is explained inparagraph8.113.

Nominalthat-clauses8.117 Anominalthat-clauseisatypeofsubordinateclausethatfunctionslikea

noun,andis introducedby that.When this typeofclause isused tosay

what someonesaysor thinks (e.g.Shesaid (that) shewas leaving), thisgrammarreferstoitasareportedclause.Therearesomeverbsandadjectives,however,thatdonotrefertosayingor thinking, but that are followed by that-clauses because they refer toactionsrelatingtofacts:forexample,checkingorprovingfacts.Hecheckedthatbothreardoorsweresafelyshut.Researchwithanimalsshowsthatmaleswillmotheraninfantaswellasanyfemale.Hereisalistofverbsthatarenotverbsofspeechorthought,butcanbefollowedbyathat-clause:

arrangecheckdemonstratedetermineensureindicatepretendproverequirerevealshow

Notethatdeterminecanalsobeaverbofthought,andrevealcanalsobeaverbofspeech.Seeparagraphs7.30,7.38,and7.48.Arrangeandrequireareusedwitha that-clausecontainingamodalorasubjunctive.Arrangecanalsobeusedwithato-infinitive.TheyhadarrangedthatIwouldspendChristmaswiththem.They’darrangedtoleaveatfouro’clock.Demonstrate, prove, reveal, and show can also be followed by a clausebeginningwithawh-wordthatreferstoacircumstanceinvolvedinafact.Shetookthegunandshowedhowthecylinderslottedintothebarrel.Prove,require,andshowcanalsobeusedinthepassivefollowedbyato-

infinitive.NoplaceonEarthcanbeshowntobesafe.Ifyouwanttomentionanotherpersoninvolvedintheseactions,youcanput an object after show, use to after demonstrate, indicate, prove, andreveal,andusewithafterarrangeandcheck.The children’s attitude showed me that watching violence can affect achild’sbehaviour.ThisincidentprovedtomethatIancannotbetrusted.Shearrangedwiththeprincipalofherschooltotakesometimeoff.

8.118 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethinghappens,thatsomethingisthecase,orthat somethingbecomesknown,youcanusea that-clauseafterhappen,transpire,oremerge.Thesubjectofthemainclauseisimpersonalit.Itoftenhappensthatsomeoneasksforadviceanddoesnotgetit.Itjusthappenedthathehadaclientwhoratherlikedthatsortofthing.Ittranspiredthattherewasnotawordoftruthintheletter.Itemergedthat,duringtheafternoon,shehadgonehomeunwell.Notethatthethat-clausemustbeintroducedbythat.

adjectiveswithnominalthat-clauses:Iwasafraidthathewouldfall

8.119 Therearemanyadjectivesthatcanbefollowedbythat-clauseswhentheycomeafteralinkingverb,usuallybe.

mentioningthecauseofafeeling

8.120 Ifyouwanttosaywhatcausessomeonetohaveaparticularfeeling,youcanmention the cause of the feeling in a that-clause after an adjectivedescribingthefeeling.EverybodywassadthatshehadtoreturntoAmerica.IamconfidentthatIshallbeabletopersuadethemtogo.Iwasworriedthatshe’dsayno.Hereisalistofadjectivesdescribingfeelings:

afraid

angryanxiousconfidentfrightenedgladhappypleasedproudsadsorrysurprisedupsetworried

sayingwhatsomeoneknows

8.121 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneknowssomething,youcansaywhattheyknowinathat-clauseafteranadjectivesuchasawareorconscious.Hewasawarethathehadeatentoomuch.Sheisconsciousthatsomepeoplemightbeoffended.Hereisalistofadjectivesindicatingknowledge:

awarecertainconsciousconvincedpositivesureunaware

Awareisoccasionallyusedwithathat-clausebeginningwithawh-word.Noneofourstaffwereawarewhatwasgoingon.

commentingonafact

8.122 Ifyouwanttocommentonafact,youcanuseanadjectivedescribingthefactfollowedbya that-clause.Thelinkingverbhasimpersonal itas itssubject.Itwassadthatpeoplehadreactedinthewaytheydid.Itistruethattheauthorityofparliamenthasdeclined.It seems probable that theworld can go on producing enough food foreveryone.Hereisalistofadjectivesusedtocommentonfacts:

apparentappropriateawfulbadclearessentialevidentextraordinaryfairfunnygoodimportantinevitableinterestinglikelyluckynaturalobviousplainpossibleprobablesadtrueunlikely

Afterafewadjectives,aclausebeginningwithawh-wordcanbeused.It’sfunnyhowtheydon’tgeton.Itwasneverclearwhyshetookadifferentroutethatnight.Formoreinformation,seeparagraph9.43.

commentingonafactoridea

8.123 That-clausescanbeusedafterbetorefertoafactoridea.Thesubjectisusuallyoneofthenounslistedinparagraph7.86.Thefactisthatahappypersonmakesabetterworker.Theanswerissimplythattheyareinterestedindoingit.Themostfavouredexplanationwasthathewasfinallygettingtired.Ourhopeisthatthistimeallpartieswillcooperate.

8.124 In formal English, that-clauses are sometimes used as the subject of averb,whenpeoplewanttocommentonafact.Thatsheisnotstupidisself-evident.Thatheisatroubledmanisobvious.InlessformalEnglish,thefactplusathat-clauseisoftenusedasasubjectinsteadofasimplethat-clause.Thefactthatwhattheyaredoingisdangerousisnotimportanthere.Thefactthatyourbossisofferingtodoyourjobforyouworriesme.The normal way of commenting on a fact is to use an impersonal itstructure.Seeparagraph8.122.

8.125 People also use the fact plus a that-clause as the object of prepositionsandofverbsthatcannotbefollowedbyasimplethat-clause.Heisproudofthefactthatallhischildrenwenttouniversity.Wemissed the fact that the children were struggling to understand theexercise.

nominaluseofwh-clauses

8.126 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutsomethingthatisnotcertainordefinite,oraboutwhichachoicehastobemade,youcanuseclausesbeginningwithawh-wordorwhether,liketheclausesusedforreportedquestions.They

can be used after prepositions, and as the subject of verbs such as be,depend,andmatter.…thequestionofwhoshouldbePresident.Theteacherisuncertainaboutwhatshewantsstudentstodo.Whatyougetdependsonhowbadlyyouwereinjured.WhetherIwenttwiceornotdoesn’tmatter.Whetheryouthinktheyaregoodornotisnotimportant.

8.127 Structures consistingof awh-wordplus a to-infinitive,which refer to apossible course of action, are used after prepositions but not usually assubjects.…theproblemofwhattotelltheadoptedchild.…abookonhowtoavoidhavingaheartattack.Peopleareworriedabouthowtofilltheirincreasedleisuretime.

BECAREFUL

8.128 Notethatif-clauses,whichareusedforreportedquestions,cannotbeusedafterprepositionsorasthesubjectofaverb.

Non-finiteclauses8.129 Anon-finiteclauseisasubordinateclausethatcontainsaparticipleoran

infinitive,andthatdoesnotcontainastatedsubject.There are two types of non-finite clause. One type begins with asubordinatingconjunction.Shefaintedwhilegivingevidenceincourt.You’vegottodosomethingindepthinordertounderstandit.This type of clause is dealt with in the sections on adverbial clauses(paragraphs8.6to8.82).Theother typeof non-finite clause does not beginwith a subordinatingconjunction.Heprancedabout,feelingveryimportantindeed.Iwantedtotalktoher.Thistypeofclausesometimesconsistsofaparticipleandnothingelse.

Ellenshookherhead,smiling.Rosie,grumbling,hadgonetoherpianolesson.Clauses that contain a participle and do not beginwith a subordinatingconjunctionareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.

typesofnon-finiteclause

8.130 Thenon-finiteclausesdiscussedinthissectionworkinasimilarwaytorelative clauses, and, like relative clauses, they may be used fordistinguishing a noun from others or they may simply add extrainformation.Some clauses simply add extra information. These are called non-definingclauses.Theyaredealtwithinparagraphs8.132to8.143.Theseclauses are often used in writing, but are not usually used in spokenEnglish.Others areused todistinguishanoun fromall otherpossibilities.Thesearecalleddefiningclauses.Theyaredealtwithinparagraphs8.144and8.145. These clauses are occasionally used in both written and spokenEnglish.

positionofnon-definingclauses

8.131 Non-definingclausescangoinfrontofamainclause,afteramainclause,or in themiddleofone.Anon-definingclause isusuallyseparatedbyacommafromthewordsinfrontofitandafterit.

Usingnon-definingclauses8.132 Non-defining clauses give further information that is not needed to

identifytheperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout.The following paragraphs 8.133 to 8.138 explain how these clauses areusedwhen they relate to the subject of the verb in amain clause. Thesubjectisnotmentionedinthenon-definingclause.

-ingparticiple:eventshappeningatthesametime

8.133 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneisdoingorexperiencingtwothingsatthesametime,youmentiononeoftheminthemainclauseandtheotherina

clausecontainingan-ingparticiple.

Laughingandshrieking,thecrowdrushedunderthenearesttrees.Janewatched,weeping,fromthedoorway.Feelingalittlefoolish,Pluskathungup.Walkingabout,younoticesomethingisdifferent.People stared at her. Seeing herself in a shop window, she couldunderstandwhy.

BECAREFUL

Notethatthe-ingparticipleshouldalwaysdescribeanactionperformedby the subject of the main part of the sentence. So, for example, youshouldnotsayGoingtoschool,itstartedtorain.Instead,youshouldsayGoingtoschool,Inoticedthatithadstartedtorain.

-ingparticiple:oneactionafteranother

8.134 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonedidonethingimmediatelyafteranother,youmentionthefirstactioninaclausecontainingan-ingparticipleandthesecondoneinthemainclause.Leaping out of bed, he dressed so quickly that he put his boots on thewrongfeet.

-ingparticiple:reasons

8.135 Ifyouwant toexplainwhysomeonedoessomethingorwhysomethinghappens,yousaywhathappensinthemainclauseandgivethereasoninaclausecontainingan-ingparticiple.AtonepointIdecidedtogoandtalk toUncleSam.ThenIchangedmymind,realisingthathecoulddonothingtohelp.Thepuppywouldprobablynot live togrowup,beinga tiny,weak littlething.

8.136 Youcanalsousean-ingparticipledirectlyafteraverbinasentencesuchas Istoodshiveringat theroadside.Thisuse isexplained inparagraphs3.189to3.201.

havingand-edparticiple:results

8.137 If you want to say that someone did or experienced one thing beforeanother,youmentionthefirstthinginaclausecontaininghavingandan-edparticiple.Oftenthiskindofconstructionshowsthatthesecondeventwasaresultofthefirstone.Ididnotfeelterriblyshocked,havingexpectedhimtotaketheeasiestwayout.Havingadmittedhewaswrong,myhusbandsuddenlyfellsilent.

-edparticiple:earlierevents

8.138 If you want to say what happened to someone or something before asituationoreventdescribedinthemainclause,yousaywhathappenedinaclausecontainingan-edparticipleonitsown.Angered by the policies of the union, shewrote a letter to theGeneralSecretary.

mentioningthesubject

8.139 Sometimes you want to use a non-defining clause that has a differentsubjectfromthesubjectofthemainclause.Theseclausesareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs8.140to8.143.

8.140 In this kind of non-defining clause, you usually have to mention thesubject.Jackbeinggone,Stephenopenedhissecondletter.However,ifthenon-definingclausecomesafterthemainclause,anditisclearfromthecontextthatitrelatestotheobjectofthemainclause,youdonotneedtomentiontheobjectagain.Theypickedmeup,kickingandscreaming,andcarriedmeuptotheroad.

-ingparticiple

8.141 Youuseanon-definingclausecontainingasubjectandan-ingparticiple:when youwant tomention something that is happening at the same

timeastheeventorsituationdescribedinthemainclauseTheembarrassedyoungmanstaredatme,hisfacereddening.

whenyouwanttomentionafactthatisrelevanttothefactstatedinthemainclause.Batsaresurprisinglylong-livedcreatures,somehavingalife-expectancyofaroundtwentyyears.Withissometimesaddedatthebeginningofthenon-finiteclause.Theoldmanstoodupwithtearsrunningdownhisface.

-edparticiple

8.142 Youusehavingandan-edparticipletomentionsomethingthathappenedbeforethethingdescribedinthemainclause.Theargumenthavingfinished,MrLucaswasreadytoleave.Georgehavinggonetobed,Mickhadstartedwatchingamovie.Thequestionhavingbeenasked,hehadtodealwithit.Youusean -ed participleon itsown to say that somethingwasdoneorcompletedbeforetheeventorsituationdescribedinthemainclause.Heproceededtolighthispipe.Thatdone,heputonhiswoollenscarfandwentout.

USAGENOTE

8.143 Inanegativenon-definingclause,youputnotinfrontoftheparticiple,orinfrontofhaving.Hepaused,notwishingtoboast.Hedidn’trecognizeheratfirst,nothavingseenherforfifteenyearsorso.Hebegantoshout,theirreplynothavingcomeasquicklyashewanted.

Usingdefiningclauses8.144 Defining non-finite clauses explain which person or thing you are

talkingabout.Theyarealwaysplacedafterthenouninanounphrase.Theoldladydrivingthehorsewasdressedinblack.Thebuscarryingthemusiciansarrivedjustbeforenoon.

useafterpronouns

8.145 Definingclausescanbeusedafterindefinitepronounssuchasanyone.

Anyonefollowingthisadvicecouldgetintrouble.Askanybodynearingtheageofretirementwhattheythink.

Otherstructuresusedlikenon-finiteclauses8.146 Phrases that do not contain a verb are sometimes used in writing in a

similarwaytonon-finiteclauses.8.147 Inwriting,youcanaddaphrasecontainingoneormoreadjectives toa

sentence.Thisisanotherwayofmakingtwostatementsinonesentence.Forexample,insteadofwritingWeweretiredandhungry.Wereachedthefarm,youcouldwriteTiredandhungry,wereachedthefarm.Surprisedatmyreaction,shetriedtoconsoleme.Muchdiscouraged,ImovedontoPhiladelphia.Theboynodded,paleandscared.Heknockedatthedoor,sickwithfear.Ofcourse,saidAlison,astonished.

8.148 In a similar way, you can use a phrase to describe something that isconnectedwiththesubjectofasentence.Thephraseconsistsofanoun,followedbyanadjective,anadverbial,oranothernoun.Forexample,insteadofwritingHecameintotheroom.Hishatwasinhishand,youcouldwriteHecameintotheroom,hishatinhishand.Whatdoyoumeanbythat?saidHugh,hisfacepale.Shestoodverystraight,herbodyabsolutelystiffwithfury.Hewaswaiting,drummingwithhisfingers,hiseyesonhisnapkin.Withissometimesaddedatthebeginningofaphrase.Shewalkedon,withhereyesstraightahead.Itwasahot,calmday,witheveryobjectvisibleformiles.

Linkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether8.149 Whenyousayorwritesomething,youoftenwanttoputtogethertwoor

moreclausesofequal importance.Youdo thisbyusingacoordinatingconjunction.AnnahadtogointotownandshewantedtogotoBrideStreet.IaskedifIcouldborrowherbicyclebutsherefused.

Hewasagreatplayer,yetheneverplayedforIreland.Hereisalistofthemostcommoncoordinatingconjunctions:

andbutnororthenyet

Coordinatingconjunctionsarealsousedtolinkwordsandphrases.Theboysshoutedandrushedforward.…domesticanimalssuchasdogsandcats.Hermannerwashurriedyetpolite.Shespokeslowlybutfirmly.Sometimescoordinatingconjunctionsareusedtogether.Thesoftwareisquitesophisticatedandyeteasytouse.Ericmoanedsomethingandthenlaystill.Thelinkingofclauses,words,orphrasesusingcoordinatingconjunctionsis calledcoordination. Coordinating conjunctions are sometimes calledcoordinators.

8.150 The different uses of coordinating conjunctions are explained in thefollowingparagraphs:

clauses paragraphs8.151to8.163verbs paragraphs8.164to8.170nounphrases paragraphs8.171to8.179adjectivesandadverbs paragraphs8.180to8.189otherwordsandphrases paragraphs8.190to8.193

Ways of emphasizing coordinating conjunctions are described inparagraphs8.194to8.199.The linkingofmore than twoclauses,words,orphrases isexplained inparagraphs8.200and8.201.

Linkingclauses8.151 Youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctiontolinkclausesthathavethesame

subject,orclausesthathavedifferentsubjects.

omittingwordsinthesecondclause

8.152 When you link clauses that have the same subject, you do not alwaysneedtorepeatthesubjectinthesecondclause.If the conjunction is and, or, or then, you do not usually repeat thesubject.Ipickeduptheglassandraisedittomylips.It’salongtimesinceyou’veboughtthemadrinkortalkedtothem.WhensherecognizedMorrisshewentpale,thenblushed.Iftheconjunctionisbut,so,oryet,itisusualtorepeatthesubject.Itryandseeittheirway,butIcan’t.Ihadnocar,soIhiredoneforthejourney.Helostthefight,yetsomehowheemergedwithhisdignity.When you link clauses that have different subjects but that have somecommon elements, you do not need to repeat all the elements in thesecondclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingSomeofthemwenttoonerestaurantandsomeofthemwenttotheotherrestaurant,youcansaySomeofthemwenttoonerestaurantandsometotheother.Onesoldierwaskilledandanotherwounded.Onesidewaspaintedblackandtheotherwhite.

functionsofcoordinatingconjunctions

8.153 Acoordinatingconjunctioncanbeusedsimply to linkclauses,or itcanbeused in addition to indicate a relationship between them.These usesareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.

relatedfacts

8.154 Ifyousimplywanttomentiontworelatedfacts,youuseand.

HehasbeensuccessfulinHollywoodandhasworkedwithsuchdirectorsasMikeLeighandRichardAttenborough.ThecompanywillnotcloseandwillcontinuetooperatefromBelfast.HegainedaBinEnglishandnowplanstostudylanguages.Youalsouseand toshow that two thingshappenedorarehappeningatthesametime.Isatandwatchedhim.Otherusesofandareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.

sequence

8.155 Ifyouuseandbetweentwoclausesthatdescribeevents,youaresayingthattheeventdescribedinthefirstclausehappensorhappenedbeforetheeventdescribedinthesecondone.ShewasborninBudapestandraisedinManhattan.Heopenedthecardoorandgotout.Thencanbeusedinthesameway,butitislesscommon.Wefinishedourdrinksthenleft.

twonegativefacts

8.156 Whenyouwanttolinktwonegativeclauses,youusuallyuseand.When his contract ended he did not return home and he has not beentheresince1979.However,youcanuseorwhentheclauseshavethesamesubjectandthesame auxiliaries. In the second clause, you omit the subject, theauxiliaries,andnot.Forexample, insteadofsayingShedoesn’teatmeatandshedoesn’teatfish,youcansayShedoesn’teatmeatorfish.Wewillnotdamageordestroythesamples.Hedidn’tyellorscream.Youcanalsolinknegativeclausesbyusingandneither,andnor,ornor.Youputbeortheauxiliaryatthebeginningofthesecondclause,infrontofthesubject.

Forexample,insteadofsayingMysisterdoesn’tlikehim,andIdon’tlikehim,youcansayMysisterdoesn’tlikehim,andneitherdoI.Iwasnothappyandneitherwerethey.IcouldnotaffordtoeatinrestaurantsandnorcouldanyoneelseIknew.Thesepeoplearenotcrazy,noraretheyfools.Butneitherandbutnorcanalsobeused.Thisisn’tagreatmovie,butneitherisitrubbish.Idon’twanttomarryhimbutnordoIwantanyoneelseto.When you use and to link two negative statements, you can put eitherafterthesecondstatement.Ihadn’tbeentoarockfestivalbeforeandMikehadn’teither.Electricitydidn’tcomeintoBlackballFarmuntilrecentlyandtheyhadn’tanyhotwatereither.Foremphasis,youcanjointwonegativeclausesbyusingneitherandnor.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph8.198.

contrast

8.157 Whenyouareaddingacontrastingfact,youusuallyusebut.I’monly63,butIfeelahundred.Itcostsquitealotbutit’sworthit.I’vehadaverypleasanttwoyears,butIcan’twaittogetbacktothecity.Ifyouwanttoaddafactthatcontrastsstronglywithwhatyouhavejustsaid,youuseyetorandyet.Everythingaroundhimwasdestroyed,yettheministerescapedwithoutascratch.Iwanttoleave,andyetIfeelIshouldtostay.Youusuallyputacommainfrontofbut,yet,orandyet.

alternatives

8.158 Whenyouwanttomentiontwoalternatives,youuseor.Wecouldtakeapicnicorwecouldfindarestaurantwhenwe’reout.Didhejump,orwashepushed?

USAGENOTE

8.159 Whenyouaregivingadvice,yousometimeswant to tell someonewhatwill happen if they do a particular thing. You do this by using animperative clause, followed byand and a clause containing a verb in aformthatexpressesfuturetime.Forexample,insteadofsayingIfyougobytrain,you’llgettherequicker,youcansayGobytrainandyou’llgettherequicker.Doasyouaretoldandyou’llbealright.Youspeaktomeagainlikethatandyou’regoingtobeinserioustrouble.Whenyouaregivingadvice,awarning,oranorder,yousometimeswanttotellsomeonewhatwillhappeniftheydonotdowhatyousay.Youdothisbyusinganimperativeclause,followedbyorandaclausecontainingaverbinaformthatexpressesfuturetime.For example, instead of saying Go away! If you don’t go away, I’llscream,youcansayGoaway,orI’llscream.Hurryup,oryou’regoingtobelateforschool.Don’tfightoryou’llgethurt.

USAGENOTE

8.160 In writing, you can sometimes begin a sentence with a coordinatingconjunction. You do this to make the sentence seemmore dramatic orforceful.Somepeoplethinkthisuseisincorrect.The villagers had become accustomed to minor earth tremors. ButeveryoneknewthatsomethingunusualhadwokenthemonMonday.Doyouthinkthereissomethingwrongwithher?Ordoyoujustnotlikeher?Gonow.Andclosethatdoor.

USAGENOTE

8.161 Sometimes,inwriting,twoclausescanbemadeintoonesentencewithoutacoordinatingconjunctionbeingused.Instead,asemicolonoradash isput between the clauses. This is away of expressing two statements inone sentence when no particular coordinating conjunction seems

appropriate.Theneighboursdroveby;theycouldn’tbeartolook.Icouldn’tsaythankyou–thosewordswerefartoosmallforsomeonewhohadriskedherlifetosavemine.

non-finiteclauses

8.162 Coordinatingconjunctionscanbeusedtolinknon-finiteclauses.To-infinitiveclausescanbelinkedbyandoror.Weneed topersuadedrivers to leave their carsathomeand touse thetraininstead.Shemaydecidetoremarryortolivewithoneofhersisters.Sometimesthesecondtoisomitted.Theytriedtocleartheroadandremovediscardedobjects.Whenthesecondclauseisnegative,youcanusenotinsteadofandnot.Iampaidtotreatpeople,nottointerrogatethem.Clausesbeginningwithaparticiplecanbelinkedbyandoror.Shelayonthebedgazingatthechildandsmilingathim.Youmaybemorecomfortablewearingacottondressorshirtorsleepingunderacottonblanket.However,ifthefirstclausebeginswithstanding,sitting,orlying,youdonotusuallyputandbetweentheclauses.Insideweretwolinesofoldpeoplesittingfacingeachother.

8.163 For information on how to coordinate more than two clauses, seeparagraph8.200.

Linkingverbstogether8.164 Whenyouare talkingabout twoactionsperformedby the sameperson,

thing,orgroup,youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctiontolinktwoverbs.

intransitiveverbs

8.165 Coordinatingconjunctionscanbeusedtolinkintransitiveverbs.

Mostly,theyjustsatandchatted.Webothshruggedandlaughed.

transitiveverbs

8.166 Whenyouaredescribingactions involving thesamesubjectandobject,you can link two transitive verbs. You put the object after the secondverbonly.Forexample,insteadofsayingHesweptthefloorandpolishedthefloor,yousayHesweptandpolishedthefloor.Washandtrimtheleeks.Similarly,insteadofsayingTheywalktoworkorcycletowork,youcansayTheywalkorcycletowork.Ishoutedandwavedatthem.

leavingouttheauxiliary

8.167 Whenyouarelinkingverbphrasesthatcontainthesameauxiliary,youdonotneedtorepeattheauxiliaryinthesecondclause.Someonemaybekilledorseriouslyinjured.Nowheispraisedratherthancriticized.He knewa lot about horses, having livedandworkedwith themall hislife.

emphasizingrepetitionorduration

8.168 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonedoessomethingrepeatedlyorforalongtime,youcanuseandtolinktwoidenticalverbs.Theylaughedandlaughed.Hetriedandtried,butintheendhehadtogiveup.

USAGENOTE

8.169 Ininformalspeech,and isoftenusedbetweentryandanotherverb.Forexample,someonemightsayI’lltryandgetanewspaper.However,thismeansthesameasI’lltrytogetanewspaper.

Formoreinformationaboutthisuseseeparagraph3.200.8.170 Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwoverbs,seeparagraph

8.200.

Linkingnounphrases8.171 When you are talking about two people or things, you can use a

coordinatingconjunctiontolinktwonounphrases.8.172 Insimplestatementsabouttwopeopleorthings,youuseand.

Thereweremenandwomenworkinginthefields.I’llgiveyouanicecupofteaandabiscuit.…afriendshipbetweenaboyandagirl.Insteadofandnot,youusenotwithacommainfrontofit.Ipreferromanticcomedies,notactionmovies.Ifbothpeopleorthingsaretheobjectoftheverbinanegativesentence,youuseor.Wedidn’tplaycricketorfootball.

alternatives

8.173 Whenyouaregivingalternatives,youuseor.Servefruitorcheeseafterwards.Doyouhaveanybrothersorsisters?

omittingdeterminers

8.174 When you refer to two people or things using and or or, you usuallyrepeatthedeterminer.Hewasholdingasuitcaseandabirdcage.However,ifthepeopleorthingsarecloselyassociatedinsomeway,youdonotneedtorepeatthedeterminer.Mymotherandfatherworkedhard.Thejacketandskirtwereskilfullydesigned.…amaninasuitandtie.Sometimesbothdeterminersareomitted.

Motherandbabyaredoingwell.Allthishadofcoursebeendiscussedbetweenhusbandandwife.

referringtoonepersonorthing

8.175 Youcan sometimesusenounphrases linkedbyand to refer to just onepersonorthing.He’saracistandasexist.…thenovelistandplaywright,SomersetMaugham.

omittingadjectives

8.176 Whenyouare linking twonouns, anadjective in frontof the firstnounusuallyappliestobothnouns.…theyoungmenandwomenofAmerica.…ahousecrammedwithbeautifulfurnitureandchina.

verbagreement

8.177 Whenthesubjectofaclauseconsistsoftwoormorenounslinkedbyand,youuseapluralverb.Mymotherandfatherareill.Time,moneyandeffortwereneeded.However, you do not use a plural verb if the nouns refer to the samepersonorthing.ThewriterandfilmmakerMichaelHeydisagrees.Youalsodonotuseapluralverbwithuncountablenounsprecededbyall,orwithsingularcountablenounsprecededbyeachorevery.Allthiseffortandsacrificehasnothelpedtoalleviatepoverty.It became necessary to involve every man, woman and child who waswillingtohelp.When you link two ormore nounswithor, you use a plural verb afterplural nouns, and a singular verb after singular nouns or uncountablenouns.Onegeneration’sproblemsorsuccessesarepassedtothenext.

CanyousayNotoafriendorrelativewhowantstoinsist?When you link two or more nouns with or, and the nouns would takedifferent verb forms if theywere used alone, a plural verb is generallyused.It’sfineifyourparentsorbrotherwanttocome.

linkingpronounstogether

8.178 Youcanputand,or,ornot between a pronoun and a noun, or betweentwopronouns.HowardandIareplanningaparty.SheandIhaveaverygoodrelationship.DoyouoryourpartnerspeakGerman?I’mtalkingtoyou,nother.Whenyou say somethingaboutyourself and someoneelse, youusuallyput the pronoun or noun referring to the other person first, and thepronounreferringtoyourselfsecond.MysisterandIlivedtotallydifferentkindsoflives.YouandImusthaveatalktogether.…adifferenceofopinionbetweenJohnandme.ThefirstpeopletohearweretheForeignSecretaryandmyself.

8.179 For informationonhow to coordinatemore than twonounphrases, seeparagraph8.200.

Linkingadjectivesandadverbs8.180 When you use two adjectives to describe someone or something, you

sometimes put a conjunction between them. This is explained in thefollowing paragraphs 8.181 to 8.187. Conjunctions are also sometimesplacedbetweenadverbs.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.188.

qualitativeadjectives

8.181 Whenyouputtwoqualitativeadjectivesinfrontofanoun,youputandoracommabetweentheadjectives.…anintelligentandambitiouswoman.

…anintelligent,generousman.

colouradjectives

8.182 When you put two colour adjectives in front of a noun, you put andbetweenthem.…ablackandwhiteswimmingsuit.

classifyingadjectives

8.183 Whenyouputtwoclassifyingadjectivesinfrontofanoun,youhavetodecidewhethertheadjectivesrelatetothesamesystemofclassificationortodifferentsystems.For example, geographical and geological relate to the same system;Britishandindustrialrelatetodifferentsystems.When you put two classifying adjectives in front of a noun, and theadjectives relate to the same classifying system, you put and betweenthem.…asocialandeducationaldilemma.Whentheadjectivesrelatetodifferentclassifyingsystems,youdonotputandbetweenthem,oruseacomma.…theFrenchclassicalpianistsKatiaandMarielleLabeque.…medievalMuslimphilosophers.…asquarewoodentable.…Americanagriculturalexports.

differenttypesofadjective

8.184 When you put two adjectives of different types in front of a noun, forexampleaqualitativeadjectiveandaclassifyingadjective,youdonotputandbetweenthemoruseacomma.…alargecircularpoolofwater.…abeautifulpinksuit.…rapidtechnologicaladvance.

adjectiveswithpluralnouns

8.185 When you put two adjectives in front of a plural noun in order to talkabout twogroupsof things thathavedifferentoroppositequalities,youputandbetweentheadjectives.…businesspeoplefromlargeandsmallcompanies.…EuropeanandAmericantraditions.

adjectivesafterverbs

8.186 Whenyouusetwoadjectivesafteralinkingverb,youputandbetweenthem.MrsScott’shousewaslargeandimposing.Theroomwaslargeandsquare.Onthispointwecanbeclearandprecise.

usingotherconjunctions

8.187 Youcanalsoputbut,yet,ororbetweenadjectives.Whenyoulinkcontrastingadjectives,youputbutoryetbetweenthem.…asmallbutcomfortablehotel.Wearepoorbuthappy.…afirmyetgentlehand.Whenyouwanttosaythateitheroftwoadjectivescouldapply,ortoaskwhichadjectiveapplies,youuseor.Youcanuseredorblackpaint.Callmeifyoufeellonelyorbored.Isthisgoodorbad?Ifyouwanttosaythatneitheroftwoadjectivesapplies,youuseor inanegativesentence.Hewasnotexcitingorgood-looking.Another way of saying that neither of two adjectives applies is to putneitherinfrontofthefirstoneandnorinfrontofthesecondone.Heisneitheryoungnorhandsome.Theirdietisneitherhealthynorvaried.

linkingadverbstogether

8.188 Youcanputandbetweenadverbs.Marywasbreathingquietlyandevenly.Wehavetokeepairportsrunningsmoothlyandefficiently.Theywalkupanddown,smiling.Whenyoulinkcontrastingadverbs,youputbutoryetbetweenthem.Quicklybutsilentlyshedartedoutofthecell.Ifyouwanttosaythatneitheroftwoadverbsapplies,youuseanegativesentencewithorbetween theadverbs,oryouputneither in frontof thefirstadverbandnorinfrontofthesecondone.Givingbirthdoesnothappeneasilyorpainlessly.Thestoryendsneitherhappilynorunhappily.

8.189 For information on how to coordinate more than two adjectives, seeparagraph8.201.

Linkingotherwordsandphrases8.190 Coordinating conjunctions can also be used to link prepositions,

prepositionalphrases,modifiers,anddeterminers.

linkingprepositionstogether

8.191 Youcanuseandtolinkprepositionsthatapplytothesamenoun.Weseethemontheirwaytoandfromschool.Youshouldtakethetabletsduringandafteryourvisit.

linkingprepositionalphrasestogether

8.192 Youcanuseand tolinkprepositionalphraseswhenyouaredescribingsimilaractions,situations,orthings.Theywalkedacrossthelawnanddownthegardenpath.Theyhadcrumbsaroundtheirmouthsandundertheirchins.However,ifthephrasesdescribethesameaction,situation,orthing,youdonotputandbetweenthem.Herhusbandwashitovertheheadwithamallet.

Theywalkeddownthedrivebetweenthechestnuttrees.…amanofaboutfortywithwidestaringeyes.

linkingmodifiersanddeterminerstogether

8.193 Youcanuseandorortolinkmodifiers.…thelargestfridgeandfreezermanufacturerinGermany.Thiswouldnotapplytoacoaloroilsupplier.Youcanuseortolinkthedeterminershisandher.Yourchild’sschoolwillplayanimportantpartinshapingtherestofhisorherlife.

Emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.194 When you are using coordinating conjunctions, you sometimeswant to

emphasizethatwhatyouaresayingappliestoboththewordsorphraseslinkedbytheconjunction.Youusuallydothisbyputtingawordsuchasbothorneitherinfrontofthefirstwordorphrase.

8.195 Whenyouareusingand,themostcommonwayofemphasizingthatwhatyouare sayingapplies to twophrases is toputboth in frontof the firstphrase.BythattimebothRobinandDrewwereoverseas.Theyfeelbothanxietyandjoy.Theseheadlinesbothmystifiedandinfuriatedhim.Investmentcontinuesbothathomeandabroad.Themedicineisbothexpensiveandingreatdemand.Anotherwayistouseandalsoinsteadofand.Wilkinsdroveracingcarshimselfandalsoracedpowerboats.Thejobofthelibraryistogetbookstopeopleandalsotogetinformationtothem.

8.196 Forstrongeremphasis,youcanputnotonlyornotjustinfrontofthefirstwordorphrase,andbutorbutalsobetweenthetwowordsorphrases.Theteamisplayingreallywell,notonlyinEnglandbutnowinEurope.Employersneedtothinkmoreseriouslynotonlyofattractingstaffbutofkeepingthem.

8.197 Whenyouareusingor,themostcommonwayofemphasizingthatwhatyouaresayingappliestotwowordsorphrasesistoputeitherinfrontofthefirstwordorphrase.Sentencescanbeeithertrueorfalse.Youcaneitherbuyaspecialinsecticideorgethelpfromanexpert.EitherMargaretorJohnshouldcertainlyhavecometoseemebynow.Eitherweraisemoneyfromoutsideorweclosepartofthemuseum.Whenyouarelinkingclausesinthisway,youcanuseorelse,insteadofor.Theyshouldeitherformallychargethemenorelseletthemgo.

8.198 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatanegativestatementappliestotwowordsorphrases,youputneitherinfrontofthefirstwordorphraseandnorinfrontofthesecondwordorphrase.Forexample,insteadofsayingThegirldidnotspeakorlookup,yousayThegirlneitherspokenorlookedup.Thethoughtneitherupsetnordelightedher.Shehadneitherreceivednorreadtheletter.NeitherMargaretnorJohnwasthere.Notethatyouuseasingularverbaftersingularnounphrasesandapluralverbafterpluralnounphrases.NeitherBelindanoranyoneelsewasgoingtospeak.Neither city councils nor wealthy manufacturers have much need ofpaintersorsculptors.

8.199 Sometimes youwant to draw attention to an element of a sentence bycontrastingitwithsomethingdifferent.Onewaytodothis is tolinkthetwoelementsbyputtingbutbetweenthem.Youputnotinfrontofthefirstelement.Iwasn’t smiling,notbecause Iwasangrybutbecause itwaspainful tomovemyface.Ifeltnotjoybutsadness.Theuprightchairswerenotpolishedbutpainted.

Linkingmorethantwoclauses,phrases,orwords8.200 Youcan linkmore than twoclauses,words,orphrasesusingandoror.

Usuallyyouusetheconjunctiononlyonce,puttingitbetweenthelasttwoclauses,words,orphrases.Aftereachoftheothersyouputacomma.Harrisonmarchedhimtothedoor,threwhimoutandreturned.…coursesinaccountancy,science,mathsorengineering.Youcanalsoputacommainfrontoftheconjunction;thisusuallymakesthe sentence easier to read, especially if the separated elements containmorethanonewordorarenotcompletelysimilar.Mrs Roberts cooked meals, cleaned, mended clothes, and went tomeetingsofthesewingclub.

In informal speech,peoplesometimesputandoror between eachpair ofclauses,words,orphrases.Occasionally,youdothisinwritingwhenyouwanttoemphasizethatallthestatementsyouaremakingaretrue.MrsBarnetthasagateandit’snotlockedandthat’showtheygetout.

linkingadjectivestogether

8.201 Therearespecialrulesforlinkingmorethantwoadjectives.Whenyouputmore than twoqualitativeadjectives in frontofanoun,youputcommasbetweentheadjectivesanddonotuseaconjunction.…alarge,airy,comfortableroom.Whenyouputmore than twoclassifyingadjectives in front of a noun,you have to decidewhether the adjectives relate to the same system ofclassification or to different systems. (This is explained in paragraph8.183.)If the classifying adjectives relate to the same system, you put andbetweenthelasttwoadjectivesandacommaaftereachoftheothers.…thecountry’ssocial,economicandpoliticalcrisis.If the classifying adjectives relate to different systems of classification,youdonotputanythingbetweenanyoftheadjectives.…anunknownmedievalFrenchpoet.When you put both qualitative and classifying adjectives in front of anoun,youdonotputanythingbetweenthem.…alittlewhitewoodenhouse.

Whenyouputmorethantwoadjectivesafteralinkingverb,youputandbetweenthelasttwoadjectivesandacommaaftereachoftheothers.Hewasbig,darkandmysterious.Wefelthot,tiredandthirsty.

Chapter9Changingthefocusinasentence

9.1–7 Introduction

9.8–24 Focusingonthethingaffected:thepassive

9.25–30 Selectingfocus:splitsentences

9.31–45 Takingthefocusoffthesubject:usingimpersonalit9.34–35 Describingaplaceorsituation9.36–38 Talkingabouttheweatherandthetime9.39–41 Commentingonanaction,activity,orexperience9.42–45 Commentingonafactthatyouareabouttomention

9.46–55 Introducingsomethingnew:thereassubject

9.56–68 Focusingusingadverbials9.56 Commentingonyourstatement:sentenceadverbials

9.57–61 Statingwhatareayouarereferringto9.62–63 Emphasizing9.64–68 Focusingonthemostimportantthing

9.69–78 Otherinformationstructures9.69–72 Puttingsomethingfirst:Inhispocketwasapen,Whyshe’shereIdon’tknow9.73–78 Introducingyourstatement:Theproblemis…,Thethingis…

9.79–99 Focusingonthespeaker’sattitude9.80–90 Indicatingyourattitudetowhatyouaresaying9.91–94 Exclamations9.95–99 Addressingpeople

9 Changingthefocusinasentence

Introduction9.1 The structureof a statementusually follows the sequence subject, verb,

object,complement,adverbial.Thesubject,whichiswhatyouaregoingtotalkabout,comesfirst.Ifyoudonotwanttodrawspecialattentiontoanypartoftheclause,thenyoufollowthissequence.

subjectDonald

verbwaslying

adverbialonthebed.

subjectShe

verbhasbrought

objectthetape

adverbialwithher.

subjectHe

verbwiped

objecttheglass

complementdry

adverbialwithatea-towel.

Theexamplesaboveareinthedeclarativeform.Chapter5explainshowmeaningscanbeexpressedusingthedeclarative, the interrogativeandthe imperative forms.Theseother forms involve regularchanges in thesequenceofelementsintheclause.Isheill?Putitonthetable.

9.2 However, there are other ways of putting the parts of a clause in adifferentsequence,inordertogivespecialemphasisormeaning.

adverbialInhisenthusiasm,

subjecthe

verboverlooked

objectafewbigproblems.

objectThethirdsheet

subjecthe

verbplaced

adverbialinhispocket.

This appliesmainly tomain clauses. This chapter shows how you canchange theword order in amain clausewhenyouwant to give specialforcetothewholeclauseortooneofitselements.

Inmostsubordinateclauses,youhavenochoiceabout theorderof theclauseelements(seeChapter8).

thepassive

9.3 Onewayofchangingwordorderinordertochangethefocusinaclauseistousethepassiveform.Thepassiveallowsyoutotalkaboutaneventfromthepointofviewofthethingorpersonaffected,andeventoavoidmentioningwhoorwhatwasresponsiblefortheaction.Agirlfrommyclasswaschosentodothereading.Thepassiveisexplainedinparagraphs9.8to9.24.

splitsentences

9.4 Anotherwayofvaryingthesequenceofelementsintheclauseistouseasplitsentence.Therearethreedifferenttypes.Onetypeallowsyoutofocusonthepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout,asinItwasJasonwhotoldthem.Thesecondtypeallowsyoutofocusonanaction,asinWhattheydidwasbreakawindowandgetinthatwayorAllIcoulddowascry.Thethirdtypeallowsyoutofocusonthecircumstancesofanaction,forexamplethetimeortheplace,asinItwasoneo’clockwhentheyleft,orItwasinParisthattheymetforthefirsttime.Splitsentencesaredealtwithinthesectionbeginningatparagraph9.25.

impersonalit

9.5 Whenyouwant tosaysomethingaboutafact,anaction,oraparticularstate,youcanuseastructurebeginningwith it, forexample It’sstrangethathedidn’tcall,It’seasytolaugh,andIt’snofunbeingstupid.You also use an it structure to talk about the weather or the time, forexampleIt’sraining,It’saniceday,andIt’stwoo’clock.Itstructuresaredealtwithinthesectionbeginningatparagraph9.31.

therewithbe

9.6 There isusedfollowedbybeandanounphrasetointroducetheideaofthe existence or presence of something. This makes the noun phrase,whichisnewinformation,thefocusoftheclause.Formoreinformation,seeparagraphs9.46to9.55.Thereissomeoneinthebushes.

adverbials

9.7 Therearealsotwotypesofadverbialthatyoucanusetofocusonaclauseasawhole,orondifferentelementsoftheclause.Theseincludesentenceadverbials (see the section beginning at paragraph 9.56) and focusingadverbials(seeparagraphs9.79to9.90).Heneverwrites,ofcourse.Frankly,Idon’treallycarewhattheythink.Asachildshewasparticularlyclosetohereldersister.

Focusingonthethingaffected:thepassive9.8 Manyactionsinvolvetwopeopleorthings–onethatperformstheaction

andonethatisaffectedbytheaction.Theseactionsaretypicallyreferredtousing transitiveverbs, that is, verbs that have an object.TransitiveverbsareexplainedfullyinChapter3.InEnglishthepersonorthingyouwanttotalkaboutisusuallyputfirstasthe subject of the clause. So,when youwant to talk about someone orsomethingthatistheperformerofanaction,youmakethemthesubjectoftheverbandyouuseanactive formof theverb.Theotherpersonorthingismadetheobjectoftheverb.However, youmaywant to focus on the personor thing affectedby anaction,whichwouldbe theobjectofanactive formof theverb. In thatcase,youmakethatpersonorthingthesubjectofapassiveformoftheverb.Forexample,youcouldreportthesameeventbyusinganactiveformofaverb,asinThedoghaseatenourdinnerorbyusingapassiveformofaverb,asinOurdinnerhasbeeneatenbythedog,dependingonwhetheryouwantedtofocusonthedogoryourdinner.

formationofthepassive

9.9 Passive forms consist of an appropriate formofbe followedby the -edparticipleoftheverb.Forexample,thepassiveformofthepresentsimpleofeatisthepresentsimpleofbefollowedbyeaten:Itiseaten.Sheescapeduninjuredbutherboyfriendwasshotinthechest.Hewasbeingtreatedforastomachulcer.Hethinkssucheventscouldhavebeenavoided.Fordetailsofpassiveformsofverbs,seetheReferencesection.

notmentioningthepersonorthingthatperformedtheaction

9.10 Whenyouusethepassiveformofaverb,youdonothavetomentionthepersonorthingresponsiblefortheaction(theperformer).Youmaywanttodothisforoneofthesereasons:becauseyoudonotknowwhoorwhattheperformeris

He’salmostcertainlybeendelayed.Thefencebetweenthetwopropertieshadbeenremoved.becauseitisnotimportantwhoorwhattheperformeris

Iwastoldthatitwouldbeperfectlyquiet.Suchitemsshouldbecarefullypackedinboxes.becauseitisobviouswhoorwhattheperformeris

Shefoundthatshewasn’tbeingpaidthesamesalaryashim.…thenumberofchildrenwhohavebeenvaccinatedagainstmeasles.becausetheperformerhasalreadybeenmentioned

Hispicturesofdogsweredrawnwithgreathumour.Thegovernmentrespondedquickly,andnewmeasureswerepassedwhichstrengthenedtheirpowers.becausepeopleingeneralaretheperformers

Bothofthesebookscanbeobtainedfromthepubliclibrary.Itisverystrangeandhasneverbeenclearlyexplained.becauseyoudonotwanttosaywhoperformedanaction,oryouwant

todistanceyourselffromyourownaction.

Theoriginalhasbeendestroyed.I’vebeentoldyouwishedtoseeme.

9.11 In accounts of processes and scientific experiments, the passive is usedwithout the performer being mentioned because the focus is on whathappensandnotonwhoorwhatmakesithappen.Theprincipleofbottlingisverysimple.Foodisputinjars,thejarsandtheir contents are heated to a temperature which is maintained longenoughtoensurethatallbacteria,mouldsandvirusesaredestroyed.

9.12 The passive form of reporting verbs is often used in an impersonal itstructure, when it is clear whose words or thoughts you are giving orwhenyouaregivingthewordsorthoughtsofpeopleingeneral.See9.45inthesectiononimpersonalitstructures.Itwasagreedthathewouldcomeandseeusagainthenextday.Itwasrumouredthathehadbeensentencedtolifeimprisonment,buthadescaped.

USAGENOTE

9.13 Whenpeopleingeneralaretheperformersoftheaction,anactive formoftheverbissometimesusedinstead,withthegenericpronounsyouorthey as the subject.One is used as the subject in this kind of clause informalspeechandwriting.Youcan’tbuyironnow,onlysteel.Theysayshe’sverybright.Ifonedecidestoliveinthecountrythenoneshouldbepreparedfor theunexpected.Formore informationaboutgenericpronouns, see paragraphs 1.119 to1.123.You can also use the indefinite pronouns someone or something. Thisallowsyoutomentionaperformer,withoutspecifyingwhoorwhattheyare. For more information about indefinite pronouns, see paragraphs1.128to1.141.Ithinksomeone’scallingyou.Somethinghasupsethim.Ergativeverbscanalsoenableyoutoavoidmentioningtheperformerof

anaction.Forexample, insteadof sayingSheopened thedoor,youcansayThe door opened. See the section on ergative verbs in paragraphs3.59to3.67.

mentioningtheperformerwithby

9.14 When you use the passive, you can mention the person or thing thatperformed the action at the end of the clause by using by. This putsemphasisontheperformerbecausetheendoftheclauseisanimportantposition.Hisbestfriendwaskilledbyagrenade,whichexplodedunderhiscar.Someofthechildrenwereadoptedbylocalcouples.Thisviewhasbeenchallengedbyanumberofworkers.

mentioningthingsormethodsused

9.15 As with active forms of verbs, you can mention something that theperformerusedtoperformtheactionaftertheprepositionwith.Acirclewasdrawninthedirtwithastick.Moisturemustbedrawnoutfirstwithsalt.Youcanmentionthemethodusingan-ingformafterby.Thestrongtastecanberemovedbychangingthecookingwater.

passiveofverbsreferringtostates

9.16 Afew transitiveverbs refer to states rather thanactions.Whensomeoftheseverbsareused in thepassive, thepersonor thing that creates thatstateisputaftertheprepositionwith.Theroomwasfilledwithpeople.Therailingsweredecoratedwiththousandsofbouquets.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsreferringtostatesthatareusedwithwithinthepassive:

covercramcrowd

decoratefilllitterornamentpackstuffteemthrong

However,byisusedwithsomeverbsthatdescribeastate.Thebuildingwasilluminatedbythousandsoflights.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsreferringtostatesthatareusedwithbyinthepassive:

concealexceedilluminateinhabitoccupyovershadow

Someverbs,suchasadornandsurroundcanbeusedwithwithorbyafterthem.Herrighthandwascoveredwithblood.OneentirewallwascoveredbyagiganticchartoftheEnglishChannel.Thehousewassurroundedwithpolicemen.Thebuildingwassurroundedbyadeepgreenlawn.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwitheitherwithorbyinthepassive:

adornbesiegecover

encircleoverrunsurround

Therearealsoseveralverbsthatareusedwithin.Sheclaimedthatthedrugwascontainedinacoldcuregiventoherbytheteamdoctor.Freetransportwasnotincludedinthecontract.Thewallsofherflatarecoveredindirt.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwithininthepassive:

containcoverembodyincludeinvolvesubsume

Notethatcovercanbeusedwithin,by,orwith.

phrasalverbs

9.17 Phrasalverbs thatconsistofatransitiveverbfollowedbyanadverborpreposition,orbyanadverbandapreposition,canbeusedinthepassive.Listsofphrasalverbsaregiveninparagraphs3.83to3.116.Two totally opposing views have been put forward to explain thisphenomenon.Millionsoftonsofgoodeartharebeingwashedawayeachyear.IwastalkedintomeetingNormanGranzataposhLondonrestaurant.Suchexpectationsaredrummedintoeverygrowingchild.

verbsusuallyusedinthepassive

9.18 Becauseof theirmeaning, some transitiveverbs areusuallyused in thepassive.The performer of the action is usually thought to be notworth

mentioningorisnotknown.

Hewasdeemedtobetheguardianofthechild.ThemeetingisscheduledforFebruary14.Theyoungmenwereallegedtohaverampagedthroughthehotel.Thefollowingtransitiveverbsareusuallyusedinthepassive:

beacclaimedbeallegedbeannihilatedbebaffledbebornbecompressedbeconditionedbeconstruedbecouchedbecrematedbedazedbedeafenedbedebasedbedeemedbedisconcertedbedubbedbedwarfedbeearmarkedbeempoweredbefinedbeguttedbeheadedbehorrifiedbehospitalizedbeindictedbeinundatedbejailedbemesmerizedbemisdirected

beovercomebeparalysedbepenalizedbeperpetratedbepilloriedbepopulatedbeprizedbepunctuatedberationedbereconciledbereprievedbereunitedberumouredbescheduledbeshippedbeshipwreckedbeshort-listedbeshroudedbestaffedbestrandedbestrewnbesubsumedbesuspendedbeswampedbewounded

Thefollowingphrasalverbsareusuallyusedinthepassive:

bebowledoverbecaughtupbehandeddownbepensionedoffbeploughedupberainedoffbescaleddown

bestruckoffbesworninbetakenabackbewritteninto

Theywerebowledoverbythenumberofvisitorswhocametotheshow.Thejournalistsweretakenabackbytheferocityofthelanguage.

verbsthatarerarelyusedinthepassive

9.19 A few transitive verbs are rarely used in the passive because the thingaffectedbytheactiontheydescribeisrarelythethingyouareinterestedin.Thefollowingtransitiveverbsarerarelyusedinthepassive:

eludeescapefleegethaveletlikeraceresemblesuitsurvive

Thefollowingphrasalverbscontainingatransitiveverbarerarelyusedinthepassive:

bandtogetherbitebackboomoutbrushup

calldownoncastbackchuckincryouteaseoffekeoutflickovergetbackgetdowngiveoverhaveonhaveoutheaveuphuntupjabatjackinjerkoutletthroughpaceoutphonebackringbackringoutsitoutsoboutstandofftideoverwaitoutwalkoffwhileaway

verbswithtwoobjects

9.20 In the case of verbs that canhave an indirect object aswell as a directobjectsuchasgive,teach,andshow,eitherobjectcanbethesubjectofapassiveclause.

Forexample,insteadofHegavethereceptionistthekey,youcansayThekey was given to the receptionist, where the direct object of the activeclause is the subject of the passive clause. The indirect object can bementionedaftertoorfor.Thebuildinghadbeengiventothetownbyaninvestmentbanker.Shelterhadbeenfoundformostpeople.Sometimesitisunnecessarytomentiontheindirectobjectatall.Thevaccinecanbegivenatthesametimeasotherinjections.Interestischargedat2%amonth.But you can also say The receptionist was given the key, where theindirect object of the active clause is the subject of the passive clause.Notethatthedirectobjectisstillmentionedaftertheverb.Theyweregivenapintofwatereveryday.Hehadbeenoffereddrugsbyanolderstudent.Forlistsofverbsthatcanhaveanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobject,seeparagraphs3.73to3.82.

transitiveverbswithobjectcomplement:Thewallwaspaintedblue

9.21 Thereisagroupoftransitiveverbsthatcanhaveacomplementaftertheirobject.Theyarelistedanddescribedinparagraphs3.161to3.171.Whentheseverbsareused in thepassive, thecomplement isputdirectlyaftertheverb.HewasshotdeadinSanFrancisco.Ifapersontodaytalksaboutghosts,heisconsideredignorantorcrazy.

reflexiveverbs

9.22 Reflexive verbs, whose object is a reflexive pronoun referring to thesubjectoftheverb,arenotusedinthepassive.Formoreinformationonreflexiveverbs,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph3.26.

intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions

9.23 Manyintransitivephrasalverbscanbeusedinthepassive.Theverbsarefollowedbyaprepositionandanounphrasereferringtothethingaffected

by the action the verb describes. The object of the preposition can bemadethesubjectofthepassiveformoftheverb.Theprepositionremainsaftertheverb,withnoobjectafterit.Insomehouseholds,themanwasreferredtoasthemaster.Twopeopleat theheadof the linewerebeingdealtwithbyacoupleofclerks.Theperformancehadbeenpaidforbyalocalculturalsociety.Thechildrenwerebeinglookedafterbyfamilyfriends.Thefollowingisalistofintransitivephrasalverbswithprepositionsthatareoftenusedinthepassive:

accedetoaccountforactonadheretoaimatallowforalludetoapproveofaskforaspiretoattendtobargainforbiteintobreakintobudgetforbuildoncallforcalloncareforcaterforcountondealwithdecideondespairof

dictatetodispensewithdisposeofenterintofrownuponfussovergetatgetroundglossoverguessathearofhintathopeforimposeonimproveonindulgeininquireintoinsistonjumponkeeptolaughatleanonleaponlightuponlistentolongforlookafterlookatlookintolookthroughlooktomeddlewithministertomournforobjecttooperateon

panderto

paperoverpayforpickonplanforplanonplaywithplotagainstpointtoporeoverpounceonpresideoverprevailonpreyonprovideforputuponpuzzleoverreasonwithrefertorelyonremarkonresorttorushintoseethroughseetoseizeonsendforsetonsettleonshootatskateoverstamponstareatsubscribetotalkabout

talktotamperwith

tinkerwithtouchontrampleontriflewithwaitonwatchoverwonderatworkon

Afewthree-wordphrasalverbsareusedinthepassive.Helongstobelookedupto.Iwasafraidofbeingdoneawaywith.Thefollowinglistcontainsthree-wordphrasalverbsusedinthepassive:

doawaywithliveuptolookdownonlookforwardtolookoutforlookuptoplayaroundwithtalkdownto

USAGENOTE

9.24 NotethatininformalspokenEnglish,getissometimesusedinsteadofbetoformthepassive.

Ourcargetscleanedaboutonceeverytwomonths.Beforethat,I’dgotarrestedbythepolice.

Inpresentperfectpassiveandpastperfectpassivesentences formedwithget,AmericanEnglishusesgottenratherthangot.

Ihadcheatedandlied,andI’dgottencaught.(American)

Selectingfocus:splitsentences9.25 Onewayof focusingonaparticularpartof a sentence is tousea split

sentence.Thisinvolvesusingtheverbbe,eitherwithitasanimpersonalsubjectorwithaclausesuchasarelativeclauseorato-infinitiveclause.Othergrammarssometimesrefertosplitsentencesascleftsentences.

itasthesubject:ItwasFionawhotoldme

9.26 Ifyouwanttoemphasizeonenounphrase,youcanuseItis…orItwas…andfollowitwitharelativeclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingGeorgefoundtherightanswer,youmaywant to stress the fact thatGeorge did it by saying ItwasGeorgewhofoundtherightanswer.ItwasTedwhobrokethenewstome.Itisusuallytheothervehiclethatsuffersmost.Similarly, insteadofsayingHenrymakesclocks, youcan say It’s clocksthatHenrymakes.It’smoneythattheywant.ItwasmewhoDavidwanted.

otherkindsoffocus

9.27 Inasplitsentence,youusuallyfocusonanounphrase.However,youcanfocusonotherclauseelementsorevenonawholeclause.Youthenusearelativeclausebeginningwiththat.You canmake a prepositional phrase, a time adverbial or an adverb ofplacethefocusofasplitsentenceinordertostressthecircumstancesofanevent.ItwasfromFrancisthatshefirstheardthenews.ItwasthenthatIrealizedI’dforgottenmywallet.ItwasinParisthatIfirstsawthesefilms.Youcanalsofocusonan-ingformifyouarestressinganaction.

ItwasmeetingPeterthatreallystartedmeoffonthisnewlineofwork.Youcanfocusonaclausebeginningwithbecausetostressthereasonforsomething.Perhapsit’sbecausehe’sdifferentthatIgetalongwithhim.

whatoralltofocusonanaction

9.28 Ifyouwanttofocusonanactionperformedbysomeone,youcanuseasplitsentenceconsistingofwhatfollowedbythesubject,theverbdo,theverbbe,andaninfinitivewithorwithoutto.For example, insteadof saying Iwrote toGeorge immediately, you cansayWhatIdidwastowritetoGeorgeimmediately.WhatIdidwastomakeaplan.Whatyouhavetodoistochoosefivecompaniestoinvestin.Whatitdoesisdrawoutallthevitaminsfromthebody.Youcanuseall instead ofwhat if youwant to emphasize that just onethingisdoneandnothingelse.Allhedidwasshakehandsandwishmegoodluck.Allsheeverdoesismakejam.

focusingonthetopic

9.29 Clauseswithwhat as their subject are sometimes used to focus on thethingyouaretalkingabout.Theycanbeputaftertheverbbeaswellasinfrontofit.Forexample,youcansayItsoriginalitywaswhatappealedtome,aswellasWhatappealedtomewasitsoriginality.Whatimpressedmemostwastheirsincerity.Thesesixfactorsarewhatconstitutesintelligence.

focusingonwhatsomeonewantsorneeds:WhatIwant isaholiday,AllIneedistowinthisgame

9.30 Ifyouwanttofocusonthethingthatsomeonewants,needs,orlikes,youcan use a split sentence beginning with a clause consisting of whatfollowedbythesubjectandaverbsuchaswantorneed.Afterthisclause,you use the verb be and a noun phrase referring to the thing wanted,

needed,orliked.For example, instead of sayingWe need a bigger garden, you can sayWhatweneedisabiggergarden.Whatweasanationwantisnotwordsbutdeeds.Whatyouneedisadoctor.Whatheneededwasanexcusetotalk.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithwhatinthisstructure:

adoredislikeenjoyhatelikeloatheloveneedpreferwant

Youcanuseallinsteadofwhatwiththeverbswantorneedifyouwanttoemphasize that someone wants or needs a particular thing and nothingelse.Alltheywantisaholiday.Allaprisonerneededwasapass.Ifyoudonotwanttomentiontheperformerintheabovestructures,youcanuseapassiveformoftheverb,afterwhatorallthat.Whatwasneededwasarevolution.

Takingthefocusoffthesubject:usingimpersonalit9.31 You often want to mention only one thing or fact in a clause. For

example, you often want to focus on the type of information that isnormallyexpressedbyanadjective.Butanadjectivecannotstandalone

as the subject of a clause.A commonwayof presenting informationofthistypeistoputtheadjectiveafterbe,withitasthesubject.Ifyoudonotwanttochooseanyoftheclauseelementsasthethingyouaregoingtotalkabout,youcanuseseveralstructureswithitassubject.Itcanbeused:todescribeaplaceorsituation

It’slovelyhere.totalkabouttheweatherortosaywhatthetimeis.

Ithadbeenrainingallday.Itisseveno’clock.Theseusesareoftencalledtheimpersonalusesofit.

9.32 In theseuses, it doesnot referback toanythingearlier in the speechorwriting,andsoitisdifferentfromthepersonalpronoun,whichusuallyrefersbacktoaparticularnounphrase:Theending,whenitarrives,iscompletelyunexpected.Parisisspecial,isn’tit?For more information about personal pronouns, see the sectionbeginningatparagraph1.95.Notethatthepronounit isalsousedtorefertoawholesituationorfactthathasbeendescribedorimplied.He’snevercometoseehisson.It’smostpeculiar,isn’tit?Itdoesn’tmatter.It’smyfault.

9.33 It is also used to introduce a comment on an action, activity, orexperience.Thesubjectitrefersforward.Itcostssomuchtogetthere.Itwasamazingthataudiencescametothetheatreatall.Thisstructurewithitallowsyoutoavoidhavingalongsubject,andtoputwhatyouaretalkingaboutinamoreprominentpositionattheendofthesentence.

Describingaplaceorsituation

9.34 Ifyouwanttodescribetheexperienceofbeinginaparticularplace,youcanuse it followed by a linking verb such asbe, an adjective, and anadverbialofplace.ItwasveryhardinGermanyafterthewar.Itwasterriblycoldinthetrucks.It’snicedownthere.For more information about how to talk about place, see the sectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.Similarly, you can indicate your opinion of a situation using it, be, anadjective,andaclausebeginningwithwhenorif.It’ssonicewhenit’shot,isn’tit?Won’titseemoddifIhavenoluggage?

usingitasanobject

9.35 Youcanalsouseitastheobjectofverbssuchaslikeandhatetodescribeyourfeelingsaboutaplaceorsituation.Ilikeithere.Heknewthathewouldhateitiftheysaidno.Hereisalistofcommonverbsthatareusedinthisway:

adoredislikeenjoyhatelikeloatheloveprefer

Talkingabouttheweatherandthetime

describingtheweather:It’sraining,It’ssunny

9.36 Youcandescribetheweatherbyusingitasthesubjectofaverb.It’sstillraining.Itwaspouringwithrain.Itsnowedsteadilythroughoutthenight.Thefollowingverbsareusedafterittotalkabouttheweather:

drizzlehailpourrainsleetsnowthunder

You can also describe the weather by using it followed by be and anadjectivebyitself,oranadjectivefollowedbyanounreferringtoaperiodoftime.‘CanIgoswimming?’–‘No,it’stoocold.’Itwasverywindy.Itwasawarm,sunnyevening.It’salovelyday,isn’tit?Hereisalistofcommonadjectivesthatareusedtodescribetheweather:

bitterblowyblusteryboilingbreezychillycloudycoldcooldampdark

dryfinefoggyfreezingfrostyhothumidicylightlovelymistymuggynastyrainyshowerystormysunnythunderywarmwetwindy

Note that you can describe a change in theweather or light by using itfollowedbygetandanadjective.It’sgettingcold.Shallwegoinside?It’sgettingdark.

givingtimesanddates

9.37 Youcansaywhatthetime,day,ordateisbyusingitfollowedbybeandanadjectiveornounphrasereferringtotime.It’seighto’clock.It’sSaturdayafternoonandallmyfriendsareout.ItwasJuly,butfreezingcold.

emphasizingtime

9.38 YoucanformmanyusefultimeexpressionsusingastructurewithItis…orItwas…andanadjectiveornounphrasereferringtotime.Theuseofthisstructureputsemphasisonthetimeoftheevent.Youcansaywhensomethinghappenedusingwhen.Itwas11o’clockatnightwhen16armedmencametomyhouse.ItwasnearlymidnightwhenKuntafinallyslept.Youcansayhowlongagosomethinghappenedusingsince.It’stwoweeksnowsinceIwrotetoyou.Itwasfortyyearssincethewar.You can say how long the period was between one event and anotherusingbefore.Itwasninetydaysbeforethesearchwasover.Itwasfourminutesbeforehalf-time.Youcansayhowsoonsomethingwillhappenusingto.Itwasonlytwodaystothewedding.

Commentingonanaction,activity,orexperience

usinglinkingverbs

9.39 Acommonwayofcommentingonwhatyouaredoingorexperiencingistouseitfollowedbyalinkingverbandanadjectiveornounphrase.Thisisfollowedbyan-ingparticipleorato-infinitive.It’sfunworkingforhim.Itwasdifficulttryingtotalktoher.It’snicetoseeyouwithyourbooksforachange.ItwillbeastimulatingexperiencetoseeMrsOliver.If youwant tomention the personwho performs the action or has theexperience,youuseaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithforanda to-infinitive.Itbecomeshardforachildtodevelopasenseofidentity.You can also use the structure with a to-infinitive when you are

recommendingacourseofactionorsayingthatsomethingisnecessary.Itsimportanttoknowyourownlimitations.It’sagoodideatohavealittlenotebookhandy.Itisnecessarytoexaminethisclaimbeforeweproceedanyfurther.

usingotherverbs

9.40 Similarstructurescanbeusedwithverbsotherthanlinkingverbs.Ifyouwanttosaywhateffectanexperiencehasonsomeone,youcanuseit with a verb such as please, surprise, or shock, followed by a nounphraseandato-infinitive.Foralistoftheseverbs,seeparagraph9.44.Italwayspleasedhimtothinkofhisfather.Itshockedmetoseehowmuchweighthe’dlost.Itinterestshimtohearwhatyou’vebeenbuying.Youcanuseitwithtakeandato-infinitiveclausetoindicatewhatisusedin a particular action or activity, or is needed for it, for example theamountoftimeorthetypeofpersonthatisneeded.IttakesanhourtogettoNorthampton.Ittakesanexceptionalparenttocopewithachildlikethat.Ittookalotofworktoputittogether.Ifthereisalsoanindirectobject,thiscanbeplacedimmediatelyaftertheverb.Ittookmeayeartosaveupforanewcamera.If the indirect object is expressed by a prepositional phrase, usuallybeginningwithfor,itisplacedafterthedirectobject.Ittooksometimeforhimtorealizewhatwasrequired.Ittakesalotmoretimeforanadulttopickupalanguagethanforachild.Costcanbeused insimilarstructureswhentalkingabout theamountofsomething,usuallymoney,thatisusedinanactivity.Itcostsabout£150aweektokeepsomeoneinprison.Withfindandthink,youcanuseitastheobject,followedbyanadjective,andeitherato-infinitiveorathat-clause.Hefoundithardtomakefriends.

Hethoughtitrighttoresignimmediately.

otherwaysoftalkingaboutactions

9.41 If you want to focus on a clause that starts with a participle or a to-infinitive, you can use this clause as the subject of the main clause,insteadofit.Forexample,insteadofsayingIt’sfunworkingforhimyoucansayWorkingforhimisfun.Measuringthewatercorrectlyismostimportant.InformalEnglish,to-infinitiveclausesaresometimesused.Tosellyourstorytothepapersisariskystrategy.

Commentingonafactthatyouareabouttomention9.42 Whenyouwanttocommentonafact,event,orsituation,youcanuseit

followed by a linking verb, an adjective or a noun phrase, and a that-clausegivingthefact.Itisstrangethatithasn’tbeennoticedbefore.It’sashamehedidn’tcome.Fromthephotographsitseemsclearmymotherwasnobeauty.Hereisalistofadjectivesusedinthisstructure:

amazingapparentappropriateawfulbadcleardoubtfulessentialevidentextraordinaryfairfunnygoodimportant

inevitableinterestinglikelyluckynaturalobviousoddplainpossibleprobablequeersadshockingstrangesurprisingtrueunbelievableunlikelywonderful

Hereisalistofnounsusedinthisstructure:

disgracemarvelnuisancepityshamesurprisewonder

USAGENOTE

9.43 Afteradjectiveslikefunny,odd,andstrange,aclausebeginningwithhowissometimesusedinsteadofathat-clause,withthesamemeaning.It’sfunnyhowtheydon’tgeton.

It’sstrangehowlifeturnsout.Itisastonishinghowhehaschanged.What-clauses can be used after similar adjectives when you want tocommentonsomethingthatistheobjectofanaction.It’ssurprisingwhatyoucandigup.It’samazingwhatsomeofthemwoulddoforalittlepublicity.Why-clausescanbeusedafteradjectivessuchasobviousandclearwhenyouwanttocommentonhowclearthereasonforsomethingis.Lookingbackonthesecases,itisclearwhytheunionsdistrustthelaw.Whether-clauses can be used after adjectives such as doubtful andirrelevantwhenyouwanttocommentonsomethingthatmayormaynotbetrue.Itisdoubtfulwhethersupplycouldeverhavekeptupwithconsumption.

otherverbs

9.44 If you want to say what someone thinks about a fact, you can use itfollowedbyaverbsuchaspleaseorsurprise.Theverbisfollowedbyanounphraseandathat-clause.Itwon’tsurpriseyouthatIstuckitinmypocket.ItbotheredherthatAlicewasn’tinterestedingoingout.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

amazeamuseannoyappalastonishastoundbewilderbotherdelightdisgustdistress

grievehorrifyinterestpleaseshocksurpriseupsetworry

passiveofreportingverbs

9.45 If you want to say what is said, thought, or discovered by a group ofpeople,youcanuse it as thesubjectof thepassive formofareportingverb,followedbyathat-clause.Itwasagreedthattheplanshouldbekeptsecret.Itwasfeltthattherehadbeensomedishonestbehaviour.Itwasfoundthatnocasesofhypothermiahadbeenrecorded.Foralistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway,seeparagraph7.69.

Introducingsomethingnew:thereassubject

sayingthatsomethingexists:Therearefourpeopleinmyfamily

9.46 When you want to say that something exists, or when you want tomentionthepresenceofsomething,youcanusetherefollowedbybeandanounphrase.

In this context, there does not refer to a place. In spoken English, thedifference isoftenclearer,because thisuseof there isoftenpronouncedwithoutstressas/ðə/(AmericanEnglishðər),whereastheadverbofplaceisalmostalwayspronouncedfullyas/ðeə/(AmericanEnglishðeər).There has very littlemeaning in the structures that are being explainedhere.Forexample,thesentenceThereisagoodreasonforthisjustmeansAgoodreasonforthisexists.

9.47 Thenounphraseisusuallyfollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase,awh-clause,oroneoftheadjectivesavailable,present,orfree.

Therewerethirtyboysintheclass.Therearethreereasonswhyweshouldsupportthisaction.Therewerenootherjobsavailable.Prepositionalphrasesrelatingtoplacecanbeputeitherinfrontofthereorafterthenounphrase.Onasmalltabletherewasawhitechinamug.Therewasaboxinthemiddleoftheroom.

sayingthatsomethinghappened:Therewasasuddennoise

9.48 Youcanalsousetherefollowedbybeandanounphrasereferringtoaneventtosaythatsomethinghappenedorwillhappen.Therewasaknockathisdoor.Thereweretwogeneralelectionsthatyear.Therewillbetroubletonight.

describingsomethingthatishappening:Therewasamanstandingnexttoher

9.49 When you are describing a scene or situation, you can use a structureconsistingoftherefollowedbybe,anounphrase,andan-ingparticiple.Forexample,insteadofsayingFlameswerecomingoutofit,youcansayTherewereflamescomingoutofit.Therewasastormragingoutside.Thereweremenandwomenworkinginthefieldswithhorses.Therewasarevolverlyingthere.

verbagreement

9.50 Usuallyapluralformofbeisusedifthenounphraseafteritisplural.Thereweretwomenintheroom.Youuseasingularformofbewhenyouaregivingalistofitemsandthefirstnouninthelistissingularoruncountable.Therewasasofaandtwochairs.Note that you use a plural form of be in front of plural quantity

expressionsbeginningwitha,suchasalotof,andafewof.Therewerealotofpeoplethere.Youalsouse aplural formofbe in front ofnumbersbeginningwitha,suchasahundred,athousand,andadozen.Therewereadozenreasonswhyamanmightdisappear.

contractionswiththere

9.51 Inspokenand informalwrittenEnglish, there isand therehas are oftencontractedtothere’s;therehadandtherewouldtothere’d;andtherewilltothere’ll.There’snodanger.Ididn’tevenknowthere’dbeenafire.

therewithadjectives

9.52 There is also used with adjectives such as likely, unlikely, sure, andcertaintoindicatethelikelihoodofsomethingoccurring.Thereareunlikelytobeanyproblemswiththetimetable.

therewithotherverbs

9.53 Afewotherverbscanbeusedafter there inasimilarway tobe. Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingseemstobethecaseorthatsomethingseemstohavehappened,youcanusetherewithseemorappearfollowedbytobeortohavebeen.Thereseemstohavebeensomecarelessnessrecently.Thereappearstobealotofconfusiononthispoint.Tobeissometimesomitted,especiallyinfrontofanuncountablenoun.Thereseemslittledoubtthathewashidingsomething.Thereissometimesusedfollowedbyapassiveformofareportingverbandtheinfinitivetobetoindicatethatpeoplesayorthinkthatsomethingexists. For more information on reporting verbs, see the sectionbeginningatparagraph7.5.Thereisexpectedtobeanannouncementabouttheproposedbuilding.

Behindthescenes,thereissaidtobeintenseconflict.Happen isused in the same typeof structure to indicate that a situationexistsbychance.Therehappenedtobearollofstickytapelyingonthedesk.You can also use tend in this kind of structure to say that somethinggenerallyhappensorexists.Theretendtobealotofpartiesatthistimeofyear.

formalandliteraryuses

9.54 Exist, remain,arise, follow,andcome are sometimesusedafter there tosay that something exists or happens. These structures occur only informalEnglishorliterarywriting.Thereremainedariskofwar.Therefollowedafewseconds’silence.Therecomesatimewhenyouhavetomakeachoice.

9.55 Another construction commonly used in literary writing is to begin asentencewith a prepositional phrase relating to place followedby thereandaverbofpositionormotion.Forexample,insteadofsayingTheoldchurchstandsatthetopofthehill,awritermightsayAtthetopofthehilltherestandstheoldchurch.Fromthehooktherehungalongblackcoat.Besidethemthererisesatwistofbluesmoke.

Focusingusingadverbials

Commentingonyourstatement:sentenceadverbials9.56 Therearemanyadverbialsthatareusedtoshowyourattitudetowhatyou

aresayingor tomakeyourhearerhaveaparticularattitudetowhatyouaresaying.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs9.57to9.63.There are also some that are used to make a statement narrower or tofocusattentiononaparticularthingthatitappliesto.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs9.64to9.68.

Alltheseadverbialsarecalledsentenceadverbialsbecausetheyapplytothewhole sentence they are in.They are sometimes calleddisjuncts inothergrammars.Sentenceadverbialsareoftenplacedatthebeginningofasentence.Somearealsoused inotherpositions, as shown in theexamplesgivenbelow,buttheyareusuallyseparatedfromthewordsaroundthembyintonationorbycommas,toshowthattheyapplytothewholesentence.Formoregeneralinformationaboutadverbials,seeChapter6.

Statingwhatareayouarereferringto

beingspecific:financially,…,politicallyspeaking,…

9.57 Whenyouaremaking itclearwhataspectofsomethingyouare talkingabout, you use sentence adverbials formed from classifying adjectives.Forexample,ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingisimportantinthefieldofpoliticsorfromapoliticalpointofview,youcansaythatitispoliticallyimportant.Theseadverbialsoftencomeinfrontofanadjective,oratthebeginningorendofaclause.Itwouldhavebeenpoliticallydamagingforhimtoretreat.Biologicallywearenotdesignedforeighthours’sleepinoneblock.We’vehadaverybadyearfinancially.Thefollowingisalistofadverbialsthatcanrefertoaparticularaspectofsomething:

academicallyaestheticallybiologicallychemicallycommerciallyconstitutionallyculturallyecologicallyeconomicallyemotionally

environmentallyethicallyfinanciallygeographicallyideologicallyintellectuallylegallylogicallymechanicallymentallymorallynumericallyoutwardlyphysicallypoliticallypsychologicallyraciallyscientificallysexuallysociallyspirituallystatisticallysuperficiallytechnicallytechnologicallyvisually

BECREATIVE

9.58 Speaking is sometimes added to these adverbials. For example,technicallyspeakingcanbeusedtomeanfromatechnicalpointofview.He’snotadoctor,technicallyspeaking.HeandMalcolmdecidedthat,politicallyspeaking,theywereincompleteagreement.

generalizing:basically,onthewhole,etc.

9.59 Youoftenwant toavoidmakingafirm,forcefulstatement,becauseyouareawareoffactsthatdonotquitefitinwithwhatyouaresaying.Onewayofdoingthisistouseasentenceadverbialthatshowsthatyouaremakingageneral,basic,orapproximatestatement.Basically,theolderyouget,theharderitbecomes.Byandlargewewereallowedtodoaswewished.Ithinkonthewholewedon’tdotoobadly.Thefollowingadverbialsareusedlikethis:

allinallallthingsconsideredaltogetherasaruleataroughestimatebasicallybroadlybyandlargeessentiallyforthemostpartfundamentallygenerallyinessenceingeneralonaverageonbalanceonthewholeoverallultimately

Note that you can also use the expressionsbroadly speaking, generallyspeaking,androughlyspeaking.Weareall,broadlyspeaking,middleclass.Roughlyspeaking,theproblemappearstobeconfinedtothetropics.

BECREATIVE

9.60 Youcanalsouseprepositionalphrasesformedwithclassifyingadjectives,such as in financial terms or from a political point of view. Similarprepositional phrases can be formed using the nouns related to theseadjectives,forexampleusingmoneyinsteadoffinancial:inmoneyterms,intermsofmoney,withregardtomoney,orfromthemoneypointofview.Lifeisgoingtobealittleeasierineconomicterms.Thatisthebeginningofaverybigstepforwardineducationalterms.Thisstatewasalatedeveloperintermsofcommerce.

BECREATIVE

9.61 Anotherway of saying something likewith regard tomoney ismoney-wise.Youaddthesuffix-wisetoanounreferringtotheaspectyoumean.Thisisgenerallyusedtoavoidthecreationoflongphrases.Whatdoyouwanttodojob-wisewhenthetimecomes?WearemostlySocialistsvote-wise.

Emphasizing9.62 Youmaywant to emphasize the truthofyour statementor to stress the

seriousnessofthesituationyouaredescribing.Youcandothisusingthefollowingsentenceadverbials:

aboveallactuallyatallbelievemebyallmeansevenforheaven’ssakeindeedpositivelyreallysimplyso

surelytoputitmildlytosaytheleasttrulywithoutexception

Sometimesweactuallydaredtopenetratetheirterritory.Aboveall,donotbetooproudtoaskforadvice.Eightyearswasindeedashortspanoftime.Ireallyamsorry.Believeme,ifyougetrobbed,thebestthingtodoisforgetaboutit.Notethatindeedisoftenusedafteradjectiveswithvery.Ithinksheisaverystupidpersonindeed.Atallisusedforemphasisinnegativeclauses,usuallyattheend.Ididn’tlikeitatall.Iwouldnotbeatallsurprisediftheyturnedouttobethesameperson.Surelyisusedwhenyouareappealingforagreement.Surelyitisbettertoknowthetruth.Here,surely,isacasefortreatingpeopleasindividuals.Evenisplacedinfrontofawordorgrouptodrawattentiontoasurprisingpartofwhatyouaresaying.Evenatmiddaytheairwaschilly.Somemenwereevensinging.Therewasnooneinthecafe,notevenawaiter.Soisusedasanemphaticintroductionwhenagreeingorcommenting.‘Derek!It’sraining!’–‘Soitis.’‘He’sverygrateful!’–‘Soheshouldbe.’Byallmeansisusedforemphasiswhengivingpermission.Ifyourbabylikeswater,byallmeansgiveittohim.Forheaven’ssakeisusedwhenmakingarequestoraskingaquestion.Forheaven’ssake,stopdoingthat,Chris.Whatareyoustaringat,forheaven’ssake?

emphasizingthatsomethingisexact:exactly,just,precisely,etc.

9.63 Youmaywanttoemphasizethatyourstatementisnotonlygenerallytrue,butthatitistrueinallitsdetails.Theadverbsexactly,just,andpreciselyareusedforthis.They’dalwaystreatedherexactlyasifsheweretheirowndaughter.Theirdecorwasexactlyright.Iknowjusthowyoufeel.Thepeasantsareweakpreciselybecausetheyarepoor.

Focusingonthemostimportantthing9.64 Therearecertainadverbialsyoucanuseifyouwanttofocusonthemost

importantthinginwhatyouaresaying,forexamplethemainreasonforsomethingorthemainqualityofsomething.I’mparticularlyinterestedinclassicalmusic.Theyhavebeenusedincertaincountries,notablyinSouthAmerica.Wewantespeciallytothankallourfriendsfortheirsupport.Thefollowingadverbialscanbeusedlikethis:

chieflyespeciallymainlymostlynotablyparticularlypredominantlyprimarilyprincipallyspeciallyspecifically

restricting:only,just,etc.

9.65 Some of these adverbials can be used to emphasize that only one

particularthingisinvolvedinwhatyouaresaying.

Thedrugisgivenonlytoseriouslyillpatients.Thisissolelyamatterofmoney.It’salargecanvascoveredwithjustonecolour.Thefollowingadverbialscanbeusedlikethis:

aloneexclusivelyjustonlypurelysimplysolely

selecting:especially,notably,etc.

9.66 Adverbialsforfocusingcanbeusedtoaddafurtherpieceofinformationthatselectsaparticulargroupofpeopleorthingsfromalargerset.Theycan be used in this way with noun phrases, prepositional phrases,adjectives,andsubordinateclauses.Ienjoythecompanyofyoungpeople,especiallymygrandchildren.Insomecommunities,notablytheinnercities,thetreatmenthasbackfired.Theyweremostlyprofessionalpeople.You’llenjoyitdowninLA,especiallyifyougetajob.

positionoffocusingadverbials

9.67 In carefulwriting, adverbials that are used for focusing are usually putimmediatelyinfrontofthewordorclauseelementtheyapplyto,inordertoavoidambiguity.Inspeech,itisusuallyclearfromtheintonationofthespeakerwhattheyapplyto.However,inmanycasesthefocusingadverbialdoesnotnecessarilyfocusonthewordorelementimmediatelyafterit.Forexample,inthesentenceHemainlyreadsarticlesaboutmechanicalthingsthewordmainlyalmostcertainlyappliestoaboutmechanicalthings,nottoreads.

Focusingadverbialsarenotnormallyusedatthebeginningofasentence.However, you can useonly to begin a sentencewhen it focuses on thethingthatfollowsit.Onlythirty-fivepercentoffour-year-oldsgetnurseryeducation.Onlyinsciencefictionisthetopictouchedon.You can use just and simply at the beginning of sentences givinginstructions.Justaddboilingwater.Simplyremovethepackaging,andplugthemachinein.Alone is always used after the element that it focuses on. Only issometimesusedinthisposition.Peopledon’tworkformoneyalone.Theywereidentifiedbytheirfirstnamesonly.In informalspeechandwriting,otherfocusingadverbialsaresometimesusedaftertheelementtheyfocuson.Forexample,youcansayWetalkedaboutmemostlyinsteadofWetalkedmostlyaboutme.WehavetalkedaboutFrancemainly.Chocolate,particularly,issuspectedofcausingdecayoftheteeth.Intheearlyyears,especially,achildmaybeafraidofmanythings.Thispositioncanalsobeusedwhenaddingapieceofinformation.HelikedAmerica,NewYorkparticularly.Shewasbusywriting,poetrymostly.

USAGENOTE

9.68 Some other adverbials can be used to focus on additional information.The adverbs of degree largely, partly, and entirely, and adverbs offrequencysuchasusuallyandoftencanbeused.Thesituationhadbeencreatedlargelybythepress.The house was cheap partly because it was falling down and partlybecauseitwasinadangerousarea.Thefemalescarefortheiryoungentirelybythemselves.Theyoftenfoughteachother,usuallyasaresultofargumentsovermoney.Somepeoplerefusetogiveevidence,oftenbecausetheyfeelintimidated.

Thephraseinparticular,whichhasasimilarmeaningtoparticularly,canbeusedinthepositionsshownintheexamplesbelow.Wednesdayinparticularisverybusy.Next week we shall be taking a look at education and in particularprimaryschools.HeshoutedatthechildrenandatOttoinparticular.Inparticular,I’mgoingtoconcentrateonhydro-electricity.

OtherinformationstructuresPuttingsomethingfirst:Inhispocketwasapen,Whyshe’shereIdon’tknow9.69 InEnglish,thefirstelementinadeclarativeclauseisusuallythesubject

oftheverb.However,ifyouwanttoemphasizeanotherelement,youcanputthatfirstinstead.Sometimeswhenthistakesplacethenormalorderofsubjectandverbischanged.

adverbialsfirst

9.70 Adverbs and prepositional phrases can often be put first. This is thenormalpositionforsentenceadverbials(seeparagraph9.56),sotheyarenot particularly emphatic in this position. Other phrases are sometimesplacedfirst,usuallytomakedescriptionsmoredramaticorvividinstoriesandaccounts.Ateighto’clockIwentdownformybreakfast.ForyearsI’dhadtohidewhatIwasthinking.The subject and verb often change place after prepositional phrasesrelatingtoplace,andafternegativeadverbials.Inhispocketwasabagofmoney.Onnoaccountmusttheybeletin.For general information on adverbials, see Chapter 6. NegativeadverbialsaredealtwithinChapter5.

reportedquestionfirst

9.71 Whenyouare saying thatyoudonotknowsomething,youcanput thereportedquestionfirst.WhatI’mgoingtodonextIdon’tquiteknow.HowheescapedseriousinjuryIcan’timagine.Formoreinformationonreportedquestions,seeparagraphs7.32to7.38.

otherpartsoftheclause

9.72 Anadjectiveornounphrasecanoccasionallybeputbeforealinkingverb,butthisisnotcommon.Noreen,shewascalled.Shecamefromthevillage.Rareistheindividualwhodoesnotbelongtooneofthesegroups.Theobjectofaverb is sometimesput first,usually in formalor literaryuses.Notethatthesubjectstillhastobementioned.ThemoneyIgavetotheagent.Iftheysensedmyfear,theywouldattack.ThisIknew.

Introducingyourstatement:Theproblemis…,Thethingis…9.73 Peopleoftenusestructures thatpoint forward towhat theyaregoing to

say and classify or label it in some way. These are sometimes calledprefacingstructuresorprefaces.Aprefaceusuallyintroducesthesecondpartofthesamesentence,usuallyathat-clauseorawh-clause.However,youcanalsouseawholesentenceastheprefacetoanothersentence(seeparagraph9.78).

pointingforwardtothesecondpartofsentence

9.74 Acommonprefacingstructureistheandanoun,followedbyis;e.g.Theansweris….Thenounissometimesmodifiedbyanadjective,orthereissometimesextra information in theformofaphraseoraclauseafter it.Thenounsmostcommonlyusedinthisstructureare:

answerconclusionfactpoint

problemquestionrulesolutionthingtragedytroubletruthwonder

Thefactis,thepointis,andthethingisareused toshowthatwhatyouareabouttosayisimportant.The simple fact is that if you get ill, you may be unable to take theexamination.Thepointistofindoutwhowasresponsible.Thethingis,howarewetogetherout?

classifying

9.75 Someof these nouns are used in to indicatewhat sort of thing you areabouttosay.Theruleis:ifindoubt,dryclean.Isphotographyanartorascience?Theansweristhatitisboth.Theobviousconclusionisthatmanisnotresponsibleforwhathedoes.

labelling

9.76 Someofthesenounsareusedtolabelwhatyouaregoingtotalkabout.Theproblemisthatthedemandforhealthcareisunlimited.Theonlysolutionistoapproacheachculturewithanopenmind.Theanswerisplanning,timing,and,aboveall,practicalexperience.

otherwaysoflabelling

9.77 Splitsentences(seeparagraphs9.25to9.30)canbeusedinlabelling.Whatweneedislawandorder.

Impersonal it structureswith adjectives followed by a that-clause are alessemphaticwayofprefacing(seeparagraph9.42).Itisinterestingthatthenewproductssellbetteronthewebthaninshops.Youcanuse the sentence adverbialsat any rate, at least, and rather asprefaceswhenyouareslightlycorrectingapreviousstatement,oftenafteror.Thishadsavedherlife;oratanyratehersanity.Anywaycanalsobeused,usuallyafterthecorrection.Itis,formostofitslengthanyway,aromanticcomedy.

usingwholesentencestopointforward

9.78 A whole sentence can be used to point forward to the sentence orsentencesthatfollowit.Forexample,asentencecontaininganadjectivelikeinteresting,remarkable,orfunny,orageneralabstractwordsuchasreason or factor (see paragraphs 10.19 to 10.23), is often used as apreface.Itwasabitstrange.Nobodywastalkingtoeachother.Thishashadveryinterestingeffectsondifferentpeople.Therewereotherfactors,ofcourse:ItoowastiredofMiami.Buttherewereproblems.HowcouldwegettoEdinburghwithoutacar?

Focusingonthespeaker’sattitude9.79 Thereareseveralways thatspeakerscanfocuson theirattitude towards

whattheyaresaying,andwhotheyaretalkingto.Certainadverbialsindicateyourattitudetowhatyouaresaying.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs9.80to9.90.Other structures can be used to show strong reactions, or exclamations.Theseareexplainedinparagraph9.91to9.94.Finally,youcanshowthewayyoufeeltowardspeople,andindicateyourrelationship to them by the way you address them. Different ways ofaddressingpeopleareexplainedinparagraphs9.95to9.99.

Indicatingyourattitudetowhatyouaresaying

indicatingyouropinion

9.80 Onewayofshowingyourreactionto,oryouropinionof,thefactoreventyou are talking about is by using commenting adverbials, whichcommentonthewholemessagegiveninasentence.Surprisingly,Ifoundmyselfenjoyingtheplay.Luckily,IhadseentheplaybeforesoIknewwhatitwasabout.Itwas,fortunately,notabadaccident,andHenryisonlyslightlyhurt.Interestingly,thesolutionadoptedinthesetwocountrieswasthesame.Thefollowingadverbialsarecommonlyusedinthisway:

absurdlyadmittedlyalasanywayastonishinglyatleastcharacteristicallycoincidentallyconvenientlycuriouslyfortunatelyhappilyincrediblyinterestinglyironicallyluckilymercifullymiraculouslymysteriouslynaturallyoddlyofcourse

paradoxicallypleasepredictablyremarkablysadlysignificantlystrangelysurprisinglytruetypicallyunbelievablyunderstandablyunexpectedlyunfortunatelyunhappilyunnecessarily

Oneof theusesofat least andanyway is to show that you arepleasedaboutaparticularfact,althoughtheremaybeotherlessdesirablefacts.Atleastwe’reagreedonsomething.Ilikeachallengeanyway,sothat’snotaproblem.

USAGENOTE

9.81 Thereareafewcommentingadverbialsthatareoftenfollowedbyenoughwhenusedtoshowyouropinionofwhatyouaretalkingabout:

curiouslyfunnilyinterestinglyoddlystrangely

Oddlyenough,she’dneverbeenabroad.Funnilyenough,Iwastherelastweek.

distancingandbeingmorespecific

9.82 Thereareseveralcommentingadverbialsthathavetheeffectofshowingthatyouarenotcompletelycommittedtothetruthofyourstatement.Ratseatpracticallyanything.Itwasalmostareliefwhentheracewasover.Theyare,ineffect,prisonersintheirownhomes.InawayIlikedherbetterthanMark.Thefollowingadverbialsareusedinthisway:

almostinamannerofspeakinginawayineffectmoreorlesspracticallysotospeaktoallintentsandpurposestosomeextentuptoapointvirtually

Notethatalmost,practically,andvirtuallyarenotusedat thebeginningofaclause.ExpressionssuchasIthink,Ibelieve,andIsupposearealsousedtoshowyourlackofcommitmenttothetruthofwhatyouaresaying.

indicatingyourpointofview

9.83 Withadverbssuchasluckily,fortunately,happily,andunfortunately,youcanshowwhosepointofviewyouaregivingbyadding forandanounphrasereferringtotheperson.‘Does he do his fair share of the household chores?’ – ‘Oh yes,fortunatelyforme.’Luckilyformeandthem,lovedideventuallygrowandflourish.

indicatingaqualityshownbytheperformerofanaction

9.84 Anothergroupof commentingadverbials isused to showaqualityyouthink someone showed by doing an action. They are formed fromadjectivesthatcanbeusedtodescribepeople,andareoftenplacedafterthesubjectofthesentenceandinfrontoftheverb.TheLeagueofFriendsgenerouslyprovidedaboutfivethousandpounds.Thedoctorhadwiselysentherstraighttohospital.Sheverykindlyarrangedadeliciouslunch.Foolishly,wehadsaidwewoulddothedecorating.Thefollowingadverbialsareusedinthisway:

bravelycarelesslycleverlycorrectlyfoolishlygenerouslyhelpfullykindlyrightlywiselywrongly

mentioningyourjustificationforastatement

9.85 Ifyouarebasingyourstatementonsomethingthatyouhaveseen,heard,orread,youcanuseacommentingadverbialtoshowthis.Forexample,ifyou can see that an object has beenmadebyhand, youmight say It isobviouslymadebyhand.Hisfriendwasobviouslyimpressed.Higginsevidentlyknewnothingabouttheirefforts.Apparentlytheyhadarow.Thesearesomecommonadverbialsusedinthisway:

apparentlyclearlyevidentlymanifestlyobviouslyplainlyunmistakablyvisibly

showingthatyouassumeyourheareragrees

9.86 People often use commenting adverbials to persuade someone to agreewiththem.Inthisway, theyshowthat theyareassumingthatwhattheyaresayingisobvious.ObviouslyIcan’tdothewholelotmyself.Price,ofcourse,isanimportantfactor.Thefollowingadverbialsareoftenusedinthisway:

clearlynaturallyobviouslyofcourseplainly

indicatingrealityorpossibility

9.87 Someadverbials areused to showwhethera situationactuallyexistsorwhetheritseemstoexist,ormightexist.Sheseemsconfidentbutactuallyshe’squiteshy.Theycould,conceivably,beright.Extracashisprobablythebestpresent.Thefollowingadverbialsareusedlikethis:

actually

certainlyconceivablydefinitelydoubtlesshopefullyinfactinpracticeinrealityintheorymaybenodoubtofficiallyperhapspossiblypresumablyprobablyreallyunofficially~allegedlyapparentlynominallyostensiblypotentiallyseeminglysupposedlytheoreticallyundoubtedly

Theadverbialsinthesecondgroupareoftenusedinfrontofadjectives.Wedrovealongapparentlyemptystreets.ItwouldbetheoreticallypossibletolayacablefromasatellitetoEarth.

indicatingyourattitude

9.88 Ifyouwanttomakeitclearwhatyourattitudeistowhatyouaresaying,youcanuseacommentingadverbial.Frankly,themoreIhearabouthim,thelessIlikehim.Inmyopinionitwasprobablyamistake.Infairness,sheisnotabadmother.Hereisalistofsomeofthecommonadverbialsusedinthisway:

asfarasI’mconcernedfranklyhonestlyinallhonestyinfairnessinmyopinioninmyviewinretrospectonreflectionpersonallyseriouslytomymind

usinginfinitiveclauses

9.89 Anotherwayofshowingthesortofstatementyouaremakingistousetobefollowedbyanadjective,ortoputitfollowedbyanadverb.Idon’treallyknow,tobehonest.Toputitbluntly,someoneislying.

politeness

9.90 Whensomeonewhoismakingarequestwantstobepolite,theyusetheadverbplease.MayIhaveawordwithyou,please?Wouldyoupleaseremoveyourglasses?Pleasebecareful.

Exclamations9.91 Exclamations are words and structures that express your reactions

emphatically.Youusuallyshowthis inspeechbyyour intonationandinwriting by the use of an exclamation mark (usually called anexclamation point in American English) at the end of the sentence,althoughfullstopsareoftenusedinstead.Iftheexclamationisonlyapartofasentence,itisseparatedfromtherestofthesentencebyacomma.

showingyourreactions

9.92 Therearevariouswaysof showingyour reaction to something thatyouareexperiencingorlookingat,orthatyouhavejustbeentold.Onewayistouseanexclamationsuchasbother,goodheavens,ohdear,orouch.Ow!Thathurt.‘MargaretRavenscroftmayhavebeen responsible for the fire.’– ‘Goodheavens!’saidDrWilloughby.‘Shediedlastautumn.’–‘Ohdear,I’msosorry.’Someexclamationsareusedonlytoshowreactions.Hereisalistofsomecommonones:

ahablastblimeybotherbravocrikeydamneekgoodgraciousgoodgriefgoodheavensgoodlordgoodnessmegollygosh

hallelujahhonestlyhurrayohohdearoohoopsouchowreallysheeshughwellIneverwhatwhoopswowyippeeyou’rejokingyuk

otherclauseelements

9.93 Otherclauseelementsorclausescanbeusedinexclamations.Noun phrases are sometimes used to show your reaction to something.Somenouns,forexamplerubbishandnonsense,canbeusedontheirowntoexpressstrongdisagreement.‘No-one would want to go out with me.’ – ‘Nonsense. You’re a veryattractiveman.’Predeterminers,especiallywhat,areoftenusedbeforethenoun.Whatapleasantsurprise!Suchanintelligentfamily!Quiteashow!Qualitative adjectives are sometimesusedon their own, orwithhow infrontofthem,usuallytoshowapositivereactiontoastatement.

‘I’vearrangedasurprisepartyforhim.’–‘Lovely.’Oh!Look!Howsweet!Aprepositionalphrasewithofcanbeusedtospecifyaperson,andato-infinitiveclausetorefertotheaction.Howniceofyoutocome!Hownicetoseeyou.Sentences with how and an adjective or adverb, or what and a nounphrase,canalsobeusedasexclamations.Theadjective,adverb,ornounphrasecomesbeforethesubject.Howniceyoulook!Howcleverlyyouhidyourfeelings!WhatanidiotIam.Whatnegativethoughtswe’rehaving.Howcanbeplacedatthebeginningofanordinarysentencetoshowtheintensityofafeelingoraction.HowIhateposters.Howhetalked!

questionsthatdonotexpectananswer

9.94 People often use questions as a way of making a comment orexclamation.Theydonotexpectananswer.Questionslikethisarecalledrhetoricalquestions.Youcanuse anegativeyes/no-question, if youwant to encourageotherpeopletoagreewithyou.OhAndy,isn’tshelovely?Wouldn’titbeawfulwithnoChristmas!IninformalEnglish,youcanuseapositivequestion.‘Howmuch?’–‘Ahundredmillion.’–‘Areyoucrazy?’Haveyounoshame!Wh-questions,especiallyonescontainingmodals,arealsoused.HowonearthshouldIknow?Whymustshebesonastytome?

Whybother?SeeChapter5formoreinformationaboutquestions.

Addressingpeople9.95 When you are talking to people, you can address themusing their first

nameor,moreformally,byusingatitlefollowedbytheirsurnamelikeMrJonesorMrsMatthews. Sometimes, thewayyou address people showsyour feelings towards them or your relationship to them. For example,youmight address themusing aword likedarling or idiot.Wordsusedlikethisarecalledvocatives.

position

9.96 Thenamesyouuseforaddressingpeopleareoftenplacedattheendofasentenceorclause.Inwriting,theyareusuallyprecededbyacomma.Whereareyoustaying,MrSwallow?That’slovely,darling.You can put them at the beginning of a sentence in order to attractsomeone’sattentionbeforespeakingtothem.John,howlonghaveyoubeenattheuniversity?Dad,whyhaveyougotthatsuiton?

titles

9.97 Whenyouaddresssomeoneinafairlyformalway,youusetheirtitleandsurname.Informationabouttitlesisgivenin1.55to1.57.Goodbye,DrKirk.Thankyou,MrJones.Howoldareyou,MissFlewin?Titlesindicatingaspecialqualification,rank,orjobcanbeusedontheirown.What’swrong,Doctor?Well,professor?

BECAREFUL

9.98 ThetitlesMr,Mrs,Miss,andMsaregenerallyusedonlywithasurname.To address people formally without their surname, sir and madam(usually contracted toma’am inAmericanEnglish) are used, especiallyby employees to customers or clients, and, in American English, toaddress a personwhose name you do not know andwho appears to beolderthanyou.

Goodafternoon,sir.HowcanIhelpyou?Wouldyouliketoseethedessertmenu,madam?CanIhelpyouwithsomething,ma’am?(American)

otherwaysofaddressingpeople

9.99 Youcanusenounphrasestoshowyouropinionofsomeone.Thosethatshowdislikeorcontemptareoftenusedwithyouinfrontofthem.No,youfool,theotherway.Shutyourbigmouth,youstupididiot.Ways of addressing people that show affection are usually used bythemselves,butmyissometimesusedinmoreold-fashionedorhumorouscontexts.Goodbye,darling.We’vegottogo,mydear.Nouns that refer to family or social relationships can be used foraddressingpeople.Someone’sgottodoit,mum.Sorry,Grandma.She’llbeallright,mate.Trustme,kid.Formsofaddressareoccasionallyusedintheplural.Sitdown,children.Stopher,youfools!Notethatladies,gentlemen,andchildrenareonlyusedintheplural.Ladiesandgentlemen,thankyouforcoming.

Chapter10Makingatextholdtogether

10.2–39 Referringback10.7–17 Referringbackinaspecificway10.18–23 Referringbackinageneralway10.24–27 Substitutingforsomethingalreadymentioned:usingsoandnot10.28–39 Comparingwithsomethingalreadymentioned

10.40–47 Referringforward

10.48–59 Showingconnectionsbetweensentences10.57–59 Linkingpartsofaconversationtogether

10.60–81 Leavingwordsout10.74–81 Inconversation

10 Makingatextholdtogether

10.1 Whenyouspeakorwrite,youveryoftenwanttomakesomeconnectionwithotherthingsthatyouaresayingorwriting.Thereareseveralwaysofusing language to hold your whole message together and to give itmeaning.Themost commonwayof doing this is by referring back to somethingthat has already beenmentioned.The differentways of referring backareexplainedinparagraphs10.2to10.39.Therearealsoafewwaysofreferringforwardtowhatyouareabouttosay.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs10.40to10.47.Anotherwayofmakingconnectionsbetweenwhatyouhavejustsaidandwhat you are going to say is by using sentence connectors. These areexplainedinparagraphs10.48to10.59.Peopleoftenavoidrepeatingwordswhentheyarereferringback.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs10.60to10.81.

Referringback10.2 Whenyouspeakorwrite,youveryoftenreferbacktosomethingthathas

alreadybeenmentionedormakeaconnectionwithit.

pronouns

10.3 One commonway of referring back to something is to use apersonalpronounsuchasshe,it,orthem,orapossessivepronoun suchasmineorhers.Andrewfoundanoldcamerainarubbishbin.Hecleaneditupandusedittowinseveralphotographyawards.TomandJoarebackfromAustralia.InfactIsawthemintowntheother

day.Theywerebuyingclothes.Iheldherveryclose.Mycheekwasagainsthers.Personalpronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.95to1.106.Possessivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.107to1.110.There are also other pronouns that can be used to refer back. Theseincludepronounssuchasanotherandmanywhichhavethesameformasindefinitedeterminers.Theseareexplainedinparagraph1.154.…programsthattellthecomputertodoonethingratherthananother.Youcanalsouseaquantityexpressionoracardinalnumber.Thewomenwereaskedtoleave.Someofthemrefused.Thesesoldierswerereadyforanything.Manyof themhadalreadybeeninvolvedinfighting.…the Guatemalan earthquake which killed 24,000 people and injured77,000.Quantity expressions are explained in paragraphs 2.175 to 2.207.Numbersareexplainedinparagraphs2.208to2.231.

determiners

10.4 Anothercommonwayofreferringbacktosomethingistouseadefinitedeterminersuchastheoritsinfrontofanoun.Amanandawomanwerewalkingupthehill.Themanworeshorts,at-shirt,andsandals.Thewomanworeabluedress.Thanks, saidBrody.He hung up, turned out the light in his office, andwalkedouttohiscar.Definitedeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.162to1.212.Someindefinitedeterminerscanalsobeusedtoreferbacktosomething.Adogwasrunningaroundintheyard.Soonanotherdogappeared.Here is a list of indefinite determiners that are used to refer back tosomething:

another

botheacheithereveryneitherother

Theseareexplainedfullyinparagraphs1.223to1.250.10.5 As indicated above, pronouns and determiners used to refer back are

explained in Chapter 1, where other pronouns and determiners areexplained.Thedemonstratives thisand that are oftenused to refer back towholesentences and sections of text. These uses are set out in the followingsection(paragraphs10.7 to10.17).Thesamesectionalsoexplainsotherwordsthatareusedtoreferbackinaspecificway.

otherwaysofreferringback

10.6 Therearealsoseveralotherwaysofreferringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Theseinvolvetheuseofvariousnounstoreferbacktosectionsoftext

Theseareexplainedinparagraphs10.18to10.23.the use of so and not as substitutes for several types of word or

structurethatyouwanttoavoidrepeatingThisuseofsoandnotisexplainedinparagraphs10.24to10.27.the use of such, adjectives, and adverbs to make comparisons with

thingsthathavealreadybeenmentioned.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs10.28to10.39.

Referringbackinaspecificway

demonstrativesreferringtothings

10.7 Thisandthat,andthepluralformstheseandthose,areusedtoreferback

clearlytoathingorfactthathasjustbeenmentioned.Theycanbeusedbothaspronounsandasdeterminers.Moreandmoremoneyisbeingpumpedintotheeducationalsystem,andweassumethiswillcontinue.I did a parachute jump a few months ago. This event was a lot morefrighteningthanIhadanticipated.Note that this and that are not very often used as pronouns to refer topeople.When they areused like this, they areonlyused in frontof theverbbe.‘Akindyoungmanhelpedmetomyseat.’–‘ThatwasJohn.’

10.8 Whenyouuse thisor these,youare linkingyourselfwith the thingyouarereferringto.After you’vedecidedon yourgoals,makea list.Anything that isworthdoingshouldgoonthislist.Onlysmalltreesareleft.Manyofthesearetwistedandstunted.Over2millionanimalsweredestroyed.Thevastmajorityoftheseanimalsdidnotneedtodie.In contrast, when you use that or those, you are distancing yourselfslightlyfromthethingyouarereferringto.There’salotofmaterialthere.Youcanusesomeofthat.There’sonebossandthatbossisinFrance.Therewereonlystrangersaroundtoobservehim,andnotmanyofthose.

10.9 Although thisand thataresingularpronouns,youcanuse themtoreferbacktoanumberofthingsorfactsthathavejustbeenmentioned,insteadofusingapluralpronoun.He’sgotaterribletemper,butdespiteallthishe’sverypopular.He had played rugby at school, and had briefly been a professionalfootballer.Thatwastohisfavourwhenthejobcameuplater.

demonstrativesreferringtosentences

10.10 Demonstrativescanalsobepronounsordeterminers thatreferbacktoawholesentenceoranumberofsentences.

‘You’rethenewdoctor,aren’tyou?’–‘That’sright.’‘I’llthinkaboutit,’saidMum.Thatstatementwastheendofmostoftheirdiscussions.Iacceptneitherofthesearguments.Note thatwhen these and those are pronouns referring back to awholestatementtheyareonlyusedinfrontoftheverbbe.Itwashard forme tobelieve thesewerehisrealreasons forwanting togetridofme.Sheputherarmsaroundhim.Thanks,Ollie.Thosewereherlastwords.

previous

10.11 Youcanalsousetheadjectivepreviousbeforeanoun to referback toasectionoftext.As explained in the previous paragraph, the bottle needs only to bewashedincoldwater.Ithinkwecannowanswerthequestionposedattheendofthepreviouschapter.

above

10.12 InwrittenEnglishyoucanalsorefertowhatyouhavejustmentionedbyusingabove.Youcanputabovebeforeorafterthenoun.Ihavenotbeenabletovalidatetheabovestatement.…thefiguresdiscussedintheparagraphabove.Youcanalsousetheabovewithoutanounphraseafterit.Keepsuppliesofriceandspaghetti.Also,togowiththeabove,Parmesancheeseandtinsoftomatoes.

formerandlatter

10.13 Whenyouhavejustreferredseparatelytotwothingsorgroupsofthings,you can refer to the first one as the former and the second one as thelatter.TheseexpressionsareusedmainlyinformalwrittenEnglish.It used to be said that the oil exporting countries depended on the oilimportingcountriesjustasmuchasthelatterdependedontheformer.

Icoulddooneoftwothings–obeyhim,orgetmyownprotection.Ichosethelatter.Formerandlattercanalsobeadjectives.Theyalwaysgobeforeanoun.Youhave theoptionof oneor twobedrooms.The former choiceallowsroomforasmallbathroom.Guyhad studiedGreek andphilosophyatOxfordandhad continued tohaveaninterestinthelattersubject.

USAGENOTE

10.14 Whenyouwanttorefergenerallytoawholeclassofthingsliketheonethathasbeenmentioned,youcansaythingsofthiskindorthingsofthatkind.Alternativelyyoucansaythiskindofthingorthatkindofthing.We’llneedaspecialnewapplicationtodealwithpayments,invoices,andthingsofthatkind.Mostofuswouldattachagreatdealof importancetoconsiderationsofthiskind.Idon’tseemanyadvantagesinthatkindofeducation.Allartstheatreshavethattypeofproblem.If you are referring to things of two ormore kinds, you use these andthoseinfrontofkinds,sorts,ortypes,followedbyofandanoun.Both these countries want to reduce the production of these kinds ofweapons.Therearespecificregulationsgoverningthesetypesofmachines.Outsidersaren’tsupposedtomakethosekindsofjokes.Youcanalsousesuchtoreferbacktothingsofatypethathasjustbeenmentioned.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs10.28to10.32.

time

10.15 The adverb then is used to refer back to the time that has just beenmentionedordiscussed.Inancienttimespoetrywasarealforceintheworld.Ofcoursetheworldwasdifferentthen.

place

10.16 The adverb there is used to refer back to the place that has just beenmentioned.IdecidedtotryNewmarket.Isoonfoundajobthere.Ihurriedbackintothekitchen.Therewasnothingthere.

manner

10.17 Afterdescribingawayofdoingsomethingorawayinwhichsomethinghappens,youcanreferbacktoitusingtheadverbthus.Thus isaformalword.Joannawaspouringthedrinks.Whileshewasthusengaged,Charlestooktheguests’coats.Itnotonlypleasedhimtoworkwiththem,butthemoneythusearnedgavehimanenormoussenseofimportance.Notethatinthiswayorinthatwayarecommonlyusedinstead.LastweekIreceivedtheEntrepreneuroftheYearaward.It’saprivilegetobehonouredinthisway.

Referringbackinageneralway10.18 Therearevariousgroupsofnounsthatareusedtoreferbackinageneral

waytowhathasalreadybeensaid.Theyrefertowholesectionsofspokenorwrittentext.

referringtospokenorwrittentexts

10.19 Youcanoftenreferbacktowhathasalreadybeensaidinatextbyusinganounthatclassesitasatypeofverbalaction,forexampleanadmission,suggestion,orquestion.‘Martin,whatareyougoingtodo?’–‘That’sagoodquestion,Larry.’‘Youclaim to know thisman’s identity?’– ‘Ido.’– ‘Canyouprove thisclaim?’Thenounthatyouusetoreferbacklikethisnotonlyreferstothetextbutalso shows your feelings about it. For example, if you refer back tosomeone’s reply to something using the noun response, this shows thatyourfeelingsaboutitarequiteneutral,whereasifyouusethenounretort,

thisshowsthatyourfeelingsaboutthereplyaremuchstronger.Hereisa listofnounsthatreferbacktotexts,classingthemastypesofverbalaction:

accountaccusationacknowledgementadmissionadviceallegationannouncementanswerapologyappealargumentassertionassuranceboastchargeclaimcommentcomplaintcomplimentconcessioncondemnationconfessioncontentioncorrectioncriticismdeclarationdefencedefinitiondemanddenialdenunciation

descriptiondigressiondisclosurediscussionendorsementexcuseexplanationexpositiongossipinformationjudgementliemessagenarrativeobjectionobservationpleapointpredictionpromisepronouncementprophecyproposalpropositionprotestquestionreferencerefusalremarkreminderreplyreportrequestresponseretortrevelation

rumour

statementstipulationstorysuggestionsummarytalethreatverdictwarning

Notethatmanyofthesenounsarerelatedtoreportingverbs.ReportingverbsareexplainedinChapter7.Peoplewill feel theneed tobe informedand theywillgowherever theycantogetthisinformation.’I don’t know what we should do about that.’ This remark was totallyunexpected.Sheremarkedthatshepreferredfuneralstoweddings.

referringtoideas

10.20 Inthesameway,youcanalsoreferbacktoideasthatyouknoworthinksomeonehasbyusinganoun thatalso indicatesyour feelingsabout theideas.Forexample, ifyou refer to someone’s ideausing thenounview,thisshowsthatyourfeelingsaboutitarequiteneutral,whereasifyouusethenoundelusion,thisshowsthatyourfeelingsarestronger.His opinion of marriage is that it can destroy a relationship. Evenpreviously unmarried people can hold this view if they experienced thebreak-upoftheirparents’marriage.There is nothing to cry for.They cannot keepme thereagainstmywill.Secureinthisbelief,hehuggedherreassuringlyandwentout.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertoideasandshowyourfeelingsabouttheideas:

analysisassessmentassumptionattitudebeliefconclusionconjectureconceptdeductiondelusiondiagnosisdoctrinedoubtestimateevaluationfearfindingguesshopeideaillusioninferenceinsightinterpretationmisinterpretationnotionopinionpictureplanpositionreasoningschemesuppositiontheorythinkingview

viewpoint

visionwish

referringtowhatismentioned

10.21 Youcanalsoreferbacktoactionsandeventsusingnounsthatshowyourfeelings about the action or event. For example, if you use the nounincident to refer to an accident at a nuclear power station, this simplydescribestheevent,whereasifyouusethenoundisaster,thisshowsyourreactiontotheevent.Gwenwasnotthekindtomakeafuss.Inanyevent,shecouldhandlethesituation.Ibelievedthepresswouldcooperateonthisissue.Parentsmay complain that their child does not eat a variety of healthyfood. This problem doesn’t arise because the parents have been lenientaboutfoodinthepast.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertoeventsandareusuallyneutral:

actactionaffairaspectcasecircumstancescontextdevelopmenteffectepisodeeventexperiencefactfactorfeature

incidentissuemattermethodmovephenomenonpositionpossibilitypracticeprocessreasonrespectresultsituationstatestateofaffairssubjectsystemthingtopicway

Hereisa listofnounsthatrefer toeventsandshowyourfeelingsaboutthem:

achievementadvantageanswercatastrophecrisisdebacledifficultydisadvantagedisasterexploit

featfiascogaffenightmareplightpredicamentproblemsolutiontragedy

BECREATIVE

10.22 When you are referring back to something that has been said ormentioned,youcanusealmostanynounthatreferstotexts,ideas,events,andsometimeseven topeople.Thenounyouuseallowsyou toexpressyourexactreactiontothethingthatisbeingreferredto.Forexample,youcan refer to a football defeat usingnouns such as tragedy or farce, andyoucanrefertoanargumentusingnounssuchasrowandbattle.

referringtopiecesofwriting

10.23 Youcanreferinaneutralwaytoapreviouspieceofwriting.As explained in the previous paragraph, the bottle needs only to bewashedclean.Wehaveseeninthischapterhowthetaxburdenhasincreasedfastestforhouseholdswithchildren.Hereisalistofnounsusedtorefertoapieceofwriting:

chapterexampleexcerptextractparagraphpassagephrasequotation

sectionsentencestatementsummarytabletextwords

Substitutingforsomethingalreadymentioned:usingsoandnot

soasasubstituteforanadjective

10.24 So is sometimes used in formalEnglish as a substitute for an adjectivethathasalreadybeenmentioned.Theyarewildlyinefficientandwillremainsoforsometimetocome.Theyarejustasisolated,ifnotmoreso,thanbefore.

soandnotafterif

10.25 So isusedtosubstituteforaclauseafter if,whentheactionorsituationyouaretalkingabouthasalreadybeenmentioned.Willthatbeenough?Ifso,donotaskformore.Not is used to substitute for a negative clause, to suggest the oppositesituationtotheonealreadymentioned.Youwillprobablyhaveoneofthetwodocumentsmentionedbelow.Ifnot,youwillhavetobuyone.

soandnotwithreportingverbs

10.26 So and not are also used to substitute for clauses after some commonreportingverbs.TheyarealsousedaftertheexpressionI’mafraid,whichisusedtoreportanunwelcomefact.‘Areyouallright?’–‘Ithinkso.’You’reasensiblewoman–I’vealwayssaidso.‘Youthinkhe’sfailed,don’tyou?’–‘I’mafraidso.’‘Itdoesn’toftenhappen.’–‘No,Isupposenot.’

‘Youhaven’tlosttheticket,haveyou?’–‘Ihopenot’Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatcanbefollowedbysoandnot:

believeexpecthopeimaginesaysupposetellthink

Notethat theuseofnotasasubstitutewith think,expect,andbelieve israreorformal.Whennotisoccasionallyusedwithsay,thereisamodalinfrontofsay.‘Isthisacoincidence?’–‘Iwouldsaynot.’Occasionallyso isputat thebeginningof theclause.Thisoftenhas theeffectofcastingdoubtonthetruthofthefactinvolved.Everybodyintheworld,sotheysay,hasadouble.So can also be used at the beginning of a clause for emphasis. This isexplainedinparagraph9.62.

doso

10.27 Do so is used tomean perform the action just mentioned. The variousformsoftheverbdocanbeused.Thisstructureisratherformal.Asignalwhichshouldhaveturnedtoredfailedtodoso.Most of those who signed the letter did so under pressure from theirbosses.Sheaskedhimtowaitwhilesheconsidered.Hedidso.Individuals are free to choose private insurance, and 10% of thepopulationhavedoneso.

Comparingwithsomethingalreadymentioned

10.28 Thewordsuchcanbeused inseveralways toholda text together.Youuse itwhen youwant to indicate that something is of the same sort assomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Thegrammaticalpatternsofsuchareunique.Itcanbehaveasadeterminer,apredeterminer,andanadjective.

suchasadeterminer

10.29 Such can be a determiner referring back to something that has alreadybeenmentioned.Mostofthestate’selectricitycomesfromburningimportedoil,thehighestuseofsuchfuelinthecountry.New business provides the majority of new jobs. By their nature, suchbusinessestakerisks.

suchasapredeterminer

10.30 Such can be a predeterminer (see paragraph 1.251) referring back tosomething that has already been mentioned. It comes in front of thedetermineraoran.Theylastedforhundredsofyears.Onahumantimescale,suchaperiodseemsaneternity.Ononeoccasion the schoolparliamentdiscussed thedismissalofateacher.Butsuchaneventisrare.

suchasanadjective

10.31 Such can be an adjective referring back to something that has alreadybeenmentioned.Hecanbeverycruel.Thiswasonesuchoccasion.‘Didyoucallmealiar?’–‘Ineversaidanysuchthing!’MrBell’sclubswereprivatelyowned.Likemostsuchclubseverywhere,theywereorganizationsofpeoplewhosharedacertaininterest.IhatedthebigformaldancesandfeltveryoutofplaceattheoneortwosucheventsIattended.

adjectives

10.32 Some adjectives are used to indicate a comparison, contrast, or

connectionwithsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.

same

10.33 The adjective same is used attributively to emphasize that you arereferringbacktosomethingthathasjustbeenmentioned.AmanopenedthedoorandsaidNextplease.Abouttenminuteslater,thesame man returned. He watched her climb into a compartment of thetrain,andhechosethesameonesohecouldwatchhermoreclosely.Notethatwhensame isusedbeforeanounorpronoun,itnearlyalwaysfollowsthe,butitcanoccasionallyfollowotherdefinitedeterminers.Thesesamesmellsmayproducedepressioninothers.

10.34 Same can also come after a linking verb when you want to show thatsomething is similar in every way to something that has just beenmentioned.Whensameisusedafteralinkingverbitalwaysfollowsthe.TheQueentreatedusverywell.ThePrincessRoyalwasjustthesame.Mybrothersandmyselfwereverypoor,buthappy.Ithinkotherfamilieswerethesame.

10.35 You can also use the same without a following noun as the subject orobject of a clause, to refer back to something that has just beenmentioned.The conversion process is very inefficient. The same is true of nuclearpowerstations.‘I’veneverheardofhim.’–‘IwishIcouldsaythesame.’Thesamethingcanbeusedexactlylikethesame,asasubjectorobject.Hewasstoppedandsentback togeta ticket.Onthereturn journey thesamethinghappened.Ilearnthowtocheatandwineverytime.AndI’mnotproudofthefactthatItaughtanumberofotherpeopletodothesamething.

oppositeandreverse

10.36 Theadjectivesoppositeandreverseareused tosay thatsomething isasdifferentaspossiblefromthethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Theyusuallyfollowthe.

Itwasdesignedtoimpress,butitprobablyhadtheoppositeeffect.InthepasttenyearsIthinkwe’veseenthereverseprocess.Whenoppositeisusedbeforeanoun,itoccasionallyfollowsan.Otherstudiesdrawanoppositeconclusion.Youcansometimesusetheoppositeandthereversewithouta followingnountoreferbacktosomething.Thepoliceofficersaid thatwewouldhave to learn to livewithcrime. Ithinktheoppositeistrue;wehavetolearnnottolivewithcrime.Heiswellknownforsayingonethinganddoingtheopposite.Oldermalesareoftendesirable towomenbut thereverse isnotusuallytrue.Ithasn’thappened.Thereversehashappened.

otheradjectives

10.37 You can also use a variety of other adjectives to say that something issimilar to, different from,or connectedwith something that has alreadybeenmentioned.Someoftheseadjectivesareonlyusedbeforeanounandotherscanalsocomeafteralinkingverb.Sheworeareddresswitharedmatchinghat.WestGermany,DenmarkandItalyfacedeclinesinyoungpeople.Weareconfrontedwithacontrastingproblem.That’swhatIwouldsay.Buthisattitudewasdifferentaltogether.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatcanonlybeusedinfrontofanountoreferback:

adjacentconflictingcontradictorycontrarycontrastingcorrespondingequalequivalentmatching

opposingparallel

Here is a listof adjectives that canbeusedboth in frontofanounandafteralinkingverbtoreferback:

analogouscomparablecompatibledifferentidenticalrelatedseparatesimilarunrelated

adverbials

10.38 Tosay thatanactionorawayofdoingsomething is similar to theonejustmentioned,youcanuseinthesameway,inasimilarway,similarly,orlikewise.ShespokeofJimwithpride.Andpresumablyshespoke tohimofme inthesameway.Sam was engaged in conversation; Richard and Patrick were similarlyoccupied.

10.39 Toshowthatanactionorawayofdoingsomethingisdifferentfromtheonejustdescribed,youcanusetheadverbsotherwiseanddifferently.Ithoughtlifewassimplysplendid.Ihadnoreasontothinkotherwise.Shewas ashamed of her actions, but she had been totally incapable ofdoingotherwise.Myparentswereverystrict,butI’mgoingtodothingsdifferentlywithmykids.

Referringforward

10.40 Therearevariouswaysofreferringforwardtothingsthatareabouttobementioned.Thesewaysofteninvolvethenounslistedinparagraphs10.18to10.23,whicharemorecommonlyusedwhenyouarereferringbacktosomething.

thisandthese

10.41 Theuseof this to refer back to somethingwas explained inparagraphs10.7to10.10.Youcanalsousethisorthesetoreferforwardtowhatyouareabout to say.Theycanbebothpronounsanddeterminers.Note thatthesecanonlybeapronounwhenitisthesubject.Well,youmightnotbelievethisbutIdon’tdrinkverymuch.PerhapsIshouldn’tsaythis,butIdidononeoccasionbreakthelaw.Thischapterwillfollowthesamepatternasthepreviousone.Thesewerethefacts:onawarmFebruaryafternoon,GregoryClarkandafriendwerecruisingdownWashingtonBoulevardinaMustang.On the blackboard these words were written: Reading. Writing.Arithmetic.

10.42 When this and these are used as determiners to refer forward tosomething,theyaremostcommonlyusedwithnounsthatrefertoapieceofwriting(seeparagraph10.23).Sometimestheyareusedwithnounsthatrefer towhat is said (see paragraph10.19) andwith nouns that refer toideas (see paragraph 10.20). They occasionally occur with nouns thatrefertoactionsorevents(seeparagraph10.21).

following

10.43 Youcanalsorefer towhatyouareabout tomentionusing theadjectivefollowingbeforeanoun.Whenfollowingisusedlikethis,itisusedwithnouns that refer to texts, ideas, and pieces of writing (see paragraphs10.19, 10.20, and 10.23.). Very occasionally, it is usedwith nouns thatrefertoactionsandevents(seeparagraph10.21.).Afterawhilehereceivedthefollowingletter:DearSir,TheSecretaryofStateregretsthatheisunabletoreconsideryourcase.Thefollowingaccountisbasedonnotesfromthatperiod.They arrived at the following conclusion: children with disabilities are

betteroffinnormalclasses.Youcanalsousedthefollowingwithoutanounphraseafterit.…aboxcontainingthefollowing:apacketoftissues,twohandkerchiefs,andaclothesbrush.

next

10.44 Theadjectivenextisoftenusedtoreferforwardwithnounsthatrefertopiecesofwriting.Inthenextchapter,wewillexaminethistheoryindetail.

below

10.45 Youcan alsousebelow to refer forward to somethingyou are about tomention.Youusebelowlikethisafternounsthatrefertotextsandpiecesofwriting(seeparagraphs10.19and10.23).Forfulldetails,seethereportbelow.Thefigurescanbeseeninthetablebelow.Belowcanoccasionallybeusedtoreferforwardwithnounsthatrefertoactionsandthings.Whenitisusedwiththem,itcomesafterawordlikegiven,shown,orsetout.ThereportgivenbelowappearedintheDailyMailon8August1985.

such

10.46 Suchissometimesusedasapredeterminertorefertoakindofthingthatisspecifiedimmediatelyafterwardsinaphraseorclausebeginningwithas.Youmightthinkthatinsuchabookasthis,thereisnoneedtodealwiththesematters.Such isalsosometimesusedtoqualifyanoun,followedbyaspecifyingphraseorclausebeginningwithas.…ageneralriseinpricessuchasoccurredinthelate1960s.TryputtingtheitemsunderheadingssuchasI’vesuggested.

otherways

10.47 Therearealsootherwaysofreferringforwardtothingsthatalsoinvolvefocusingonthethingreferredto.Theseinvolvesplitsentences,whichareexplainedinparagraphs9.25to9.30andsentencesbeginningwiththere,whichareexplainedinparagraphs9.46to9.55.

Showingconnectionsbetweensentences10.48 Thefollowingsectionexplainsthefunctionsofdifferentgroupsoflinking

expressions, or sentence connectors. Sentence connectors are used toshowwhatsortofconnectionthereisbetweenonesentenceandanother.

indicatinganaddition

10.49 Inthecourseofspeakingorwriting,youcanintroducearelatedcommentor an extra reinforcing piece of information using one of the followingadverbials:

alsoaswellatthesametimebesidesfurthermoremoreoverontopofthattoo

Icannotapologizeforhiscomments.Besides,Iagreewiththem.Moreover,newreservescontinuetobediscovered.Hisfirstbookwaspublishedin1932,anditwasfollowedbyaseriesofnovels.HealsowroteabookonBritishpubs.The demands ofwork can cause gaps in regular attendance.On top ofthat,manystudentsareofferednoextralessonsduringthevacations.Notethattooisnotusuallyplacedatthebeginningofasentence.Hewashard-working,andhonest,too.

indicatingasimilarpoint

10.50 Youcanshowthatyouareaddingafactthatillustratesthesamepointastheoneyouhave justmade,orasuggestion thathas thesamebasis,byusingoneofthefollowingadverbials:

againbythesametokenequallyinthesamewaylikewisesimilarly

Everybaby’sfaceisdifferentfromeveryother’s.In thesameway,everybaby’spatternofdevelopmentisdifferent.Beingagoodplayerdoesn’tguaranteeyouwillbeagoodmanager,but,bythesametoken,neitherdoeshavingallthecoachingbadges.Neverfeedyourrabbitrawpotatoesthathavegonegreen–theycontainapoison.Similarly,neverfeeditrhubarbleaves.

contrastsandalternatives

10.51 Whenyouwanttoaddasentencethatcontrastswiththepreviousoneorgivesanotherpointofview,youcanuseoneofthefollowingadverbials:

allthesamealternativelybycontrastconverselyevensohoweverinsteadneverthelessnonethelessonthecontraryontheotherhand

ratherstillthenagainthoughyet

Hehad forgotten that therewasa rainy season in thewintermonths. Itwas,however,afine,softrainandtheairwaswarm.Heraimistopunishthecriminal.Nevertheless,sheisnotconvincedthatimprisonmentisalwaystheanswer.Herchildrenarehardwork.Sheneverloseshertemperwiththemthough.Ifyouarementioninganalternative,youcanuseinstead,alternatively,orconversely.People who normally consulted her began to ask other people’s adviceinstead.The company is now considering an appeal. Alternatively, they maysubmitanewapplication.

causes

10.52 Whenyouwanttosaythatthefactyouarementioningexistsbecauseofthefactorfactspreviouslygiven,youlinkyourstatementsusingoneofthefollowingadverbs:

accordinglyasaresultconsequentlyhencesotherebythereforethus

OxfordandCambridgehavealargeincomeoftheirown.Sotheyarenotinquitethesamepositionasotheruniversities.

Itisn’tgivinganydetailedinformation.Thereforeitisn’tnecessary.Wewantadiversepressandwehaven’tgotit.Ithinkasaresultalotofoptionsareclosedtous.

showingsequenceintime

10.53 Sometimeadverbialsareusedtoindicatethatsomethingtakesplaceafterorbeforeaneventthatyouhavealreadymentionedoratthesametimeasthatevent:

afterwardsatthesametimebeforehandearliereversincefinallyfirstinthemeantimelastlatermeanwhilenextpresentlypreviouslysimultaneouslysincesoonsoonaftersubsequentlysuddenlythenthroughout

GoandseeTerryBrownaboutit.Comebacktomeafterwards.Publishedin1983,thebookhassincegonethroughsixreprints.Neversetoutonajourneywithouttellingsomeonebeforehand.

We look forward to the Commission studying this agreement. In themeantimewearepressingaheadwithourplans.

puttingpointsinorder

10.54 In formalwriting and speech, peopleoftenwant to saywhat stage theyhave reached in writing or speaking. They do this using the followingsentenceconnectors:

firstfirstlysecondsecondlythirdthirdlyfinallyinconclusionlastlythentosumup

What are the advantages of geothermal energy? Firstly, there’s no fuelrequired,theenergyalreadyexists.Secondly,there’splentyofit.Finally,Iwanttosaysomethingabouttheheatpump.

conjunctions

10.55 Whenpeoplearespeakingorwritinginformally,theyoftenaddanextrapieceof informationusingoneof theconjunctionsand,but,yet,or,andnortobeginanewsentence.He’saverygoodteacher.Andhe’sgood-looking.Ithinkit’smotorcycling.ButI’mnotsure.It’snotimprovingtheircharacter.Northeirhomelife.

sentenceconnectorsafterandorbut

10.56 Sentenceconnectorsareoftenputaftertheconjunctionsandorbutatthebeginningofaclauseorsentence.Thatwilltakealongtimeandbesidesyou’dgetitwrong.Theywerefamiliarandthereforeallright.Heraccentisnotperfect.Butstill,it’samarvellousperformance.Ifyouarelinkingtwonegativesentencesorclauses,youcanputeitherattheendofthesecondone.Ican’tuseit,butIcan’tbearnottouseiteither.

Linkingpartsofaconversationtogether10.57 Sometimespeoplewanttoavoidabruptnesswhenchangingthetopicof

conversation,orwhenstartingtotalkaboutadifferentaspectofit.Theydothisbyusingaparticulargroupofsentenceconnectors.

Thefollowingadverbialsarecommonlyusedinthisway:

actuallyanyhowanywaybythewayincidentallylooknownowthenokayrightsothenwellwellnowwellthenyouknow

Theyusuallyoccuratthebeginningofaclause.However,afewofthem

canbeusedinotherplacesintheclause,whenyouwanttopauseorwanttodrawattentiontothefactthatyouareintroducinganewtopic.Actually,anyhow,anyway,bytheway,incidentally,andyouknowcanbeusedattheendofaclause.Bytheway,incidentally,andyouknowcanbeusedafterthesubjectorafterthefirstwordinaverbphrase.Here are some examples showing sentence connectors being used tochangethetopicofaconversation:Actually,Dan,beforeIforget,sheaskedmetotellyouaboutmynewjob.Wellnow,we’vegotaverybigtaskaheadofus.Herearesomeexamplesshowingsentenceconnectorsbeingusedtostarttalkingaboutadifferentaspectofthesametopic:Whatdoyousellthereanyway?Thisapproach,incidentally,alsohastheadvantageofbeingcheap.Thenbyitselfisnotusedatthebeginningofaclause,onlyattheend.That’sallrightthen.Areyoufondofher,then?

10.58 Some sentence connectors are used at the beginning of a clause tointroduceafact,oftenonethatcorrectsthestatementjustmade.Theycanalsobeusedattheendofaclause,andelsewhere,toemphasizethefact.

actuallyasamatteroffactasithappensImeanindeedinfact

Note that actually is used here to add information on the same topic,whereasinthepreviousparagraphitindicatedachangeoftopic.Actually,Idoknowwhyhewrotethatletter.Heratherenviesyouactually.I’msureyou’reright.Infact,Iknowyou’reright.There’sno reason tobedisappointed.Asamatter of fact, this couldbe

ratheramusing.Theycannothoporjump.Indeed,theycanbarelymanageeventorun.Youseeisusedtointroduceorpointtoanexplanation.‘Areyousurprised?’–‘No.Yousee,I’veknownaboutitforalongtime.’Hedidn’thaveanyonetotalkto,yousee.Afterallisusedtointroduceorpointtoareasonorjustificationofwhatyouhavejustsaid.Shedidnot regretacceptinghisoffer.Hewas,afterall, about the rightage.

USAGENOTE

10.59 Prepositional phrases are sometimes used to introduce a new topic or adifferent aspect of the same topic. As to or as for can be used at thebeginningofasentencetointroduceaslightlydifferenttopic.As to what actually transpired at the headquarters, there are manydifferingaccounts.Wewill continue to expandour business.As for ourcompetitors,theymaywellstruggle.Withandinthecaseofaresometimesusedtomentionanotherthingthatisinvolvedinatypeofsituationthatwaspreviouslymentioned.Withchildren,youhavetoplanabitmorecarefully.Whenthedeathwasexpected,theperiodofgriefisusuallyshorterthaninthecaseofanunexpecteddeath.

Leavingwordsout10.60 In English, people often leave words out rather than repeating them.

Leavingwordsoutiscalledellipsis.Thissometimesoccursinclausesthatarelinkedbywordslikeand,butoror,andcoordinatedgroupsofwords.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs8.152to8.176.Thissectiondealswithhowwordscanbeleftoutinsubordinateclausesandseparatesentencesaswellasincoordinateclauses.Thesecondclauseorsentencecouldbesaidorwrittenbythesameperson,oritcouldbepartof a reply or comment by someone else. Omission of certain words inconversationisexplainedinparagraphs10.74to10.81.

contrastingsubjects

10.61 Ifyouhavejustdescribedanactionorstateandyouwanttointroduceanew subject only, you do not need to repeat the rest of the sentence.Instead,youcanjustuseanauxiliary.Therewere19-and20-year-oldswhowereearningmorethanIwas.Theycanhearhighersoundsthanwecan.

contrastingtheverbformorthemodalverb

10.62 If youwant to changeonly theverb formor themodal, youuse anewauxiliary,withasubjectreferringtothesamepersonorthing.Theywouldstopitiftheycould.Veryfewofushavethatsortofenthusiasm,althoughweknowweoughtto.IneverwenttoStratford,althoughIprobablyshouldhave.Thistopicshouldhaveattractedfarmoreattentionfromthepressthanithas.

do

10.63 Ifyouchoosenootherauxiliaryverb,youusuallyusedo,does,ordid.Youlookjustasbadashedoes.Ithinkwewantitmorethantheydo.

beasamainverb

10.64 However, the linking verb be is repeated, in an appropriate form. Forexample,Iwasscaredandthechildrenweretoo.‘Ithinkyou’reright.’–‘I’msureIam.’If thesecondverbphrasecontainsamodal,youusuallyputbeafter themodal.‘I’mfromGlasgow.’–‘Ithoughtyoumightbe.’‘Hethoughtthatitwashereditaryinhiscase.’–‘Well,itmightbe.’However, this is not necessary if the first verb phrase also contains amodal.

I’llbebackassoonasIcan.Beissometimesusedafteramodalinthesecondclausetocontrastwithanotherlinkingverbsuchasseem,look,orsound.‘Itlooksliketeatome.’–‘Yes,itcouldbe.’

haveasamainverb

10.65 Ifthefirstverbisthemainverbhave,aformofhaveissometimesusedinsteadofaformofdo.Sheprobablyhasatemperature–shecertainlylooksasifshehas.

leavingwordsoutwithnot

10.66 You can make the second verb phrase negative by adding not to theauxiliary. These combinations are contracted in informal speech andwritingtodon’t,hasn’t,isn’t,mustn’t,andsoon(seeparagraph5.61foralist of these contractions). You use the same forms for a negativeresponsetoaquestion.Somemanagedtovotebutmostofthemdidn’t.‘You’restayinghere!’–‘ButGertrude,Ican’t,Imustn’t!’‘Anddiditwork?’–‘No,I’mafraiditdidn’t.’Widowsreceivestatebenefit;widowersdonot.Hecouldhavelistenedtotheradio.Hedidnot.

USAGENOTE

10.67 Withpassives,beisoften,butnotalways,keptafteramodal.Hearguedthatiftissuescouldbemarketed,thenanythingcouldbe.However, with perfect passives, you can just use the auxiliary have orhas.Forexample,youcouldsay,Haveyoubeeninterviewedyet?Ihave.Note thatwhen amodalwithhave is used for a passive or progressiveverbphrase,beencannotbeomitted.I’msureitwasrepeatedinthemedia.Itmusthavebeen.Shewasnotdoingherhomeworkassheshouldhavebeen.

10.68 If the second verb phrase contains the auxiliary have in any form,

speakers of British English sometimes add done to the group. Forexample,insteadofsayingHesayshedidn’tseeitbuthemusthave,theysometimessayHesayshedidn’tseeitbuthemusthavedone.Hehadn’tkeptabackup,butheshouldhavedone.

Americanspeakersrepeatonlytheauxiliaryverbhave.Hehadn’tkeptabackup,butheshouldhave.Itwouldhavebeennicetohavewon,andImighthavedoneifIhadtriedharder.Similarly,Britishspeakerssometimesusedoaftermodals.Herespondedalmostasastudentmightdo.

Americanspeakersdonotusedoaftermodals.Notethatwhentheverbusedinthefirstmentionofanactionorstateisthe main verb have, instead of using do after a modal in the secondmention,youoftenusehaveinstead.‘Doyouthinkthatacademicshaveanunderstandingoftherealworld?’–‘No,andIdon’tthinktheyshouldhave.’

10.69 Usually,theclausewithwordsomittedcomesafteraclauseinwhichtheactionorstatehasbeenmentionedinfullwithamainverb.Occasionally,however,foradeliberateeffect,itcomesbeforetheclausethatmentionstheactionorstateinfull.Theproblemsintheeconomyarenowbeingreflected,astheyshouldbe,inthehousingmarket

repeatingthemainverb

10.70 Ifyouwanttobeemphatic,yourepeatthemainverb,insteadofleavingitout.Itwas the largest swarmofwasps thathadeverbeen seenor that everwouldbeseen.

contrastingobjectsandadverbials

10.71 Note that if you want to contrast two different things affected by anaction,ortwodifferentfactorsorcircumstances,youcanputanewobject

oradverbialinthesecondclause,withanauxiliaryorformofbe.Cooknettlesexactlyasyouwouldspinach.Youdon’tgetasmuchbickeringonafarmasyoudoinmostjobs.Survival rates for cancer are twice as high in America as they are inBritain.Noonelikedbeingyoungthenastheydonow.However,themainverbissometimesrepeated.Can’tyouatleasttreatmethewayyoutreatregularclients?

USAGENOTE

10.72 Youcanomitaverbafterthesemi-modalsdareandneed,butonlywhentheyareusedinthenegative.‘Idon’tmindtellingyouwhatIknow.’–‘Youneedn’t.I’mnotaskingyouforit.’‘Youmusttellherthetruth.’–‘But,Neill,Idaren’t.’Similarly,theverbisonlyomittedafterthemodalexpressionshadratherandwouldratherwhentheyareusedinthenegative.However,theverbissometimesomittedafterhadbetterevenwhenitisusedaffirmatively.‘Willshebehappythere?’–‘She’dbetter.’It’sjustthatI’drathernot.

10.73 Youcanalso leavewordsoutof to-infinitiveclauses. Insteadofusingafull to-infinitiveclauseafteraverb,youcan justuse to, if theactionorstatehasalreadybeenmentioned.Don’ttellmeifyoudon’twantto.AtlastheagreedtodowhatIaskedhimto.Youcanalsodothisinconversation.‘Doyouevervisitadoctor?’Iaskedher.–‘No.Wecan’taffordto.’Note that there are some verbs, such as try andask, that are also oftenusedontheirown,withoutto.Theycouldn’thelpeachother,anditwasridiculoustotry.I’msureshe’llhelpyou,ifyouask.

Inconversation

10.74 Peopleoftenleavewordsoutinconversationinrepliesandquestions.Whenthishappens,itcaninvolveleavingoutthemainverbinthewaysthathavebeenexplainedabove (seeparagraphs10.60 to10.73).This iscommonwithquestions that show thatyou findwhat someonehas saidinteresting or surprising, or that you do not agree with them. Thesequestionsalwayshaveapronounastheirsubject.‘Hegetsfreemeals.’–‘Doeshe?’‘They’restartingupanewartscentrethere.’–‘Arethey?’‘I’vecheckedeveryone.’–‘Haveyounow?’

leavingwordsoutinquestions

10.75 You can often leavewords out in questionswhen the contextmakes itclearwhatismeant.Thequestioncanconsistofjustawh-word.‘Someone’sinthehouse.’–‘Who?’–‘IthinkitmightbeGary.’‘ButI’mafraidthere’smore.’–‘What?’‘CanIspeaktoyou?’Iasked,undaunted.–‘Why?’–‘It’simportant.’‘We’regoingonholidaytomorrow.’–‘Where?’–‘ToMajorca.’Notethatyoucanalsousewhynot.‘Maria!Wewon’tdiscussthathere.’–‘Whynot?’Note also that you canuse awh-word after a reporting verb, especiallywhy.Iaskedwhy.Theyenquiredhow.

10.76 Other questions can also consist of only a very few words when thecontext makes it clear what is meant. Short questions of this kind areoftenusedtoexpresssurpriseortooffersomethingtosomeone.‘CouldyoupleasecometoIra’srightawayandhelpmeout?’–‘Now?’‘Tonight?’–‘It’sincrediblyimportant.’‘He’sgoingtodie,yousee.’–‘Die?’‘Cupofcoffee?’Lionelasked,kindly.Hedrankthewaterandhandedmetheglass.‘More?’‘No,that’sjustfine,thankyou.’

leavingwordsoutinreplies

10.77 Whenyoureplytowh-questions,youcanoftenuseonewordoragroupofwordsratherthanafullsentence.Youdothistoavoidrepeatingwordsusedinthequestion.Forexample,ifsomeoneasksWhatisyourfavouritecolour?,thenormalreplyisasingleword,forexampleBlue,ratherthanasentencesuchasMyfavouritecolourisblue.‘What’syourname?’–‘Pete.’‘Howdoyoufeel?’–‘Strange.’‘Wheredoyoucomefrom?’–‘Cardiff.’‘Wherearewegoing?–‘Upthecoast.’‘Howlonghaveyoubeenoutofthiscountry?’–‘Aboutthreemonths.’‘Howmuchmoneyisthereinthatcase?’–‘Sixhundredpounds.’‘Whyshouldtheywantmetoknow?’–‘Toscareyou,perhaps.Whocantell?’Wh-questionsareexplainedinparagraphs5.23to5.36.

10.78 Youcanoftenuse a sentenceadverbial or anadverbofdegree ratherthanasentenceinanswertoayes/no-question.‘Do you think you could keep your mouth shut if I was to tell yousomething?’–‘Definitely.’‘Doyouthinkthey’reveryimportant?’–‘Maybe.’‘Doyouenjoylifeattheuniversity?’–‘Ohyes,verymuch.’‘Areyouinterested?’–‘Very.’‘Areyouready,Matthew?’–‘Notquite.’‘Isshesick?’–‘Notexactly.’

10.79 Youcanalsoanswerayes/no-questionwithapronounandaverbphrasethat reflects the original question. The absence of not in your replyindicatesyes.Thepresenceofnotindicatesno.‘DoesLydiaWalkerlivehere?’–‘Shedoes.’‘Haveyoutakenadvantageofanyofouroffersinthepast?’–‘Ihaven’t.’Yes/no-questions are explained in paragraphs 5.12 to 5.14. SentenceadverbialsarelistedinChapter9(9.56to9.68).AdverbsofdegreearelistedinChapter2(2.140to2.156)andChapter6(6.45to6.52).

leavingwordsoutwhenyouareagreeing

10.80 Youoften leavewordsoutwhenyouwant to show thatyouagreewith

somethingthathasjustbeensaid,ortosaythatitalsoappliestosomeoneorsomethingelse.Onewayofdoingthisisbyusingtooafteranauxiliaryorformofbe.‘Ilikebakedbeans.’–‘Yes,Idotoo.’‘Ifailedtheexam.’–‘Ididtoo.’Theotherwayofdoingthisistousesofollowedbytheauxiliaryorformofbe,followedbythesubject.‘Ifindthatamazing.’–‘SodoI.’Notethatyoucanalsousethisformwithinasentencetosaythatsomeoneorsomethingisthesame.HedoeshalfthecookingandsodoI.

10.81 Youcanalsoleaveoutwordswhenyouwanttoshowthatyouagreewithsomethingnegativethathasjustbeensaid,ortosaythatitalsoappliestosomeone or something else. One way of doing this is by using anauxiliaryorformofbefollowedbynotandeither.‘Idon’tknow.’–‘Idon’teither.’‘Ican’tseehowshedoesit.’–‘Ican’teither.’Theotherwayistousenororneitherfollowedbyanauxiliaryorformofbe,followedbythesubject.‘Idon’tlikehim.’–‘NordoI.’‘I’mnotgoingtochangemymind.’–‘Norshouldyou.’‘I’mnotjoking,Philip.’–‘NeitheramI.’Notethatyoucanalsodothiswithinasentence.Idon’tknowwhatyou’retalkingabout,MissHaynes,andI’mprettysureyoudon’teither.Iwillneverknowwhatwasinhisheadatthetime,norwillanyoneelse.Ican’tdoanythingaboutthisandneithercanyou.

ReferencesectionR1 Pronunciationguide

R2–19 Formingpluralsofcountablenouns

R20–31 Formingcomparativeandsuperlativeadjectives

R32–40 Thespellingandpronunciationofpossessives

R41–49 NumbersR42–45 CardinalnumbersR46–47 OrdinalnumbersR48–49 Fractionsandpercentages

R50–135 VerbformsandtheformationofverbphrasesR89–123 TheformationoftensesR124–135 Infinitivesandparticiples

R136–149 Formingadverbs

R150–154 Formingcomparativeandsuperlativeadverbs

Referencesection

PronunciationguideR1 HereisalistofthephoneticsymbolsforEnglish:

British English vowelsounds

American English vowelsounds

ɑːheart,start,calm. ɑcalm,drop,fall.

æact,mass,lap. ɑːdraw,saw.

aɪdive,cry,mine. æact,mass,lap.

aɪəfire,tyre,buyer. aidrive,cry,lie.

aʊout,down,loud. aiərfire,tire,buyer.

aʊəflour,tower,sour. auout,down,loud.

emet,lend,pen. auərflour,tower,sour.

eɪsay,main,weight. emet,lend,pen.

eəfair,care,wear. eisay,main,weight.

ɪfit,win,list. eərfair,care,wear.

iːfeed,me,beat. ɪfit,win,list.

ɪənear,beard,clear. ifeed,me,beat.

ɒlot,lost,spot. Iərcheer,hear,clear.

əʊnote,phone,coat. ounote,phone,coat.

ɔːmore,cord,claw. ɔmore,cord,sort.

ɔɪboy,coin,joint. ɔiboy,coin,joint.

ʊcould,stood,hood. ʊcould,stood,hood.

uːyou,use,choose. uyou,use,choose.

ʊəsure,pure,cure. jʊərsure,pure,cure.

ɜːturn,third,word. ɜrturn,third,word.

ᴧbut,fund,must. ᴧbut,fund,must.

ə(theweakvowelin)butter,about,forgotten.

ə (the weak vowel in)about,account,cancel.

consonantsounds

bbed

ddone

ffit

ggood

hhat

jyellow

kking

llip

mmat

nnine

ppay

rrun

ssoon

ttalk

vvan

wwin

xloch

zzoo

∫ship

ʒmeasure

ŋsing

t∫cheap

θthin

ðthen

dʒjoy

Hereisalistofthevowelletters:aeiouHereisalistoftheconsonantletters:bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyzTheconsonanty,whenitfallsinthemiddleorattheendofasyllable,hasthestatusofavowelandhasarangeofpronunciationssimilartoi.

FormingpluralsofcountablenounsR2 Informationonwhichnounshaveplurals isgiven inChapter1 (1.14 to

1.193).R3 Inmostcases,thepluraliswrittens.

hat → hats

tree → treesR4 Thepluraliswrittenesaftersh,ss,x,ors,anditispronounced/IZ/.

bush → bushes

glass → glasses

box → boxes

bus → buses

Thepluralisalsowrittenesandpronounced/IZ/afterch,whenthechispronounced/t∫/.church → churches

match → matches

speech → speechesR5 When the s follows one of the sounds /f/, /k/, /p/, /t/, or /θ/, it is

pronounced/s/.

belief → beliefs

week → weeks

cap → caps

pet → pets

moth → mothsR6 Whenthesfollowsoneofthesounds/s/,/z/,or/dʒ/,itispronounced/ɪz/.

service → services

prize → prizes

age → agesR7 Somenouns that endwith the sound /θ/, for examplemouth, have their

pluralformspronouncedasendingin/ðz/.Withothers,suchasbathandpath,thepronunciationcanbeeither/θs/or/ðz/.YoumayneedtocheckthepronunciationsofwordsliketheseinaCobuilddictionary.

R8 Inmostothercasesthesispronounced/z/.bottle → bottles

degree → degrees

doctor → doctors

idea → ideas

leg → legs

system → systems

tab → tabsR9 Withnounsthatendinaconsonantletterfollowedbyy,yousubstituteies

forytoformtheplural.country → countries

lady → ladies

opportunity→ opportunities

Withnounsthatendinavowelletterfollowedbyy,youjustaddstoformtheplural.boy → boys

day → days

valley → valleysR10 There are a few nouns ending in f or fe where you form the plural by

substitutingvesforforfe.calf → calves

elf → elves

half → halves

knife → knives

leaf → leaves

life → lives

loaf → loaves

scarf → scarves

sheaf → sheaves

shelf → shelves

thief → thieves

wife → wives

wolf → wolvesR11 Withmanynounsthatendino,youjustaddstoformtheplural.

photo → photos

radio → radios

However,thefollowingnounsendinginohavepluralsendinginoes:

dominoechoembargoheronegropotatotomatoveto

Thefollowingnounsendinginohavepluralsthatcanendineithersores:

buffalocargoflamingofrescoghettoinnuendomangomanifestomementomosquitomottosalvostilettotornadotorpedovolcano

R12 The following nouns inEnglish have special plural forms, usuallywithdifferentvowelsoundsfromtheirsingularforms:child → children

foot → feet

goose → geese

louse → lice

man → men

mouse → mice

ox → oxen

tooth → teeth

woman → womenR13 Mostnounsthatrefertopeopleandthatendwithman,woman,orchild

havepluralformsendingwithmen,women,orchildren.postman → postmen

Englishwoman→ Englishwomen

grandchild → grandchildrenR14 In addition to the nouns mentioned above, there are words that are

borrowedfromotherlanguages,especiallyLatin,andthatstillformtheirplurals according to the rules of those languages. Many of them aretechnicalorformal,andsomeofthosethataregivenbelowarealsousedwitharegularsorespluralendinginnon-technicalorinformalcontexts.YoumayneedtochecktheseinaCobuilddictionary.

R15 Somenounsendinginushavepluralsendingini.cactus → cacti

focus → foci

nucleus → nuclei

radius → radi

stimulus → stimuliR16 Somenounsendinginumhavepluralsendingina.

aquarium → aquaria

memorandum→ memoranda

referendum → referenda

spectrum → spectra

stratum → strataR17 Mostnounsendinginishavepluralsinwhichtheisisreplacedbyes.

analysis → analyses

axis → axes

basis → bases

crisis → crises

diagnosis → diagnoses

hypothesis → hypotheses

neurosis → neuroses

parenthesis→ parenthesesR18 Withsomenounsendingina,thepluralsareformedbyaddinge.

larva → larvae

vertebra → vertebrae

Some, such as antenna, formula, amoeba, and nebula, also have lessformalpluralsendingins.

R19 Other nouns form their plurals in other ways. Some of these have twoplural forms, one formed with s and one formed in a different way.UsuallytheformwithsisusedinlessformalEnglish.appendix → appendicesorappendixes

automaton → automataorautomatons

corpus → corporaorcorpuses

criterion → criteria

genus → genera

index → indicesorindexes

matrix → matrices

phenomenon→ phenomena

tempo → tempiortempos

virtuoso → virtuosiorvirtuosos

vortex → vortices

FormingcomparativeandsuperlativeadjectivesR20 Information on how to use the comparatives and superlatives of

adjectivesisgiveninChapter2(2.103to2.122).R21 Thecomparativeofanadjectiveisformedeitherbyaddingertotheend

ofthenormalformoftheadjective,orbyputtingmoreinfrontofit.Thesuperlative is formed by adding est to the end of the adjective, or byputtingmostinfrontofit.The choice between adding er and est or usingmore andmost usuallydependsonthenumberofsyllablesintheadjective.

Superlativesareusuallyprecededbythe.R22 Withone-syllableadjectives,youusuallyadderandesttotheendofthe

normalformoftheadjective.tall → taller → thetallest

quick → quicker → thequickest

Here is a list of common one-syllable adjectives that form theircomparativesandsuperlativesusually,oralways,byaddingerandest:

bigbrightbroadcheapfreshfullgreathardhighhotlargelatelightcleanclearclosecoldlonglooseloudlownewniceoldpaleplain

coolcrossdarkdeeppoorproudquickrarerichroughsadsafesharpdrydullfairfastshortsickslowsmallsoftstrongsweettallthickfatfinefirmflatthintighttoughwarmweakwet

wide

wildyoung

Notethatwhenerandestareaddedtosomeadjectives,aspellingchangeneedstobemade.ThepatternsofspellingchangeinformingcomparativesandsuperlativesfromadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphR27.

R23 Youusuallyadderandesttotwo-syllableadjectivesendinginy,suchasfunny,dirty,andsilly.happy → happier → thehappiest

easy → easier → theeasiest

Notethatthereisaspellingchangehere,whichisexplainedinparagraphR27.Some other two-syllable adjectives, not ending in y, also havecomparativesandsuperlativesthatareusuallyformedwitherandest.Hereisalistofcommontwo-syllableadjectiveswhosecomparativesandsuperlativesareusuallyformedlikethis:

busydirtyclevereasyfunnyhappyheavylovelyluckyprettyquietsillysimplesteady

tiny

R24 Some other two-syllable adjectives usually have comparatives andsuperlativesformedwithmoreandmost.careful → morecareful → themostcareful

famous → morefamous → themostfamous

Here is a list of common adjectiveswhose comparative and superlativeformsareusuallyformedwithmoreandmost:

carefulcommonfamoushandsomelikelymatureobscurepleasantpolitesudden

R25 Many two-syllable adjectives can have comparatives and superlativeswitheithertheendingserandest,ormoreandmost.Inmanycases,theerand est forms are more commonly found directly before the noun (inattributive position), and the more and most forms more commonlyfollow a linking verb such as be or become (in predicative position),particularlywhenamodifiersuchasabit,significantly,considerably,far,much and a little is used. For more information about attributive andpredicativeadjectives,seeparagraphs2.42to2.52.…majorhurricanessuchasKatrina,thecostliestdisasterinU.S.history.Energyisbecomingmuchmorecostlyandsuppliesaredryingup.Lessspaceseemedtomakeforafriendlierneighborhoodfeeling.We are encouraging employers to be a bit more friendly to the localenvironment.

Here is a list of common adjectives that can have either type ofcomparativeandsuperlative:

angrycostlycruelfriendlygentlenarrowremoteriskyshallowstupidsubtle

R26 Adjectives that have three ormore syllables usually have comparativesandsuperlativeswithmoreandmost.dangerous → moredangerous → the most

dangerous

ridiculous → moreridiculous → the mostridiculous

However,some three-syllableadjectivesare formedbyaddingun to thebeginningofotheradjectives.Forexample,unhappy is related tohappyandunlucky to lucky. These three-syllable adjectives have comparativesandsuperlativesformedeitherbyaddingerandestorbyusingmoreandmost.Hefeltcrosserandunhappierthanever.

R27 When you add er or est to an adjective, you sometimes need to makeanotherchangetotheendoftheadjectiveaswell.If a one-syllable adjective ends in a single vowel letter followed by asingleconsonantletter,youdoubletheconsonantletterwhenaddingerorest.big → bigger → thebiggest

hot → hotter → thehottest

However,youdonotdothiswithtwo-syllableadjectives.clever → cleverer → thecleverest

stupid → stupider → thestupidest

Ifanadjectiveendsine,youremovetheewhenaddingerorest.wide → wider → thewidest

simple → simpler → thesimplest

Note that with adjectives ending in le, the comparative and superlativehavetwosyllables,notthree.Forexample,simpler(fromsimple/'sɪmpəl/)ispronounced/'sɪmplə/.Ifanadjectiveendsinaconsonantletterfollowedbyy,youreplacetheywithiwhenaddingerorest.dry → drier → thedriest

angry → angrier → theangriest

unhappy → unhappier → theunhappiest

Notethatwithshy,sly,andspry,youadderandestintheordinaryway.R28 Goodandbadhavespecialcomparativesandsuperlatives,whicharenot

formedbyaddingerandestorbyusingmoreandmost.Goodhasthecomparativebetterandthesuperlativethebest.Theremightbebetterwaysofdoingit.Thisisthebestmuseumwe’vevisitedyet.Badhasthecomparativeworseandthesuperlativetheworst.Thingsareworsethantheyusedtobe.Theairporttherewastheworstplaceintheworld.Note that ill does not have a comparative form and so worse is usedinstead.EachdayKuntafeltalittleworse.

R29 The adjectiveold has regular comparative and superlative formsbut, inaddition,ithastheformselderandtheeldest.Theseformsareusedonlytotalkaboutpeople,usuallyrelatives.

…thedeathofhistwoelderbrothersintheFirstWorldWar.Bill’seldestdaughterisadoctor.Notethatunlikeolder,elderneverhasthanafterit.

R30 There is no comparative or superlative of little in Standard English,althoughchildrensometimessaylittlerandthelittlest.Whenyouwanttomakeacomparison,youusesmallerandthesmallest.

R31 The comparatives and superlatives of compound adjectives are usuallyformedbyputtingmoreandmostinfrontoftheadjective.self-effacing

→ more self-effacing

→ the most self-effacing

nerve-racking

→ more nerve-racking

→ the most nerve-racking

Some compound adjectives have adjectives as their first part.Comparativesandsuperlativesofthesecompoundsaresometimesformedusingthecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadjective.good-looking

→ better-looking → thebest-looking

Similarly, some compound adjectives have adverbs as their first part.Their comparatives and superlatives are sometimes formed using thecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadverb.well-paid → better-paid → thebest-paid

badly-planned

→ worse-planned → the worst-planned

The comparatives and superlatives of adverbs are explained inparagraphsR150toR154.

ThespellingandpronunciationofpossessivesR32 Theuseofthepossessiveformofnamesandothernounsisexplainedin

Chapter1(1.211to1.221).R33 Thepossessiveformofanameorothernounisusuallyformedbyadding

apostrophes(’s)totheend.Ginny’smotherdidn’tanswer.

Howardcameintotheeditor’soffice.R34 Ifyouareusingapluralnounending ins to refer to thepossessor,you

justaddanapostrophe(’).Iheardthegirls’stepsonthestairs.Weoftengotopublishers’partiesinBloomsbury.However,ifyouareusinganirregularpluralnounthatdoesnotendins,youaddapostrophes(’s)totheendofit.Itwouldcostatleastthreepolicemen’ssalariesperyear.TheEqualPayActhasfailedtobringwomen’searningsuptothesamelevel.…children’sbirthdayparties.

R35 Ifsomethingbelongstomorethanonepersonorthingwhosenamesarelinkedbyand,theapostrophes(’s)isputafterthesecondname.…MartinandTim’sapartment.…ColinandMary’swedding.

R36 Ifyouwanttosaythattwopeopleorthingseachpossesspartofagroupofthings,boththeirnameshaveapostrophes(’s).Thepuppywasasuperbblendofhisfather’sandmother’sbestqualities.

R37 Whenyouareusinganamethatalreadyendsins,youcansimplyaddanapostrophe, for exampleSt James’Palace, or you can add apostrophe s(’s), for example St James’s Palace. These spellings are pronounceddifferently. If you simply add an apostrophe, the pronunciation remainsunaltered, whereas if you add apostrophe s (’s), the possessive ispronounced/ɪz/.

R38 Apostrophe s (’s) is pronounced differently in different words. It ispronounced/s/afterthesound/f/,/k/,/p/,/t/,or/θ/./ɪz/afterthesound/s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/tʃ/,or/dʒ/./z/afterallothersounds.

R39 Ifyouareusingacompoundnoun,youaddapostrophes (’s) to the lastiteminthecompound.Hewenttohismother-in-law’shouse.

TheparadeassembledintheDetectiveConstable’sroom.R40 Apostrophes(’s)canbeaddedtoabbreviationsandacronymsinthesame

wayastootherwords.HewillgetamajorityofMPs’votesinbothrounds.HefoundtheBBC’soutput,onbalance,superiortothatofITV.ThemajorityofNATO’smembersagreed.

NumbersR41 The uses of cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and fractions have

been explained in Chapter 2 (2.208 to 2.249). The use of ordinals toexpressdatesisexplainedinparagraph4.88.Listsofnumbersanddetailsabouthowtosayandwritenumbersandfractionsaregivenbelow.

CardinalnumbersR42 Hereisalistofcardinalnumbers.Thelistshowsthepatternsofforming

numbersgreaterthan20.

0 zero, nought,nothing,oh

5 five

1 one 6 six2 two 7 seven3 three 8 eight4 four 9 nine10 ten 60 sixty11 eleven 70 seventy12 twelve 80 eighty13 thirteen 90 ninety14 fourteen 100 ahundred15 fifteen 101 ahundredandone16 sixteen 110 ahundredandten17 seventeen 120 ahundredandtwenty18 eighteen 200 twohundred19 nineteen 1000 athousand20 twenty 1001 athousandandone21 twenty-one 1010 athousandandten

22 twenty-two 2000 twothousand23 twenty-three 10,000 tenthousand24 twenty-four 100,000 ahundredthousand25 twenty-five 1,000,000 amillion40 forty 2,000,000 twomillion50 fifty 1,000,000,000 abillion

R43 Whenyousayorwriteinwordsanumberover100,youputandbeforethenumberexpressedbythelasttwofigures.Forexample,203issaidorwrittentwohundredandthreeand2840issaidorwrittentwo thousand,eighthundredandforty.Fourhundredandeighteenmenwerekilledandahundredandseventeenwounded.

AndisoftenomittedinAmericanEnglish.…onehundredfiftydollars.

R44 If you want to say or write in words a number between 1000 and1,000,000, there arevariouswaysof doing it.For example, thenumber1872canbesaidorwritteninwordsaseighteenhundredandseventy-twoonethousandeighthundredandseventy-twooneeightseventwoeighteenseventy-two

Notethatyoucannotuseainsteadofoneforthesecondway.Thethirdwayisoftenusedtoidentifysomethingsuchasaroomnumber.Withtelephonenumbers,youalwayssayeachfigureseparatelylikethis.Thelastwayisusedifthenumberisadate.

R45 Unlike some other languages, in English when numbers over 9999 arewritteninfigures,acommaisusuallyputafterthefourthfigurefromtheend,theseventhfigurefromtheend,andsoon,dividingthefiguresintogroups of three. For example, 15,500 or 1,982,000. With numbersbetween1000and9999,acommaissometimesputafterthefirstfigure.Forexample1,526.Whenanumbercontainsafullstop,thenumberornumbersafterthefull

stopindicateafraction.Forexample,2.5isthesameastwoandahalf.

OrdinalnumbersR46 Hereisalistofordinalnumbers.Thelistshowsthepatternsofforming

ordinalnumbersgreaterthan20.

1st first 26th twenty-sixth2nd second 27th twenty-seventh3rd third 28th twenty-eighth4th fourth 29th twenty-nineth5th fifth 30th thirtieth6th sixth 31st thirty-first7th seventh 40th fortieth8th eighth 41st forty-first9th nineth 50th fiftieth10th tenth 51st fifty-first11th eleventh 60th sixtieth12th twelfth 61st sixty-first13th thirteenth 70th seventieth14th fourteenth 71st seventy-first15th fifteenth 80th eightieth16th sixteenth 81st eighty-first17th seventeenth 90th ninetieth18th eighteenth 91st ninty-first19th nineteenth 100th hundredth20th twentieth 101st hundredandfirst21st twenty-first 200th twohundredth22nd twenty-second 1000th thousandth23rd twenty-third 1,000,000th millionth24th twenty-fourth 1,000,000,000th billionth25th twenty-fifth

R47 Asshownin theabove list,ordinalscanbewritten inabbreviatedform,forexampleindatesorheadings,orininformalwriting.Youwritethelasttwo letters of the ordinal after the number expressed in figures. Forexample,firstcanbewrittenas1st,twenty-secondas22nd,hundredand

thirdas103rd,andfourteenthas14th.…onAugust2nd.…the1stDivisionoftheSovereign’sEscort.

FractionsandpercentagesR48 Youcanwritea fraction in figures, forexample½,¼,¾,and⅔.These

correspond to a half, a quarter, three-quarters, and two-thirdsrespectively.

R49 Fractions are often given in a special form as a number of hundredths.This type of fraction is called a percentage. For example, three-hundredths, expressed as a percentage, is three per cent. It can also bewrittenasthreepercentor3%.Ahalfcanbeexpressedas fiftypercent,fiftypercent,or50%.About60percentofourstudentsarewomen.Ninetypercentofmostfoodiswater.Before196045%ofBritishtradewaswiththeCommonwealth.You can use percentages on their own as noun phraseswhen it is clearwhattheyreferto.Ninetypercentwereselfemployed.…interestat10%perannum.

VerbformsandtheformationofverbphrasesR50 Verbs have several forms. These forms can be used on their own or

combined with special verbs called auxiliaries. When a verb or acombinationofaverbandanauxiliary isused inaclause, it iscalledaverbphrase.Verbphrasescanbefiniteornon-finite.Ifaverbphraseisfinite,ithasatense.Anon-finiteverbphrasecontainsaverbintheformofaninfinitiveoran-edor-ingparticiple.Verbphrasesareusedtorefertoactions,states,andprocesses.TheuseofverbphrasesinclausestomakestatementsisexplainedinChapter3.

R51 Verbphrasescanbeactiveorpassive.Youuseanactiveverbphrase ifyouareconcentratingontheperformerofanaction,andyouuseapassive

verb phrase if you are concentrating on someone or something that isaffected by an action. Further information on the use of passive verbphrasesisgiveninChapter9(9.8to9.24).

R52 Regularverbshavethefollowingforms:abaseforme.g.walkansforme.g.walksan-ingparticiplee.g.walkingapastforme.g.walked

Thebaseformofaverbistheformthatisusedintheinfinitive.Itistheformthatisgivenfirstinadictionarywhereaverbisexplained,andthatisgiveninthelistsinthisgrammar.Thesformofaverbconsistsofthebaseformwithsontheend.The-ingparticipleusuallyconsistsofthebaseformwithingontheend.Itissometimescalledthepresentparticiple.Thepastformofaverbusuallyconsistsofthebaseformwithedontheend.Inthecaseofregularverbs,thepastformisusedforthepasttenseandisalsousedasthe-edparticiple.Itissometimescalledthepastparticiple.However,withmany irregular verbs (see paragraphR72) there are twodifferentforms:apasttenseforme.g.stolean-edparticipleforme.g.stolen

There are rules about the spelling of the different forms of verbs,depending on their endings. These are explained in paragraphs R54 toR70.Certainverbs, especially commonones,have irregular forms.ThesearelistedinparagraphsR72toR75.Theformsoftheauxiliariesbe,have,anddoaregiveninparagraphR80.

R53 Eachverbformhasvarioususes.The base form is used for the present tense, the imperative, and theinfinitive,andisusedaftermodals.

Thesformisusedforthethirdpersonsingularofthepresenttense.The -ing participle is used for progressive forms, -ing adjectives, -ingnouns,andsomeclauses.The past form is used for the past simple, and for the -ed participle ofregularverbs.The-edparticipleisusedforperfectforms,passives,-edadjectives,andsomeclauses.

R54 The basic verb forms have been described in paragraph R52. Thefollowingparagraphsexplainhowthevariousformsofverbsarespelled.Theyalsogivedetailsofverbsthathaveirregularforms.Theformsoftheauxiliariesbe,have,anddoaredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphsR80toR88.

R55 The s form ofmost verbs consists of the base form of the verbwith saddedtotheend.sing → sings

write → writes

When the s follows one of the sounds /f/, /k/, /p/, /t/, or /θ/, it ispronounced/s/.break → breaks

keep → keeps

Whenthesfollowsoneofthesounds/s/,/z/,or/dʒ/,itispronounced/ɪz/.dance → dances

manage → manages

Inmostothercasesthesispronounced/z/.leave → leaves

refer → refersR56 Withverbswhosebaseformendsinaconsonantletterfollowedbyy,you

substituteiesforytoformthesform.try → tries

cry → criesR57 Withverbswhichendinsh,ch,ss,x,zz,oro,esratherthansisaddedto

thebaseformoftheverb.Theesispronounced/ɪz/whenitisaddedtoaconsonantsound,andpronounced/z/whenitisaddedtoavowelsound.diminish → diminishes

reach → reaches

pass → passes

mix → mixes

buzz → buzzes

echo → echoesR58 Withone-syllableverbs that end in a single s, youusuallyaddses.

FormswithasinglesaremorecommoninAmericanEnglish.

bus → busses → buses

gas → gasses → gasesR59 Mostverbshave-ingparticiplesformedbyaddinging tothebaseform,

andpastformsformedbyaddingedtothebaseform.paint → painting → painted

rest → resting → rested

Withall-ingparticiples,theingispronouncedasaseparatesyllable:/ɪŋ/.Withverbswhosebaseformendswithoneofthesounds/f/,/k/,/p/,/s/,/ʃ/,or/tʃ/,theedofthepastformispronounced/t/.Forexample,pressedispronounced/prest/andwatchedispronounced/wɒtʃt/.Withverbswhosebaseformsendswiththesound/d/or/t/,theedofthepastformispronounced/ɪd/.Forexample,patted ispronounced /pӕtɪd/andfadedispronounced/feɪdɪd/.With all other verbs, the ed of the past form is pronounced /d/. Forexample,joinedispronounced/dʒɔɪnd/andlivedispronounced/lɪvd/.

R60 Withmostverbsthatendine,the-ingparticipleisformedbysubstitutingingforthefinale.Similarly,yousubstituteedforthefinaletoformthepastform.dance → dancing → danced

smile → smiling → smiled

fade → fading → fadedR61 Inthecaseofafewverbsendingine,youjustaddinginthenormalway

toformthe-ingparticiple.Youstillsubstituteedforetoformthepast.singe → singeing → singed

agree → agreeing → agreed

Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

ageagreebingecanoedisagreedyeeyefleefreegluekneequeuerefereeseesingetiptoewhinge

R62 Toformthe-ingparticipleofaverbthatendsinie,yousubstituteyingforie.tie → tying

Notethatthepastformofsuchverbsisregular,followingthepatterninR60.

R63 Toformthepastformofaverbthatendsinaconsonantletterfollowedbyy,yousubstituteiedfory.cry → cried

Notethatthe-ingparticipleofsuchverbsisregular,followingthepatterninR59.

R64 Ifthebaseformofaverbhasonesyllableandendswithasinglevowelletterfollowedbyaconsonantletter,youdoublethefinalconsonantletterbeforeaddingingtoformthe-ingparticipleoredtoformthepastform.dip → dipping → dipped

trot → trotting → trotted

Notethatthisdoesnotapplyifthefinalconsonantletterisw,x,ory.row → rowing → rowed

box → boxing → boxed

play → playing → playedR65 The final consonant letter of some two-syllable verbs is also doubled.

This happens when the second syllable ends in a single vowel letterfollowedbyaconsonantletter,andisstressed.refer → referring → referred

equip → equipping → equippedR66 InBritishEnglish,whenatwosyllableverbendsinasinglevowelletter

followedbyasinglel,thelisdoubledbeforeingoredisaddedtoit,evenifthereisnostressonthelastsyllable.travel → travelling → travelled

quarrel → quarrelling → quarrelled

Afewotherverbsalsohavetheirfinalconsonantletterdoubled.program → programming → programmed

worship → worshipping → worshipped

hiccup → hiccupping → hiccupped

kidnap → kidnapping → kidnapped

handicap → handicapping → handicappedR67 AlltheverbsdescribedinR66,excepthandicap,canhavetheir-ing

participleandpastformspelledwithasingleconsonantletterinAmericanEnglish.travel → traveling → traveled

worship → worshiping → worshipedR68 Hereisalistoftheverbswhosefinalconsonantletterisdoubledbefore

ingandedinbothBritishandAmericanEnglish:

banbarbatbegdindipdotdragdropdrugdrumdubfanfitflagflapflipflopfogfretgasgelglutgrabgringripgritgrubgunguthem

hophugblotblurbobbraghumjamjetjigjogjotknitknotlaglaploglopmanmarmobmopmugnagnetnipnodpadpatpegpenpetpinpitplanbrim

bug

capchatplodplugpopprodpropribrigriprobrotrubsagscanscarscrapscrubshipshopshredshrugshunsinsipskidskimskinskipslamslapchipchopclap

clogslim

slipslopslotslumslursnagsnapsnipsnubsobspotsquatstabstarstemstepstirstopstrapstripstrutstunsunswabswapswatswigswotclotcramcribcroptag

tantapthin

throbtiptoptraptrektrimtriptrotvetwagwrap~abetabhoracquitadmitallotcommitcompelconfercontroldeferdeterdistilembedcupdabdamdimemitenrolenthral

equipexcelexpelincur

instiloccuromitoutwitpatrolpropelrebelrebutrecaprecurreferregretremitrepelsubmittransfertransmit~handicap

Notethatverbssuchasre-equipandunclog,whichconsistofaprefixandoneoftheaboveverbs,alsohavetheirfinalconsonantletterdoubled.

R69 HereisalistofverbswhosefinalconsonantletterisdoubledbeforeingandedinBritishEnglishbutnotalwaysinAmericanEnglish:

bedevilcancelchannelchiseldial

duelenamelenrolenthralequalfuelfunnelgambolgrovelhiccupinitialkidnaplabellevellibelmarshalmarvelmodelpanelpedalpencilprogrampummelquarrelrefuelrevelrivalshovelshrivelsnivelspiralstencilswiveltotaltraveltunnel

unravel

worshipyodel

R70 Withverbsendinginc,kingandkedareusuallyaddedinsteadofinganded.mimic → mimicking → mimicked

panic → panicking → panickedR71 Alargenumberofverbshave irregular forms,whicharenot formedby

addingedtothebaseform.With regular verbs, the -ed participle is the same as the past form.However,withsomeirregularverbs,thetwoformsaredifferent.

R72 Thetableoppositegivesalistofirregularverbsandtheirforms.Notethatthepastformand-edparticipleofreadappearthesameasthebase formbut are pronounced differently.The base form is pronounced/riːd/andthepastformand-edparticiple/red/.SeeaCobuilddictionaryforthepronunciationofirregularformsofverbs.

R73 Some verbs have more than one past form or -ed participle form. Forexample,thepastformand-edparticipleofspellcanbeeitherspelledorspelt,andthe-edparticipleofprovecanbeeitherprovedorproven.Heburnedseveralletters.Heburntallhispapers.Hisfoothadswelledtothreetimesnormalsize.Hiswristhadswollenupandbecomehuge.

R74 Someverbshavetwoformsthatcanbeusedasthepastformandthe-edparticiple.Here is a list of these verbs. The regular form is given first,althoughitmaynotbethemorecommonone.

All of the irregular forms ending in t are far more common in BritishEnglishthaninAmericanEnglish,whichgenerallyusestheregularformfortheseverbs.burn → burned,burnt

bust → busted,bust

dream → dreamed,dreamt

dwell → dwelled,dwelt

fit → fitted,fit

hang → hanged,hung

kneel → kneeled,knelt

lean → leaned,leant

leap → leaped,leapt

light → lighted,lit

smell → smelled,smelt

speed → speeded,sped

spell → spelled,spelt

spill → spilled,spilt

spoil → spoiled,spoilt

wet → wetted,wetR75 Hereisalistofverbswithtwopastforms:

bid → bid,bade

wake → waked,woke

weave → weaved,wove

Hereisalistofverbswithtwo-edparticipleforms:bid → bid,bidden

mow → mowed,mown

prove → proved,proven

swell → swelled,swollen

wake → waked,woken

weave → weaved,woven

In American English, gotten is usually used instead of got as the -edparticipleofget.However,AmericanEnglishalwaysusesgotratherthangottenintwocommonconstructions:havegot(meaningownorpossess),

andhavegotto(meaningmust).Haveyougotchangefortheparkingmeter?Youhavegottostartpayingmoreattentiontodeadlines.ThepastformsoftheseconstructionsinAmericanEnglishareneverhadgot.Instead,theyusethepastformofhave.Didyouhavechangefortheparkingmeter?ShesaidIhadtostartpayingmoreattentiontodeadlines.Note that some verbs appear in both the above lists as they have adifferentpastformand-edparticipleform,eachofwhichhasmorethanoneform.

baseform pastform -edparticiplearise arose arisenawake awoke awokenbear bore bornebeat beat beatenbecome became becomebegin began begunbend bent bentbet bet betbind bound boundbite bit bittenbleed bled bledblow blew blownbreak broke brokenbreed bred bredbring brought broughtbuild built builtburst burst burstbuy bought boughtcast cast castcatch caught caughtchoose chose chosencling clung clung

come came comecost cost costcreep crept creptcut cut cutdeal dealt dealtdig dug dugdive dove(Am) diveddraw drew drawndrink drank drunkdrive drove driveneat ate eatenfall fell fallenfeed fed fedfeel felt feltfight fought foughtfind found foundfit fit(Am) fit(Am)flee fled fledfling flung flungfly flew flownforbear forbore forborneforbid forbade forbiddenforget forgot forgottenforgive forgave forgivenforsake forsook forsakenforswear forswore forswornfreeze froze frozenget got gotgive gave givengo went gonegrind ground groundgrow grew grownhear heard heardhide hid hidden

hit hit hithold held held

hurt hurt hurtkeep kept keptknow knew knownlay laid laidlead led ledleave left leftlend lent lentlet let letlose lost lostmake made mademean meant meantmeet met metpay paid paidput put putquit quit quitread read readrend rent rentride rode riddenring rang rungrise rose risenrun ran runsaw sawed sawnsay said saidsee saw seenseek sought soughtsell sold soldsend sent sentset set setsew sewed sewnshake shook shakenshed shed shedshine shone shone

shoe shod shodshoot shot shotshow showed shownshrink shrank shrunkshut shut shutsing sang sungsink sank sunksit sat satslay slew slainsleep slept sleptslide slid slidsling slung slungslink slunk slunksow sowed sownspeak spoke spokenspend spent spentspin spun spunspread spread spreadspring sprang sprungstand stood stoodsteal stole stolenstick stuck stucksting stung stungstink stank stunkstrew strewed strewnstride strode striddenstrike struck struckstring strung strungstrive strove strivenswear swore swornsweep swept sweptswim swam swumswing swung swungtake took taken

teach taught taughttear tore torntell told told

think thought thoughtthrow threw thrownthrust thrust thrusttread trod troddenunderstand understood understoodwear wore wornweep wept weptwin won wonwind wound woundwring wrung wrungwrite wrote written

R76 In some cases, different past forms or -ed participle forms relate todifferentmeaningsorusesoftheverb.Forexample,thepastformandthe-ed participle of the verbhang isnormallyhung.However,hanged canalsobeusedbutwithadifferentmeaning.CheckthedifferentmeaningsinaCobuilddictionary.AnIronCrosshungfromaribbonaroundtheman’sneck.Hehadbeenfoundguiltyofmurderhanged.Theyhadbiddownthechemicalcompany’sstock.Hehadbiddenhertobuythebest.

R77 Some verbs consist ofmore than oneword, for example browbeat andtypeset,andsomeconsistofaprefixplusaverb, forexampleundoanddisconnect.Histeachersunderestimatehisability.Wearealwaystryingtooutdoourcompetitors.Thefiguresshowthatthegovernmenthasmismanagedtheeconomy.

R78 Verbsthatconsistofmorethanonewordorofaprefixplusaverbusuallyinflect in the same way as the verbs that form their final part. Forexample, the past form of foresee is foresaw and the -ed participle isforeseen, and the past form and past -ed of misunderstand is

misunderstood.Iunderestimatedhim.Hehadoutdonehimself.Ihadmisunderstoodandmismanagedeverything.Shehaddisappearedintothekitchenandreappearedwithaflashlight.

R79 Withmanyverbsofthistype,thefactthattheyconsistoftwopartsdoesnotmakeanydifference to their forms.Theyfollowthenormalspellingrules.Hereisalistofverbswhosesecondpartisanirregularverb:

browbeatbroadcastforecastovereatbefallforegoundergooutgrowoverheatmishearbeholdupholdwithholdmislaywaylaymiscastrecasttypecastmisleadremakerepaymisreadoverrideoutrun

overrunre-runforeseeoverseeoutsellresellovercomeundercutoutdobesetresettypesetoutshineovershootoversleepmisspellwithstandhamstringmistakeovertakeretakeoverdoundowithdrawundertakeforetellretellrethinkoverthrowmisunderstandrewindunwindrewriteunderwrite

Notethepastformsand-edparticipleof theverbsshownbelow,whosesecondpartisaverbwithalternativepastformsand-edparticiple.refit → refitted → refitted

overhang → overhung → overhung

floodlight → floodlit → floodlit

Hereisalistofcompoundverbswhosesecondpartisanirregularverb:

bottle-feedbreast-feedforce-feedspoon-feedbaby-sitlip-readproof-readsight-readghost-write

R80 Thedifferentformsoftheauxiliariesbe,have,anddoaresummarizedinthetablebelow.

R81 Thepresentformsofbecanusuallybecontractedandaddedtotheendofthe subjectof theverb,whether it isanounorapronoun.This isoftendoneinspokenEnglishorininformalwrittenEnglish.I’minterestedintheroleofwomenallovertheworld.You’relate.We’remakingsomeprogress.It’sadelightfulcountry.Mycar’sjustacrossthestreet.Thecontractedformsofbeareshowninthetableabove.

R82 Contractedformsofbearenotusedattheendofaffirmativestatements.Thefull formmustbeused instead.Forexample,yousayRichard’snotveryhappybutAndrewis.YoucannotsayRichard’snotveryhappybutAndrew’s.However, you canuse a contracted formofbe at the end of a negativestatement if it is followedbynot.For example,Mary’squitehappy,buthermother’snot’

R83 When be is used in negative clauses, either the verb or not can be

contracted.Formoreinformationoncontractionsinnegativeclauses,seeparagraphs5.61to5.62.

R84 Thepresentandpastformsofhavecanalsobecontracted.Thisisusuallyonlydonewhenhaveisbeingusedasanauxiliary.I’vechangedmymind.Thisisthefirstpartywe’vebeentoinmonths.She’sbecomeaveryinterestingyoungwoman.Idowishyou’dmetGuy.She’smanagedtokeepitquiet.We’ddoneagoodjob.ThecontractedformsofhaveareshowninthetableatparagraphR80.

R85 ’s can be short for either is or has. You can tell what ’s represents bylooking at the next word. If ’s represents is, it is followed by an -ingparticiple, complement, or adverbial. If it represents has, it is usuallyfollowedbyan-edparticiple.She’sgoingtobeallright.She’salovelyperson.She’sgonetoseesomesocialworkpeople.

R86 Anounendingin’scouldalsobeapossessive.Itisfollowedbyanothernoun when this is the case. For more information on possessives seeparagraphs1.211to1.221.

R87 Is and has are written in full after nouns ending in x, ch, sh, s, or z,althoughinspeechhasissometimespronouncedas/əz/afterthesenouns.

R88 ’dcanbeshortforeitherhadorwould.Youcantellwhat’drepresentsbylookingatthenextword.If’drepresentswould,itisfollowedbythebaseform of a verb. If it represents had, it is usually followed by an -edparticiple.We’dhavetotrytoescape.’It’dbecheapertogobytrain,’Alansaid.Atleastwe’dhadthecouragetoadmitit.She’dboughtnewsunglasseswithtintedlenses.

TheformationoftensesR89 Afiniteverbphraseisthetypeofverbphrasethatgoeswithasubject.It

containsaformofthemainverb (theone thatyouareusing toconveyyourmeaning),andoftenoneormoreauxiliaries.Afiniteverbphrasehasthefollowingstructure:(modal)(have)(be)(be)mainverb.Youchoose theelements inbracketsaccording to, forexample,whetheryou are talking about the past or the present, or whether you areconcentrating on the performer of an action or the thing affected by it.Theyarecalledauxiliaries.Ifyouwanttoindicatepossibility,ortoshowyourattitudetoyourheareror towhat you are saying, you use a type of auxiliary called amodal.Modalsmustbe followedbyabase form(an infinitivewithout to).TheuseofmodalsisexplainedinChapter5(5.94to5.258).Shemightseeus.Shecouldhaveseenus.Ifyouwanttouseaperfectform,youuseaformofhave.Thismustbefollowedbyan-edparticiple.Shehasseenus.Shehadbeenwatchingusforsometime.Ifyouwanttouseaprogressiveform,youuseaformofbe.Thismustbefollowedbyan-ingparticiple.Shewaswatchingus.Wewerebeingwatched.If you want to use the passive, you use a form of be. This must befollowedbyan-edparticiple.Wewereseen.Wewerebeingwatched.If there isanauxiliary infrontof themainverb,youuseanappropriateformof themainverb,asmentionedabove. If there isnoauxiliary,youuseanappropriatesimpleform.Theverbdo isalsousedasanauxiliary,withsimple forms,butonly inquestions,negativestatements,andnegativeimperativeclauses,orwhenyouwanttobeveryemphatic.Itisfollowedbythebaseformofthemainverb.DetailedinformationontheusesofdoisgiveninChapter5.

Doyouwantmetodosomethingaboutit?Idonotrememberher.Idoenjoybeingwithyou.

R90 A finite verb phrase always has a tense, unless it beginswith amodal.Tenseistherelationshipbetweentheformofaverbandthetimetowhichitrefers.Thissectiondealswiththewaysinwhichmainverbsandauxiliariescanbeused toconstructdifferent forms.Theway inwhichparticular formsareusedtoindicateparticulartimesinrelationtothetimeofspeakingortothetimeofaneventiscoveredinparagraphs4.7to4.69.

R91 Whenaverbisbeingusedinasimpleform,thatis,thepresentsimpleorthepastsimple,itconsistsofjustoneword,aformofthemainverb.Ifeeltired.Marylivedthereforfiveyears.Forprogressive andperfect forms, one ormore auxiliaries are used incombinationwiththemainverb.Iamfeelingrecklesstonight.Ihavelivedhereallmylife.

R92 Thefirstwordofafiniteverbphrasemustagreewiththesubjectof theclause.Thisaffects thepresentsimple,andallformsthatbeginwith thepresentorpasttenseofbeorthepresenttenseofhave.For example, if the form is the present perfect and the subject is John,thentheformoftheauxiliaryhavemustbehas.Johnhasseemedworriedlately.Shelikesme.Yourlunchisgettingcold.

R93 In this section the examples given are declarative clauses.The order ofwordsinquestionsisdifferentfromtheorderindeclarativeclauses.Seeparagraphs5.10to5.36forinformationaboutthis.

R94 Progressive forms are constructed using an appropriate tense of theauxiliary be and the -ing participle. Detailed information on how toconstruct these forms is included below. The uses of progressive formsareexplainedindetailinparagraphs4.7to4.69.

R95 The formationof active sentences is explainedbelow.The formationofthepassiveisexplainedinparagraphsR109toR118.

R96 Thepresentsimpleformofaverbisthesameasthebaseformwithallsubjectsexceptthethirdpersonsingular.Iwantabreathofair.Weadviseeveryonetocallhalfanhourbeforetheyarrive.Theygiveyouacertificateandthentellyoutogetajob.Thethirdpersonsingularformisthesform.Floraputsherheadback,andlaughsagain.Moneydecideseverything,shethought.MrPatersonplaysPhilHoskinsintheTVdrama.

R97 Thepresentprogressive is formedbyusing thepresent tenseofbeandthe-ingparticipleofthemainverb.Peoplewhohavenofaithinartarerunningtheartschools.Thegardenindustryisbooming.Thingsarechanging.

R98 Thepastsimpleformofaregularverbisformedbyaddingedtothebaseformofregularverbs.Themomentheenteredtheclassroomalleyesturnedonhim.Hewalkedoutofthekitchenandclimbedthestairs.ItwasdarkbythetimeIreachedEastLondon.

R99 Thepastprogressiveisformedbyusingthepasttenseofbeandthe-ingparticipleofthemainverb.Theirquestionswerebeginningtodrivemecrazy.Webelievedwewerefightingforagoodcause.Atthetime,Iwasdreadingtheexam.

R100 Thepresentperfectisformedbyusingthepresenttenseofhaveandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Advanceshavecontinued,butproductivityhasfallen.Footballhasbecomeinternational.Ihaveseenthisbefore.

R101 Thepresentperfectprogressiveisformedbyusingthepresentperfectofbeandthe-ingparticipleofthemainverb.

Howardhasbeenworkinghardovertherecess.Whatwehavebeendescribingisverysimple.Theirshareshavebeengoingup.

R102 Thepast perfect is formed by using had and the -ed participle of themainverb.TheIndiansummerhadreturnedforaday.Everyonehadlikedher.MurrayhadresentedthechangesIhadmade.

R103 Thepastperfectprogressive is formedbyusinghadbeenand the -ingparticipleofthemainverb.Shedidnotknowhowlongshehadbeenlyingthere.Fortenyearsofherlife,teachershadbeenmakinguphermindforher.Ihadbeenshowingawomanaroundwithherlittleboy.

R104 Thereare severalwaysof referring to the future inEnglish.Thesimplefuture involves using themodalwill or shall and the base form of theverb.Itisexactlythesortofschemehewilllike.Myreceptionistwillhelpyouchoosetheframes.Don’tdropcrumbsorweshallhavemice.

InspokenEnglish,thecontractedform’llisusuallyusedinsteadofwillorshall,unlessyouwanttobeemphatic.SendhimintotheArmy;he’lllearnabitofdisciplinethere.Assoonaswegettheticketsthey’llbesentouttoyou.Nextweekwe’llbelookingatthehistoryofdance.

R105 Ifthefullformsareused,willisgenerallyusedifthesubjectoftheverbisnotIorwe.ShallissometimesusedifthesubjectisIorwe,otherwisewillisused.Inflationisrisingandwillcontinuetorise.Ishallbeawaytomorrow.

R106 Thefutureprogressive isformedbyusingwillorshall, followedbybeandthe-ingparticipleofthemainverb.Indeed,wewillbeopposingthatpolicy.Fordmanualworkerswillbeclaimingatenpercentpayrise.

Ishallbeleavingsoon.R107 Thefutureperfectisformedbyusingwillorshall,followedbyhaveand

the-edparticipleofthemainverb.Longbeforeyoureturn,theywillhaveforgottenyou.Bynextweekwillhavereachedtheendofthebook.Bythattime,Ishallhaveretired.

R108 Thefutureperfectprogressiveisformedbyusingwillorshall,followedbyhavebeenandthe-ingparticipleofthemainverb.ByMarch,Iwillhavebeendoingthisjobforsixyears.Saturdayweek,IwillhavebeengoingoutwithSusanforthreemonths.

R109 Passiveformsareconstructedusinganappropriatetenseofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Detailedinformationonformingthepassiveisgivenbelow.

R110 Thepresentsimplepassive isformedbyusingthepresentsimpleofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Theearthisbakedbythesunintoahard,brittlelayer.If you are on a full-time course you are treated as your parents’dependent.Specificsubjectsarediscussed.

R111 The present progressive passive is formed by using the presentprogressiveofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Thebuffetcounterisbeingarrangedbytheattendant.Itissomethingquiteirrelevanttowhatisbeingdiscussed.Jobsarestillbeinglost.

R112 Thepastsimplepassiveisformedbyusingthepastsimpleofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Nodatewasannouncedforthetalks.Thewallswerecoveredwithpicturesofactors.Severalnewcottageswerebuiltontheland.

R113 Thepastprogressivepassive isformedbyusingthepastprogressiveofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Thestagewasbeingsetforfutureprofits.Beforelong,machineswerebeingusedtocreatecodes.

Strenuouseffortswerebeingmadelastnighttoendthedispute.R114 Thepresentperfectpassiveisformedbyusingthepresentperfectofbe

andthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Theguest-roomwindowhasbeenmended.Ithinkrealprogresshasbeenmade.Thedirtyplateshavebeenstackedinapileonthetable.

R115 The past perfect passive is formed by using had been and the -edparticipleofthemainverb.Theyhadbeentaughttobecritical.Theyhadbeendrivenhomeinthestationwagon.

R116 Thefuturepassive isformedbyusingwillorshall, followedbybeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Hisownauthoritywillbeundermined.Congresswillbeaskedtoapproveanincreaseof47.5percent.

R117 Thefutureperfectpassiveisformedbyusingwillorshall,followedbyhavebeenandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Anothergoalwillhavebeenachieved.Thefigureswillhavebeendistortedbytheeffectsofthestrike.

R118 The future progressive passive and the perfect progressive passive arerarelyused.

R119 The table below gives a summary of the active and passive forms.Thepassiveformsmarkedwithastarareveryrarelyused.

active passivepresentsimple Heeatsit. Itiseaten.presentprogressive Heiseatingit. Itisbeingeaten.presentperfect Hehaseatenit. Ithasbeeneaten.

presentperfectprogressive Hehasbeeneatingit. Ithasbeenbeingeaten.*

pastsimple Heateit. Itwaseaten.pastprogressive Hewaseatingit. Itwasbeingeaten.pastperfect Hehadeatenit. Ithadbeeneaten.

pastperfectprogressive Hehadbeeneatingit. Ithadbeenbeingeaten.*

future Hewilleatit. Itwillbeeaten.futureprogressive Hewillbeeatingit. Itwillbebeingeaten.*futureperfect Hewillhaveeatenit. Itwillhavebeeneaten.

futureperfectprogressive Hewill have been eatingit.

It will have been beingeaten.*

R120 There are some verbs that are not usually used in the progressive, andsome that are not used in the progressive in one ormore of theirmainmeanings.Hereisalistofverbsthatarenotusuallyusedintheprogressive:

astonishbebelievebelongconcernconsistcontaindeserveenvyexisthaveknowlastmatteroweownpossessresemblesatisfyseemsupposesuspectunderstand

Verbsof this typearesometimescalledstativeverbs.Verbs thatcanbeused in the progressive are sometimes calleddynamicverbs. Formoreinformationaboutstativeverbs,seeparagraph4.69.There areother verbs that are traditionallydescribed as stative, but thatare sometimes used in the progressive, particularly in less formal texts.Formoreinformationabouttheseverbs,see4.69.

R121 Beisnotgenerallyusedasamainverbintheprogressivewithadjectivesthatindicatepermanentcharacteristics,orwithattributesthatdonotrelateto behaviour. However, be is used in the progressive to indicatesomeone’sbehaviourataparticulartime.Heisextremelynice.HewasanAmerican.You’rebeingverysilly.Have is not used as a main verb in the progressive when it indicatespossession,but it issometimesusedintheprogressivewhenit indicatesthatsomeoneisdoingsomething.Ihavetwodinghies.Wewerejusthavingaphilosophicaldiscussion.

R122 Someverbshavevery specific senses inwhich theyarenotused in theprogressive.Forexample,smell isoftenused in theprogressivewhen itmeanstosmellsomething,butrarelywhenitmeanstosmellofsomething.ComparethesentencesIwasjustsmellingyourflowers,andYourflowerssmelllovely.Here isa listofverbs thatarenotusuallyused in theprogressivewhentheyhavethemeaningsindicated:

appear(seem)depend(berelatedto)feel(haveanopinion)fit(besuitable/betherightsize)hear(beawareofasound)mean(haveaparticularmeaning)measure(havelength)recognize(identifyaperson)

smell(ofsomething)taste(ofsomething)weigh(haveweight)

R123 Theimperativeformofaverbisregardedasfinite,becauseitcanstandastheverbofamainclause.However,itdoesnotshowtenseinthesameway as other finite verb phrases. It is always in the base form. Seeparagraphs5.37to5.41fortheusesoftheimperative.Stopbeingsilly.Comehere.

InfinitivesandparticiplesR124 Infinitivesand-ing participles are used after certain verbs such as stop,

like,andwant(seeparagraphs3.182to3.212)and-ingand-edparticiplesalsousedincertainsubordinateclauses (see thesectiononsubordinateclausesinChapter8).Infinitivesand-ingparticiplesarealsousedinsomestructureswithimpersonalit(seeparagraphs9.31to9.45).To-infinitives are also used after some nouns and adjectives (seeparagraphs 2.293 to 2.302, and 2.51 to 2.62). You can also use -ingparticiplesastheobjectsofprepositions.Participles and infinitives can have objects, complements, or adverbialsafterthem,justlikeverbsthathaveatense.Aclausebeginningwithato-infinitiveiscalleda to-infinitiveclause,aclausebeginningwithan -ingparticipleiscalledan-ingparticipleclause,andaclausebeginningwithan-edparticipleiscalledan-edparticipleclause.

R125 The order of auxiliaries is the same as for verbs that have a tense (seeparagraphR89).

R126 Theactiveto-infinitiveconsistsoftoandthebaseformoftheverb.Thisissometimessimplycalledtheinfinitive.Iwanttoescapefromhere.IaskedDavidtogowithme.

R127 Theactiveinfinitivewithouttoconsistsofthebaseformoftheverb.Itissometimescalledthebareinfinitive.Theyhelpedmegetsettledhere.

R128 Otheractiveinfinitiveformsareoccasionallyused.Thepresentprogressive infinitive consistsof tobe orbe, followed bythe-ingparticiple.Itismuchbetterforyoungchildrentobelivingathome.Theperfectorpastinfinitiveconsistsoftohaveorhave,followedbythe-edparticiple.Onlytwoareknowntohavedefected.Shemusthavedrowned.Theperfect orpast progressive infinitive consists of to have been orhavebeen,followedbythe-ingparticiple.Iseemtohavebeeneatingallevening.

R129 There are also passive infinitives. The ordinary passive infinitiveconsistsoftobeorbe,followedbythe-edparticiple.Ididn’twanttobecaughtoffguard.Heletitbeknownthathewouldbehomeallevening.Theperfect orpastpassive infinitive consistsof to havebeen orhavebeen,followedbythe-edparticiple.Heseemstohavebeencompletelyforgotten.

R130 The table belowgives a summary of infinitives. The passive infinitivesmarkedwithastarareveryrarelyused.

active passive (to)eat (to)beeatenpresentprogressive (to)beeating (to)bebeingeaten*perfect (to)haveeaten (to)havebeeneatenperfectprogressive (to)havebeeneating (to) have been being

eaten*

R131 The -ing participle is used as a verb phrase, usually with an activemeaning.Youcouldplaymeatune,saidSimon,sittingdown.Hecouldkeepintouchwithmebywritingletters.

R132 Combinationsbeginningwithhavingareoccasionallyused.

Theperfectorpast-ingformconsistsofhavingandthe-edparticiple.Ash,havingforgottenhisfear,hadbecomeboredandrestless.

R133 There are also combinations beginning with being and having, whichhaveapassivemeaning.Theordinarypassive-ingformconsistsofbeingandthe-edparticiple.…fearsthatpatientswouldresentbeinginterviewedbyacomputer.The perfect or past-ing form consists of having been and the -edparticiple.Havingbeendeclaredinsane,hewasconfinedinaprisonhospital.Theyweretakentohospitalafterhavingbeenwoundedbygunshot.

R134 The tablebelowgivesa summaryof -ing forms.The -ing formmarkedwithastarisveryrarelyused.

active passive eating beingeatenperfect havingeaten havingbeeneatenperfectprogressive havingbeeneating having been being

eating*

R135 The-edparticipleisalsousedasaverbphrase,withapassivemeaning.Stunnedbytheattack,theenemywereoverwhelmed.Whenchallenged,sheseemedquitesurprised.

FormingadverbsR136 TheusesofadverbsareexplainedinChapters2,4,6,and10.R137 Most adverbs are related to adjectives in form, and often in meaning.

Theyareformedbyaddinglytotheadjective.Forinformationonwhichadjectivesyoucanaddlyto,seeparagraphs6.17to6.27.sad → sadly

cheerful → cheerfully

private → privately

accidental → accidentally

surprising → surprisingly

R138 Sometimestheformationisslightlydifferent.Withadjectivesendinginle,youreplacethelewithly.suitable → suitably

terrible → terribly

gentle → gently

Notethatwholehastherelatedadverbwholly.R139 Withadjectivesendinginy,youreplacetheywithily.

easy → easily

satisfactory→ satisfactorily

Notethatone-syllableadjectivesendinginyusuallyhavelyadded,inthenormalway.wry → wryly

shy → shyly

Notethattheadverbrelatedtodrycanbespelleddrilyordryly.R140 Withadjectivesendinginic,youaddally.

automatic → automatically

tragic → tragically

Notethatpublichastherelatedadverbpublicly.R141 Withafewadjectivesendingine(notle),youreplacetheewithly.

due → duly

true → truly

undue → unduly

eerie → eerilyR142 Withfullanddull,youjustaddy.

full → fully

dull → dully

R143 Note that ly is not generally added to adjectives ending in ed to formadverbs.However,hereisalistofadverbsthatareformedinthisway:

absent-mindedlyadmittedlyallegedlyassuredlybelatedlyblessedlycontentedlycrookedlydecidedlydejectedlydelightedlydeservedlydeterminedlydistractedlydoggedlyexaggeratedlyexcitedlyfixedlyfrenziedlyguardedlyhalf-heartedlyheatedlyhurriedlylight-heartedlymarkedlypointedlyrepeatedlyreportedlyreputedlyresignedlysingle-handedlysupposedlyundoubtedlyunexpectedlyunhurriedly

wholeheartedlywickedly

R144 Afewadverbsthatendinlyarerelatedtonouns.Theseincludesometimeadverbs.day → daily

fortnight → fortnightly

hour → hourly

month → monthly

quarter → quarterly

week → weekly

year → yearly

Note the spelling of daily. These words are also themselves used asadjectives.Otheradverbsrelatedtonounsareshownbelow.name → namely

part → partly

purpose → purposely

body → bodily

R145 Afewadverbsendinginlyarenotrelatedtoanyadjectiveornoun.

accordinglyexceedinglyjokinglylonginglymanfullypresumably

R146 Hereisalistofadverbsthathavethesameformasadjectives:

alike

allrightalonecleandeepdirectevenextrafarfastfinefirstfreefreelancefullfull-timefurtherhardhighjustkindlylastlatelittlelongloudlownextnon-stopoff-handonlyoutrightoverallpart-timepastprettyquick

right

slowsolostillstraighttightwellwidewrong

Notethattheadverbissometimesnotrelatedinmeaningtotheadjectivewhoseformitshares.CheckthemeaningsinaCobuilddictionary.Withsomeofthesewords,therearealsorelatedformsendinginly.

cleanlydirectlydeeplyevenlyfinelyfirstlyfreelyfullyhardlyhighlyjustlylastlylatelyloudlyquicklyrightlyslowlytightlywidelywrongly

Note that these ly formssometimeshave thesamemeaningas theotheradverbform,andsometimesnot.Thetimeadverbialsendinginly,whicharementionedinparagraphR144,alsohavethesameformasadjectives.

R147 Note thatordinalnumbers are used both asmodifiers and as adverbs.Theyalsohaverelatedadverbsendinginly.

R148 Hereisalistofadverbsthatarenotrelatedtoanyadjective:

afreshalasalikealmostaloudalsoaltogetheranyhowanywayapartbesidesdoubtlesseitherenoughforthwithfurthermorehalfhenceherebyhoweverindeedinsteadlikewisemaybemeanwhile

moremoreovermuchneverthelessnonethelessotherwiseperhapsquiteratherregardlesssosomehowsomewhatthereforethereuponthoughthustogethertooverywhatsoever

R149 Time adverbials and many adverbs of place are also not related toadjectives.SeeChapters4and6forlistsoftheseadverbs.

FormingcomparativeandsuperlativeadverbsR150 Information on how to use comparatives and superlatives of adverbs,

andwhichadverbshavethem,isgiveninChapter6(6.30to6.35).R151 Thecomparativeofanadverbusuallyconsistsofthenormalformofthe

adverbprecededbymore.freely → morefreely

appropriately→ moreappropriatelyR152 The superlativeof anadverbusually consistsof thenormal formof the

adverbprecededbymost.

commonly → mostcommonly

eagerly → mosteagerlyR153 Afewverycommonadverbshavecomparativesandsuperlativesthatare

singlewordsandnotformedusingmoreandmost.Wellhasthecomparativebetterandthesuperlativebest.Shewouldaskhimlater,whensheknewhimbetter.IhavetofindoutwhatIcandobest.Badlyhasthecomparativeworseandthesuperlativeworst.Shewastreatedfarworsethananyanimal.Themanufacturingindustrieswerehitworst.Adverbs that have the same form as adjectives have the samecomparatives and superlatives as the adjectives. For example, thecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadverbfastarefasterandfastest,andthe comparative and superlative of the adverb hard are harder andhardest.Priceshavebeenrisingfasterthanincomes.Youprobablylearnquickerbyhavinglessons.Theolderpeopleworkthehardest.Theoneswiththeshortestlegsruntheslowest.

R154 Here is a list of time adverbials and adverbs of place that havecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.SeeChapter4(4.70,4.114,and4.123)andChapter 6 (6.60). Note that a few have irregular comparatives andsuperlatives.early → earlier → earliest

late → later (nosuperlative)

soon → sooner (nosuperlative)

long → longer → longest

deep → deeper → deepest

far → farther,further → farthest,furthest

near → nearer → nearest

close → closer → closest

GrammarsectionThegrammarofbusinessEnglish

Introduction

Networking

MakingsocialandbusinessarrangementsAskingforandconfirminginformationTalkingaboutexperience

Negotiating

MakingandmodifyingproposalsRejectingideasandproposals

Presenting

DescribingchangeMakingpredictionsContrastsandcomparisonsLinkingideasDistancingyourself

Meetings

InterruptingMakingsuggestionsMakingrequestsDisagreeingpolitely

ThegrammarofacademicEnglishIntroduction

Beingclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay:nounandverbphrases

NominalizationThenounphrase(1):PremodifyingnounphrasesThenounphrase(2):PostmodifyingnounphrasesTheverbphrase

Orderingandconnectingyourmessage

Usinggrammaticalstructuresandvocabularyto‘signpost’yourintentionReferringbackandreferringforward

Thestyleofyourmessage

DistancingReportingExpresingdegreesofcertaintyEmphasizing

ThegrammarofbusinessEnglish

IntroductionThere are certain areas of life and activity where particular features oflanguage are found more frequently than in other areas. For example,doctors and engineers commonly use very specific vocabulary in theirwork-relatedcommunication.Apart from specialized vocabulary, there are also grammatical patternsthat occur more frequently in particular contexts. This section looks atformsthatarecommoninthefieldofbusinessandcommerce.Examplesofhowlanguageisusedareorganizedintofourareas:NetworkingNegotiatingPresentingMeetings

Inmany cases, of course, the language that is described canbe used inmorethanoneofthesetopicareas.

NetworkingMakingsocialandbusinessarrangements

Thedialoguebelowisanexampleofthetypeofconversationthatmighttakeplacebetweentwopeoplewhowanttomakeanarrangementtomeetatalatertime.A Doyouwanttomeetupforlunchsometimenextweek?B Yes.Thatwouldbenice.WecantalkabouttheFCLdeal.I’mnotinonMonday.I’mgoingtoworkfromhome.HowaboutnextTuesday?

A Let’s see. No, I can’t. I’m taking some clients to the riversidedevelopment.WhataboutWednesday?

B I’mgoingtoGermanyonWednesday.MyflightleavesaroundfivesoIdon’tneedtogetawayuntilafterlunch.Isthatokay?

A Fine.Let’smeetatone.

useofverbformswithfuturemeaning

You can use the present progressive (see 4.60) to talk about futurearrangementsthatyouwouldputinadiary.Normallythesearrangementsinvolveotherpeople.We’rehavingameetingtodiscusstheproposalnextTuesday.ThepeoplefromILCarecomingforlunchattwo.Whenfuturearrangementsarenotfirmplans,butitisyourintentionthattheywillhappen,youusebegoingtofollowedbyaninfinitive(see4.58).I’mgoingtohaveanearlynightbecauseI’mtired.We’llhavesometimeafterthemeetingsowe’regoingtoexploretheoldpartofthecity.You use the present simple to talk about events in schedules such astransporttimetablesorconferenceprogrammes(see4.60).Ourflightleavesatsixandgetsinateight.Themorningplenarysessionstartsatninethirty.

expressionsformakingsuggestions

There are severalways inwhich you canmake suggestions aboutwhatyouandsomeoneelseshoulddo.YoucanuseLetfollowedbyusshortenedtoLet’s(see5.41).Let’shaveabreakandgoforacoffee.Let’sstayincontact.YoucanuseaquestionbeginningwithShallwe(see5.188).Shallwemeetoutsidetherestaurant?Shallwerewardourselveswithalittlelunch?

YoucanuseaquestionbeginningwithWhydon’twe(see5.48).Whydon’twehaveaworkingbreakfastinthehotel?Whydon’twestayanextraday?YoucanuseaquestionbeginningwithWhataboutorHowaboutinfrontofanounphrase(see5.48).Howaboutadrinkafterthemeeting?HowaboutnextSunday?WhataboutthetwentiethofMarch?

AskingforandconfirminginformationToformthedifferenttypeofcommonlyusedquestionsinEnglishyoucanuseavarietyofstructures,wherethewordorderandtheuseofauxiliariescanbeconfusing.Thedialoguebelow is aphonecallwhichmight takeplacebetweentwopeoplewheredetailsofanorderarediscussed.A Hello.I’mphoningaboutanorder.TheIDnumberis28443AB.B Whendidyouplacetheorderplease?A Lastweek.B Sorry.Whatwastheordernumberagain?A 28443AB.B Ohyes,itwasforsomeswitcherunits,wasn’tit?A That’sright.Canyoutellmeifit’sbeenprocessedyet?B Yes.Theywereoutofstockbutwegotsomeinyesterday.Didn’tyougetanemail?

A Er,no.Haven’ttheybeensentoffyet?B Theywentoffthismorning.A Sodoyouhaveanyideawhenwecanexpectdelivery?B Theyshouldbewithyoutomorrow.A Okay.Thanks.

yes/noquestions

When you are using the present simple or past simple form of be you

simplyputtheverbatthebeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubject(see5.14).Areyouwithmesofar?IsSimonuptothejob?Weretheyatthemeeting?Whentheverbisnotbeyouneedtouseanauxiliaryverb(ordo,does,ordid),followedbythesubjectandthenthemainverb(see5.12and5.13).Ishestayingheretonight?Doyouworkinateam?Didtheywanttotalktome?Willtheyacceptthat?Haveyougotthefigureswithyou?If there is more than one auxiliary verb, the first auxiliary comes atbeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubjectandthenotherauxiliariesandthemainverb.Hastheproblembeenreported?Havetheybeenwaitinglong?

wh-questions

If you are using the present simple or past simple formofbe, the verbgoesafterthewh-wordandinfrontofthesubject(see5.26).Howwasyourmeeting?Whereisthecustomer?Sowherewereyourauditorsduringallofthis?Ifyouareusingthepresentsimpleorthepastsimpleofanyverbexceptbe,youputdo,does,ordidinfrontofthesubject(see5.26).Whichdepartmentdidyouwant?Whodoyouworkfor?Howdidshemakethedecision?Whatdoeshereallythinkaboutthedeal?Whenawh-word is the subject of a verb, orwhen it forms part of thesubject,thewordorderisthesameasinanaffirmativeclause(see5.25).Whoinvitedyou?

Whathappenedearlieron?Whichbidwon?

othertypesofquestion

YoucanuseindirectquestionslikeCanyoutellme,Couldyoutellme,DoyouknowandHaveyouanyideainordertobemorepolite(see5.15).For yes/no questions, you use if orwhether followed by a clause withaffirmativewordorder.Canyoutellmeifhegotmymessage?Doyouknowwhethertheunitshavearrived?For wh-questions, you use a wh-word followed by a clause withaffirmativewordorder.Couldyoutellmewhatyou’vegotontoday?Haveyouanyideawhatitwouldcost?You can ask for confirmation that something is true by making astatement,andthenaddingaquestiontagsuchasisn’tit?ordoesn’tshe?(see5.16to5.22).TheyworkonSaturdays,don’tthey?Youcanparkthere,can’tyou?Youcanuseanegativequestiontoexpresssurpriseatasituation.Didn’tyouarrangetomeetthemattheairport?Wasn’tthemeetingatnine?Haven’tyoufinishedyet?

Talkingaboutexperience

talkingaboutthepresent

You use thepresent simple to talk about permanent facts and routines(see4.9to4.11).Weofferawiderangeofservicesforthebioindustry.Every week, Susan drives to Edmonton for a meeting with the factorymanager.Thefirstthingwedoisasitesurvey.

Youusethepresentprogressivetotalkaboutcurrentsituationswhenyouwant to emphasize that theyare temporaryor inprogressat the timeofspeaking(see4.17to4.19).Weareupdatingourflightrulestoadapttothenewscenario.UsersarelookingatotherwaysoffinancingITprojects.He’sstayingthereastheguestofourTaiwan-basedsupplier.

talkingaboutfinishedpastsituations

If you want to talk about a situation or an event that happened at aparticular time in the past which is finished, you use the past simple.Timeexpressions like lastweekandayearago,which refer to finishedtimeperiodsinthepast,canbeusedtomakethetimereferenceclear(see4.27to4.29).BallmerflewtoCalifornialastweekandproposedthemerger.AfterHarvard,hestudiedatOxfordUniversity.Ms. Caridi previously worked in the legal department at LehmanBrothers.You use thepast progressive to emphasize an action in progress or togivethebackgroundcontextforevents(see4.31and4.32).Thecompanywaslosingmoney,sohedecidedtosell.

The plant wasmaking a profit of $250,000 a year and themarket wasgrowingsteadily.

talkingaboutpastsituationsinrelationtothepresent

Thepresentperfectsimplecanbeusedtotalkabout:experiences,withoutstatingaspecifictimeevents and situations that started in the past and continue up to the

presenteventsandsituationsthathaveanimmediateeffectonthepresent.

Youcannotusetimeexpressionslikeyesterday,lastyear,oratChristmaswiththepresentperfectsimple(see4.33to4.35).Yes,I’vebumpedintohimanumberoftimes.

We’vemetwithallthemajorshareholders.Spendinghasrisensteadilysincethebeginningoftheyear.Haveyoubroughtthereportwithyou?Youusethepresentperfectprogressive:whenyouwanttotalkaboutsituationsthatstartedinthepast,thatmay

ormaynotbecompleted,butthatyouseeastemporarywhenyouwanttoemphasizeduration(see4.36).

WehavebeenlookingforaEuropeanpartnerforsometime.Thecompanyhasbeenworkinghardtoreduceitsoverhead.

talkingaboutaparticulartimeinthepast

Ifyouwant to show thatoneeventhappenedbeforeanother in thepastyoucanusethepastperfect(see4.37).Whenpeopleleftthemeeting,theyweremoreenthusiasticthanwhentheyhad arrived. Before the negotiations started, they had decided to giveemployeesa4%payrise.

NegotiatingMakingandmodifyingproposals

softeningthemessage

Youcanusecomparativestoshowthatyouarepreparedtonegotiateonaparticularpoint(see2.103to2.111).Weneedamoreflexiblearrangement.I’mlookingforfigureclosertothreedollarssixtyaunit.Wouldyoubehappierwithafixedrate?You can use themodalswould, could, may and might to make yourmessagelessdirect.Wemightbeabledroptheprice.Couldwelookatthatsideofyourproposallater?Wouldyouconsiderreducingdiscounts?

thinkingaboutpossiblefutureeventsandexploringpossibilities

Themodalscould,mayandmight are alsoused to say that a particularresultorsituationispossible(see5.126).Theremaybeaslightdelay.Yes,thatmightbepossible.Yes,Icanseethatthiscouldhavegreatpotential.You can use conditional sentences to discuss options and explorepossibilitiesinahypotheticalway(see8.25to8.42).Ifyoucouldgiveusexclusivity,wecansettlethisnow.Thediscountcouldbebiggerifyouincreasedthequantity.IfIdroptheprice,havewegotadeal?Unlessyoucanshowabitofflexibility,wemightaswellcallitaday.

Rejectingideasandproposals

distancingyourselffromasituation

Todistanceyourselffromanopinion,andthereforesoundlessdirect,youcanusethepassive formofareportingverbwith itas the impersonalsubject(see7.69).It was understood that if we were successful in securing the takeover,SarongwouldbecomeapartofInternationalLatex.Itisassumedthatsharepriceswillriseasaresultoftheoperation.Itwasagreedthatthedetailswouldremainconfidential.

beingdiplomatic

Youcanuseaqualifiersuchasalittle,abit,orrathertomakeanegativemessageseemlessstrong(see2.162).Thatsoundsalittleexpensive.Theymaybeabitlate,I’mafraid.Unfortunately, wewere rather disappointed with the quality of the lastdelivery.Expressions like not very, not totally, not completely, and not entirelyfollowed by a positive adjective sound more diplomatic than using a

negativeadjective.

Wearen’ttotallyconvincedbytheideaofusingroadtransport.Iwouldn’tbeveryhappywiththatarrangement.Youdon’tseemabsolutelycertainaboutthat.Thepastprogressive canbeused tomakea statementmore indirect inordertobepolite(see4.31and4.32).Wewereexpectingtohearanewproposaltoday.Iwasaimingtoestablishaframeworkforfurtherdiscussion.Wewerehopingtoreachagreementaboutthisbeforewego.

Presenting

Describingchange

thepastcomparedtothepresent

Youcanusethepresentperfectsimpletotalkabouteventsorsituationsthatarestillimportantinthepresent(see4.33).TheFTSEIndexhasstrengthenedfurthersincethismorning.Wehavemadechangesbasedonyourconcernsandfeedback.

thepresentmoment

Totalkaboutchange that isstill inprogressat thepresentmoment,youcanusethepresentprogressive(see4.19).Theeconomy isgrowing,but ifwe lookcloser thereare someworryingtrends.Inthecountry’smajorcities,thequalityoflifeisimproving.

Makingpredictions

opinionsaboutthefuture

Youcanusewillwhenyouarecertainaboutasituationinthefuture(see4.53).Thecutswillcertainlyhaveanegativeeffectontheeconomy.

Ibelievethisattitudewillsoonbecomethenorm.You can also use be going to instead ofwill to make predictions (see4.58).Shepredictsthatearningsaregoingtocomedownsharply.Wearetryingtodecidewhethertheeconomyisgoingtogointorecession.

expressinganegativeopinionaboutthefuture

If you want to make a negative prediction, it sounds more polite tointroduceanaffirmativeclausewithaphraselikeIdon’tthinkthantouseanegativeclause.Idon’tthinkthiswillgodownwellwiththeunion.Idon’tthinkit’sgoingtobeagreatsuccess.

degreesofcertaintyaboutthefuture

Youcanusecould,may,ormighttosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingwillhappen(see5.126).These economic problems could cause huge problems for the rest ofEurope.Newtechnologymightbeabletohalvetheamountofwaterweuse.Themarketmayeventuallyaccomplishwhatenvironmentalistswant.You use be likely followed by a to-infinitive to say something willprobablyhappen.Emergingeconomiesarelikelytofacecontinuingproblems.You use be bound followed by a to-infinitive to say strongly thatsomethingiscertaintohappeninthefuture(see5.234).Thepressureonmarginsisboundtomakesuccessdifficult.

Contrastsandcomparisons

concessiveclauses

You use conjunctions like while, although, in spite of, and despite tocontrastoneideawithanother(see8.66).

Untilnow,only8,000peoplehave registeredwith the site,although thecompanysaidthenumberisstillincreasing.Inspiteofthecrisis,salesareactuallyuponlastyear.Retailsalesareplummeting,whileconsumerpricesarerising.Whilstandwhereasaremoreformal.InFrancetherewasasmallimprovement,whereastherewasnochangeinGermany.Micro’s online store is almost empty, whilst Azar’s has nearly 50,000products.

makingcomparisons

Youcanuseanadjectivewitheither-eraddedtotheend(cheaper,older)or more placed in front of the adjective (more expensive, moreinteresting),followedbythan(see2.103to2.111).Thechipismoreeconomicalthanadedicatedsystem.KondexisbiggerthanGartexintermsofsales.You can also use not as… as or not so… as to compare things (see2.128).OurfactoriesarestillnotasefficientasthecarplantsinJapan.Traditionalformsofadvertisingarenotaseffectiveastheyusedtobe.

emphasizingdegreesofdifference

Youcanusemuch,alotorfarinfrontofcomparativeadjectiveformstoemphasizeabigdifference.Manufacturers are much more cautious than before about investmentplans.The job provides her with a far greater challenge than ordinary officeworkwould.Youcanuseslightly,abitoralittletoemphasizesmalldifferences.Thefirst-quarterincreasewasslightlyhigherat1.2%.If anything, European and Pacific Rim executives are a little moreaggressivethantheJapanese.

To emphasize small differenceswith thenot as…as structure you canaddquite.Butbyothermeasures,oilisnotquiteasexpensiveasitseems.

LinkingideasYoucanshowwhatsortofconnectionthereisbetweenonesentenceandanotherbyusingsentenceconnectors.Inapresentation,theseconnectorspreparethelistenerforwhatiscomingnext.

addingstrengthtoyourargument

Connectorssuchasontopofthatandatthesametimecanbeusedtoaddstrength toyour argument. Inwriting,or inmore formal situations,youcanusemoreoverorfurthermore(see10.49).The financial crisis continues.On top of that, exceptional weather hasdevastatedcrops.Unemploymenthasgrownrapidly.Atthesametime,thereislowdemandforexistingskills.Experts predict that the downturn will be less severe than expected.Furthermore,banksplantolendmorefreelyinthenextthreemonths.

contrast

Youuseconnectorslikehowever,ontheotherhand,orneverthelesswhenyouwanttogiveanotherpointofview(see10.51).Ifyouwantjobsecurity,thisisnotthepostforyou.Ontheotherhand,thesalaryisgood.There was a fall in sales last month. However, revenue from digitalproductsrosebynearly20%inthefirsthalf.It is necessary for foreign currency traders to think quickly andaccurately.Nevertheless,mistakesdooccasionallyoccur.

causeandeffect

Whenyouwanttoshowthatthefactorsituationyouarementioningisaresult of what you have just referred to, you can begin your statement

usingaconnectorlikesoorasaresult.Ifyouwanttosoundmoreformalyoucanuseconsequentlyortherefore(see10.52).Another 3,100 jobs were lost last year. So people no longer trust thecompany.Welostsightofwhatourcustomerswanted.Asaresult,salesslumped.Confidence isstill low.Consequently, firmsarenotwilling tomakenewinvestments.

Distancingyourself

thepassive

You use the passive when you want to focus on actions, views anddecisions,ratherthanonthepeopleresponsibleforthem(see9.8to9.24).Itisfrequentlyusedinreports,anditismorecommoninwrittenEnglish.In2006,18.3%oftheworld’selectricitywasproducedusingrenewablesources.Whenmaterialswerecoatedinthesubstance,theplatingremainedstableatroomtemperature.The passive is often used to describe processeswith adjuncts like first,second,then,andfinallytoindicateorder(see10.54).First,therawdataiscollatedintables,Itisthenpreparedforprocessing.Finally,thedatamodelisproduced.

MeetingsInterrupting

can,could

WhenyouareparticipatinginameetingyoucanusecanIandcouldItointerruptpolitely.Couldismorepolitethancan.CanIaskaquestionhere?CouldIjustinterrupthereforaminute?

MakingsuggestionsCanandcouldarealsousedformakingsuggestions.Couldwemaybedevelopanewpaymentsystem?CanweaskNetworkSolutionstohelp?Tosoundmorepersuasiveyoucanuseanegativequestion.Couldn’tweaskthemtocomeinforademonstration?Can’twedothislater?

Let’s…,Whydon’twe…

YoucanalsouseLet’s…andWhydon’twe…tomakesuggestions.Let’scallitaday.Whydon’twemoveontothenextpointontheagenda.

Makingrequests

Canyou…?,Couldyou…?

YoucanuseCanyou…orCouldyou…toasksomeonetodosomething.Couldismorepolitethancan.Canyousummarizethemainpoints,please?Couldyouexplainthatagain?

Wouldyoumind…

ThephraseWould youmind following by the -ing form is also used tomakepoliterequests.Wouldyoumindgoingbacktothepreviousgraphic?WouldyoumindjustwaitingaminutewhileIanswerthat?

conditionalsentences

Various conditional sentences can also be used in questions to direct ameetinginapoliteway.Woulditbeallrightifwegooverthatagain?Isitokayifweleavethistilllater?

Doyoumindifwestartwithafewintroductions,please?WouldyoumindifIinvestigatethisalittlefurther?

Disagreeingpolitely

Yes,but…

If youwant to disagreewith someonewithout offending them, you canuseanexpressionofagreementfollowedbybut.Well,IagreebutIseeitslightlydifferently.IseewhatyoumeanbutIstilldon’tthinkit’spossible.Itakeyourpointaboutthecostsbutwecouldstilldoit.

think,believe

Ifyouwant to contradict somebody,or say something thatotherpeoplemaydisagreewith,youcanavoidsoundingrudebyusingareportingverbsuchasIthink…(orIdon’tthink…)orIbelieve…(orIdon’tbelieve…).Ithinkit’stimewestopped.Idon’tthinkthat’sactuallythecase.Idon’tbelievewecommittedourselvestomaintainingtheprice.

seem,appear

Youcanavoidsoundingabsolutelycertainofyour informationbyusingtheverbsseemorappear.Thisseemstobetheonlypossiblesolutiontotheproblem.Itappearsthatthecostofthenewsystemwouldbeminimal.

ThegrammarofacademicEnglish

IntroductionWhenyouwriteorspeakinacademiccontexts,itisimportantto:beclearaboutwhatyouwanttosayconnectandsequenceyourmessageestablishyourrelationshipwiththereaderappropriately.

Thelanguageyouchooseisrelatedtothepurposeofyourtext.Thiswillvaryaccording to (i) the form inwhichyourmessagewillbepresentedand(ii)youraudience.A lecture or seminar presents information and points out areas ofdisagreement.Alectureisoftencertainintone,butitraisesquestionsthatcanbeexplored.Aseminarisanoccasionwhereviewsarepresentedanddiscussed.Thespeakeroftenusesyouandwe.An essay or assignment brings together and discusses information. Adissertation or a journal article investigates a topic. These texts areformal,andthetoneisgenerallyimpersonal.A textbook presents information for teaching and reference: it tells thereaderwhatisknown,anditstonesuggestscertainty.

Being clear about what you want to say: noun andverbphrases

The aim of academic speech andwriting is to communicate amessageprecisely, and without using too many words. In order to achieve this,speakers and writers concentrate information mainly in noun and verbphrases.

Research involves investigating or analysing a subject. Thismeans thatnouns and verbs used in academic texts often relate to processes andconcepts.

NominalizationVerbs are often nominalized (=made into nouns) in order to focus thereaderonaconceptorideainsteadoftheaction.Forexample:

verb noundemonstrate demonstrationdiscover discoverymeasure measurementassess assessmentassist assistancemaintain maintenance

The demonstration of brain mechanisms at work is not proof thatrehabilitationhasbeenachieved.In 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie announced their discovery of a newelement.Afteraninitialmeasurementofthepatient’sbloodglucose,theyaregiven50gofsolublelactosetodrink.Theybasetheirassessmentofriskonavailablescientificevidence.Themaintenanceofbloodpressureisachievedlessrapidlyasweage.Laboratorytechnicianscanprovideassistancewhenrequired.

Thenounphrase(1):PremodifyingnounphrasesPremodificationallowsyoutoconcentratealotofinformationinthenounphrase.Youcanbuildthenounphraseinthefollowingways:noun+noun(+noun)

…afoodpreservationprocess.adverb+-edparticiple+noun+noun(+noun)

…arecentlydevelopedfoodpreservationprocess.…stronglymotivatedhistorystudents.…awell-organizedadvertisingcampaign.

-edadjectivesSome -ed adjectives (see 2.77 to 2.93) carry themeaning of somethingthathasalreadybeencompleted.…finalizedplans.(=plansthathavebeenagreed)…a previously exhibited work of art. (= a work of art that has beenshownpreviously)…aclosedcase.(=acasebelongingtothegroupofcasesthathavebeensolved)…a recently completed project. (= a project that has recently beenfinished)adverb+-edparticiple+adjective+noun+noun(+noun)

…arecentlydevelopedcosteffectivefoodpreservationprocess.…anewlydiscoveredmajoroilfield.-ingadjectives

-ingadjectives(see2.63)areusedfordescribinganeffectoraprocess,orastatethatcontinuesoveraperiodoftime.Furtherchangesmaywellbringdiminishingreturns.…measurestocontroltherisingcostofliving.Using more than four premodifiers makes the noun phrase difficult tounderstand,especiallywhenthisconsistsonlyofnouns.Forexample:…theschoolteamgameplayingarea.In this case, it would be better to use a prepositional phrase (seeprepositionalphrasesbelow).…playingareasforschoolteamgames.

Thenounphrase(2):PostmodifyingnounphrasesWhenyouneedtobemorepreciseaboutthenounphrase,ortogivethereader more information, you can use a relative clause, a participle orinfinitiveclause,oraprepositionalphrase.To identify a subject clearly, you use a defining relative clauseintroducedbyarelativepronoun(see1.146to1.150).ThemostcommonrelativepronouninacademicEnglishiswhich:

Amagnetisadevicewhichstronglyattractscertainmetals.

reducingtherelativeclause

Therelativeclauseisoftenreducedinacademicwriting.Youcanreducetherelativeclauseinthefollowingways.leaving out the relative pronoun (when the defining relative clause

referstotheobjectofthesentence).The hard drive was erased because of the confidential information(which)itcontained.usingaparticipleclause

Participleclauses reduce therelativeclause toeitheran -ingparticipleoran-edparticiple.…one of the hundreds of Internet entrepreneurs (who are) launchingstartups inPaloAlto.Theyrecommend four to twelvedoses (whichare)givenafewdaysapart.Othercommonverbs thatareused to reduce the relativeclauseareuse,base,cause,makeandconcern.usinganinfinitiveclause

Infinitiveclauses are less frequent thanparticipleclauses.An infinitiveclauseoftensuggeststhatitisimportanttodosomething.Aproblemtowatchforislooseningofthejointsatthetopofthelegs.(…insteadofAproblemwhichyoushouldwatchforis…)Therearesomebasicpsychologicalprinciplestobearinmind.(…instead ofThere are some basic psychological principles which youshouldbearinmind.)replacingtherelativeclausewithaprepositionalphrase.

Whenarelativeclausecontainshave,youcanreduceittoaprepositionalphraseusingwith:Parliament is a national governing body with the highest level oflegislativepower.(…insteadof…anationalgoverningbodywhichhasthehighestlevel…)

Whena relative clause contains is+preposition,youcan reduce it to asimpleprepositionalphrase:A second central concept (which is) at the core ofmuch developmentalresearchis…addinganidentifyingnounphrase

Youcangivefurtherinformationaboutapersonorthingbyusinganounphrasethatdescribesoridentifiesthemorit(see2.302).TheMarianasTrench, 11,034mat its deepest point, is deeper than theheightofMountEverest.Aquickeralternative,asimplesearchprogram,makesiteasiertosearchthecorpus.This is common when you are introducing or defining acronyms,abbreviationsortechnicalterms.TheScientificAdvisoryCommitteeonNutrition(SACN)hasissuedadraftreport.

non-definingrelativeclauses

Anon-definingrelativeclauseisnotneededtoidentifytheperson,thingor group you are talking about; instead, it gives the reader moreinformationaboutthesubject,oritevaluatesorcommentsonthesubject(see8.85).Dark matter, which may be invisible for many reasons, has becomeincreasinglyimportant.

TheverbphraseIn general, academic English is less concerned with events, and moreconcernedwithwhathasbeenlearntfromtheevent.Therefore,thefocusof the sentence moves away from the verb phrase to the noun phrase.Verbsareoftennominalized(=madeintonouns)–seeNominalization.The rangeof tensesused inacademicEnglish ismore restricted than ineveryday English: simple forms of verbs are used more frequently;progressive forms, the past perfect, and the future perfect are used lessoften.

The tenseyouuseshowsyourattitudeandotherpeople’sattitude to thesubject.Forexample, it showswhetherapieceof researchoran idea isstillgenerallyacceptedornot.

thepresentsimple

Thepresentsimpleiscommonlyusedinthefollowingways.torefertosomethingthatyoubelieveisstillvalid

Thetwotheoriesareknownas‘ridgepush’versus‘slabpull’respectively.tostatecontinuingobjectives

Theaimistodirecttheenergyoftheradiationtokillthecancerouscells.todescribegeneralprinciplesorlaws

Whenwaterfreezes,itexpands.toexplainordiscussdataorresults.

Theresultsshowthatonlyaportionofworldtradeisaffected.tomakereferencetoorrelateeventsinliteraryworks,films,etc.

Shakespeare,inKingLear,emphasizesthesocialcausesofmadness.

thepresentperfect

Thepresentperfectiscommonlyusedinthefollowingways.toreviewresearch

Thereisavastliteraturelookingatdevelopmentissues,themainelementsofwhichhavebeenreviewedhere.tomake a general statement about the state of research activity in a

givenareaLittleresearchhasbeendoneonmicroscopicplastics.tosummarizeatext

Inlightoftheevidencethathasbeenreviewedthusfarinthisbook…

thepastsimple

Thepastsimpleiscommonlyusedinthefollowingways:

toindicatethatsomethinghappenedorwastrueataparticulartimeinthepast,andthatitmaybelessvalidtodayThealmostuniversalviewwas that the liverwas themainorgan in thebloodsystem.todescribesamplesandprocedures

AfullstudywasconductedwithasampleofmanagersfromtheUKheadoffice.toreportfindings

Their research showed that over half of all cancer cases could beprevented.

will

Willisusedtostateyourintention.Thisstudywillexaminetheeffectsofdepression.Will often occurs with an adverb such as often or probably, becauseacademic writers must avoid suggesting that their personal ideas andtheoriesarefacts.Thedesertregionswillprobablybecomemoreextensive.Changesinpracticewilloftenbetheresultofalongpoliticalprocess.

linkingverbs

Linkingverbsareusedfordescribingasituationoraquality,andsotheyoccur frequently inacademicEnglish.Linkingverbs thatarecommonlyused in academic English are be, become, look, remain, seem, appear,prove,andrepresent(see3.126to3.181).Atfirstglance,thesystemseemsoverwhelminglycomplex.Scientistsfearthatsomevirusesmayprovechallengingtodealwith.The source of the information must remain anonymous. Commoncomplementsinclude:nouns

Theresultsofthisexperimentremainasecret.Theirdecisionrepresentsaturnaround.

adjectivesThepatientsappearedtobeimmunetotheHIVvirus.Predictionsfornextyearlookincreasinglyuncertain.objectcomplements

You can put a noun or adjective complement after the object of sometransitive verbs.This complement describes the object, and is called anobjectcomplement.Theycannotkeeptheoptionsofbothpoliticsandterrorismopen.Television scored significantly higher amongst thosewho found politicsinteresting.Someanalystsdonotconsideritavirus.

OrderingandconnectingyourmessageThere are several ways of using language to hold your wholemessagetogetherandtogiveitmeaning.Thefirststepistoarrangecontentintoarecognizable pattern.Whenyou are planning a piece ofwork or a talk,you can use the following pattern to sequence your ideas: describe asituation → outline any problems → suggest a solution provide anevaluation.Thefollowingsectionsdescribetechniquesforensuringthatyourwritingor speech holds together well, and that both your intention and yourmessageareclear:usinggrammaticalstructuresandvocabularytosignpostyourintentionreferringbackandreferringforwardprovidingconnectorstoholdsectionstogether.

Using grammatical structures and vocabulary to ‘signpost’ yourintention

Thereareseveralwaysinwhichyoucanusegrammaticalstructuresandvocabularywithinasectionoftexttoexpressthefollowingideas:thearrangementofeventsintimeprocedure(=howsomethingisdone)

causeandeffectcomparisonsandcontrastadvantagesanddisadvantages.

arrangementofeventsintime

Ifyouwanttoshowthatonethinghappenedsoonaftertheother,youcanuse a finite verb in the main clause, and an -ing participle in thesubordinateclause:TheyheadedrapidlyfortheChannelports,showingtheirpassportsatthebarriers.Youcanalso indicate theorder inwhich thingshappenedusingordinalsandadverbssuchasfirst,then,later,etc.Later,inDecember1985,thecommitteedecided…

procedure

Youcanusethesamestructure–afiniteverbinthemainclause,andan-ingparticipleinthesubordinateclause–toshowhowsomethingisdone.Researchersdeterminedthesizeofeachmachine,takingintoaccountthepropertiesofthematerial.

cause/effect

The same structure can be used to show that one thing happened as aresultofanother.Manyofthemenreturnedhome,causinglocalunemployment.Notethatyoucanalsoindicatecauseandeffectinamainclauseusingaverbsuchascause,leadto,orresultin,oranounsuchaseffect,result,oroutcome.Theconsumptionofanexcessivenumberofsweetscancauseobesity.Theeffectofthefaminein1921–22wasdevastating.

comparisonandcontrast

Youcancompareandcontrastinformationinthefollowingways.

usingasentenceconnectorConversely, the effect of intravenous administration of the drug isimmediate.Bycontrast,themorerecentpublicationismorestraightforward.usingacomparativeadverb

Owner-controlled companies performed better than those subject tomanagementcontrol.usingaverb

The aim of this report is to compare and contrast these two businessstructures.WewillcompareourownfindingswiththoseofMortimoreetal.(1988).Thesefindingscontraststronglywiththosefromothertests.

forandagainst

You can provide an evaluation leading to a conclusion in the followingways.usinganadjective

Thismethodofproductionispreferable.usingaverb

Consumerspreferourproductsfortheirqualityandfinish.usinganoun

This type of surgery has the advantage that no abdominal incision isneeded.usinganadverbialclauseofreasonorpurpose

This typeoforganization shouldbemuchsmaller, since itwillnotneedpersonnelconcernedwithlinemanagement.Youmusttakeasmuchcareaspossible,inordertoavoidaccidents.

ReferringbackandreferringforwardThemostcommonwayofmakingatextholdtogetheristoreferbacktosomething that you have mentioned earlier, by using pronouns,

demonstratives,determiners,andadjectives(see10.2to10.39).Itisalsocommontoreferforward,particularlyinlongertexts(see10.40to10.47).

referringback

Thisandthosearecommoninacademiccontexts:…they had commissioned a specific piece of research. This camesomewhatlate.There were, however, wide differences of opinion about party chances.Someofthosedifferences…Notethatthedemonstrativeisoftenlinkedwithanounreferringto:spokenevents

That’sagoodquestion.ideas

ThisviewisalsoheldbyReyandStiglitz(1988).actionsandevents

Duringthisprocess,cracksappearedinthelimestone.Thissituationcontinuedforalmosttwodecades.piecesofwriting

As this research has shown, customer brand loyalty is very hard toachieve.Youusesuchasadeterminerandpredeterminertoreferback(10.29and10.30).They generally agree on which aspects of police work they like anddislike.Suchaconsensuswasoriginallyexplainedas…Thereporthighlights thehigh levelofovercrowdinginsomeprisons. Insuchcircumstances…Otherwordsandexpressionsusedforreferringbackareprevious,above,andtheformer…thelatter.The previous arguments have pointed to two ways in which the systemmightbeimproved.Whatissaidabovegivesthebackgroundtowhatfollows.

TheFrenchhavetwowordsforcitizenship:‘citoyenté’and‘civisme’,theformerdescribingthestatus,thelatter,attitudeandbehaviour.

referringforward

Toreferforwardtosectionsofthetext,youcanuse:followingasanadjective,orthefollowing,torefertotexts,ideas,and

piecesofwriting(see10.43)Symptomsoftheconditionmayincludeanyofthefollowing:chestpains,headache,difficultybreathing,andjointpain.ThefollowingpassagesummarizesSchmidt’sviews:…theadverbbelow,normallyafternounsreferringtotextsandpiecesof

writing(see10.45)ThetradeblockadewithIndia,describedbelow,resultedinsevereenergyshortages.

sentenceconnectors

Sentence connectors show the relationship between two sentences,clauses, or sections of text. The following are particularly common inacademicspeechandwriting:

function sentenceconnectorsindicatingafurtherargument additionally, in addition, also, furthermore,

moreoverindicatingasimilarsituation again,equally,likewise,similarlyindicatingcontrast alternatively, in contrast, conversely, even

so, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, onthecontrary,ontheotherhand,although

indicatingcause accordingly, as a result, as a consequence,consequently, hence, thereby, therefore,thus

indicatingpurpose inorderto,sothat,lest

ThestyleofyourmessageOnceyouhavedecidedonyourmessage,youneedtoformulateitsothat

you can achieve the effect you are aiming for. Common ways ofpresentinginformationaredescribedbelow.

DistancingPresentyourtextusinganimpersonalvoice.Thisallowsyoutofocusonthe issues rather than on the people involved. The structures below areespeciallyusefulforavoidingI.

impersonalit

You can remove focus frompeople by using impersonal it (see 9.31 to9.45).Itisalmostanoccupationalhazardacceptedbyvirologists.Useimpersonalitandapassiveformofareportingverbifyourmessageisanopinionheldbyanunspecifiedgroupofpeople(see7.69to7.73).Itiswidelybelievedthatthissubstanceisharmful.Itisacknowledgedthatresourcesareunevenlydistributed.Notethatyoucanalsouseareportingverbinthepassive,followedbyato-infinitive(see7.69).Thissubstanceisbelievedtobeharmful.UVBandUVAarebothreportedtocauseskincancer.

thereis,thereare

When youwant to say that something exists, or youwant to introducesomethingnew,usethereasasubject(see9.46to9.55).Thereareseveralclaimstobeconsideredinrelationtothisperspective.Therearenofewerthanthirteendifferentspeciesofotter.

researchortextinsubjectposition

Inaconclusionoranexample,donotwriteIhavediscovered…. Instead,putawordsuchasfindingsorresultsinsubjectposition.Thesefindingssuggestthattherearetwodifferentprocessingmethods.Theresultsshowthatthisproblemiswidespread.

thepassive

You can use the passive without by to describe procedures when theperformeroftheactiondoesnotneedtobespecified.Thetissuesamplewasremoved,analysedandstored.Theenginewasre-testedafterthemalfunction.Notethatitisimportantnottoover-usethepassive,asitcanmakeyourwritingdifficulttoread.

verbsthatindicateachangeofstate

Useverbssuchascontinue,decrease,andincreasetodescribeeventsthatinvolveachangeofstate(see3.59to3.67).Thesituationcontinuestobeacauseforconcern.Therateofchangeslowedinthesecondhalfoftheyear.The result of a change of state can be shown in a subordinate clausebeginningwithan-ingform(see8.141).Pricesrose,leadingtoafallindemand.Appetiteislessened,resultinginweightlossanddietaryproblems.

ReportingAnimportantaspectofacademicspeakingandwritinginvolvesreporting(orciting)theworkofotheracademics.Citations canbeused to explain thebasis of yourwork, to support andillustrate your arguments, or to contrast your ideas with other writers’theories.Citationssometimestaketheformofdirectquotes;however,thereportedinformationisusuallysummarizedinyourownwords.ThefollowingreportingverbsarecommonlyusedinacademicEnglishtointroducecitedmaterial(see7.5to7.11).Thesesverbsindicatethetypeofactivityreported:

Iftheactivityis: research-related mental verbaluse: measure think state

calculate believe writeestimate consider definefind focuson challengeobtain

Nuttall andGipps (1982) estimate that the direct cost of the APUwas£800,000peryear.Collins and Ellis (2001) also challenge the traditional concept of theindividual.Notethattheverbsthatyouusewilldependonyouracademicdiscipline.Research-related verbs are more common in technical and scientificwriting; mental and verbal activity verbs are more common in thehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Theseverbsindicateyourattitudetothereportedmaterial:

Ifyouthinkitis: valid notvalid neutraluse: show failto discuss

establish overlook responddemonstrate ignore comment suggest

Wenger’s data show that 43 percent of elderly people named as aconfidantsomeonetheyhadknownforatleast50years.Thisevidencefailstoacknowledgetheimportanceofthechildren’sdiet.Theseverbsindicatethecitedauthor’sattitudetothematerial:

Iftheauthoris: positive negative neutral tentativeuse: argue refute state suggest

maintain object write believesee challenge discuss implyhold comment alludeto

BothSmithandGoodman(2000)maintainthatskilledadultreadingisfarfromerror-free.Bly argues that the process of initiation into adulthood is easier forwomenthanformen.Note that verbs that indicate attitude are more commonly used in the

humanitiesandthesocialsciences.

ExpressingdegreesofcertaintyWhen you are formulating your message, you need to consider howstrongly you want to make your claim. Different structures expressdifferent degrees of certainty, and allowyou to establish a position thatyoucandefendifyouarecriticized.Forexample,itispossibletodefendthefollowingstatement:Certain researchers have attempted to show that some underprivilegedchildrencannotengageinplay.Thefollowingwouldbelesseasytodefend:Researchershaveshownthatunderprivilegedchildrencannotengage inplay.

notbeingprecise

Youcanusethefollowingadverbswhentheavailableinformationisnotprecise.

quantity frequency degree limitationroughly often rather predominantlyapproximately frequently quite mostlyaround occasionally somewhat partly

seldom rarely partially

Increasedriskofinfectionispredominantlylinkedtopoorsanitation.

cautiouslanguage

You can usemore cautious languagewhen you think that other peoplemay disagree with your statement, or when you want to expressuncertainty about whether or not a proposition is true. This may bebecause you really are uncertain, or because you want to createopportunitiesforreaderstodecideforthemselves.Thefollowinglistsshowdistancingstructuresthatarecommonlyusedformakingstementssoundmorecautious.

modalverbs semi-auxiliaryverbs

adverbs prepositionalphrases

adjectives

could seem possibly insomerespects uncertainmight appear seemingly inasense possiblemay arguably inmostcases can likely ingeneral apparently inprinciple evidently generally normally typically

Thereis,arguably,acommonthreadinallthesepositions.Aswillbeseenlater,currentmodelsareinadequateinsomerespects.Notethatifyouexpresstoomuchuncertainty,orifyourepeatedlyshowthat you are not sure if something is true, yourmessagewill have lessworth,anditwillbedifficulttointerpret.

EmphasizingIn general English, you can use strongwords to emphasize a point. InacademicEnglish,youoftenshowemphasisbychangingthenormalwordorderofastatement.

subordinateclauseinfirstposition

Subordinate clauses normally occur in first position in academic texts.Themainclausecarriesthenewormostimportantinformation.Youcanusethefollowingstructurestoshowthatsomethingimportantisgoingtobeannouncedattheendofthesentence.nominalrelativeclauses(see8.112to8.116)

Whatisnowrequiredisasystematicinvestigationofthedata.prefacingstructures(see9.73to9.78)

Thequestionwenowneed to consider iswhether thedosage shouldbereduced.splitsentences(see9.25to9.30)

Itwasthisdeclarationwhichtriggeredtheeventsthatfollowed.

Index

Note: entries in bold are grammatical terms; entries in italics are lexical terms. At certain entries (forexample,nounsandverbs), thereisalistoftermswiththe•symbol;theselistswillhelpyoutoquicklyfindallthemaincategoriesinalongsectionofthebook.AnumberprecededbyRreferstoaparagraphintheReferenceSection.

A

aandan1.228–1.229withcountablenouns1.228,1.235anwithwordsstartingwithavowelsound1.229notbeingspecificaboutwhichpersonorthingyouarereferringto1.230inphrasesthataddextrainformation1.231afterlinkingverbs1.232withuncountablenouns1.233usingindividualstogeneralize1.234afternotsuch2.130sayingaoraninsteadofone2.215infrontoflargenumbers2.221expressingspeed2.257withdaysoftheweek4.96infrequencyexpressions4.115

ability5.112,5.118–5.121ablebeableto5.224–5.226

about10.12beabouttoexpressingthefuture4.59infrequencyexpressions4.116asadverbofdirection6.67asprepositionindicationmovement6.97afterreportingverbtoindicatesubjectmatter7.85

above10.12absolute2.36absolutely2.148,6.50active9.8addressingpeople9.95–9.98titles1.55,9.97

adjectivalclause seerelativeclauses

adjectives2.2–2.122•attributiveadjectives2.42–2.43•classifyingadjectives2.26–2.28,2.83–2.84,8.183•colouradjectives2.9,2.30–2.34•compoundadjectives2.16,2.94–2.102•-edadjectives2.15,2.77–2.93•emphasizingadjectives2.36–2.39•-ingadjectives2.15,2.63–2.76•predicativeadjectives2.44–2.53•qualitativeadjectives2.22–2.25,2.80•thatcanbebothclassifyingandqualitative2.29usedasnouns1.66–1.72usingadjectivesasnouns1.170orderofadjectives2.14talkingaboutdifferentamountsofaquality2.18,2.140–2.156adjectivestructures2.19–2.21showingdisapproval2.37,2.38postdeterminers2.40onlyusedinfrontofanoun2.42–2.43thatalwaysfollowalinkingverb2.44–2.50followedbyto-infinitiveclauses2.51–2.52followedbythat-clauses2.53positioninnounphrases2.54–2.55listsofadjectivesusedafteranoun2.58–2.59differentmeaningswhenusedinfrontoforafteranoun2.59–2.60sayingthatthereisenoughofaquality2.149–2.151sayingthatthereisnotenoughofaquality2.152sayingthatthereistoomuchofaquality2.153–2.156comparativesandsuperlatives2.203–2.122withfractions2.241ascomplements3.132–3.137,3.162–3.171withhowinwh-questions5.34adding-lytomakeadverbs6.5,R137–R143thatdonotformadverbs6.27withnominalthat-clauses8.119waysoflinkingadjectives8.184–8.187,8.201withpluralnouns8.185adjectivesinimpersonalitstructures9.36,9.42

adverbialclauses8.6–8.82•clausesofmanner8.78•concessiveclauses8.65•conditionalclauses8.25–8.26•placeclauses8.73–8.77•purposeclauses8.43–8.48•reasonclauses8.49–8.53•reportingconditionalstatements7.59•resultclauses8.54–8.64•timeclauses8.8

adverbials6.1–6.121•adverbialsofdirection6.93–6.97

•adverbialsofduration4.123–4.144•adverbialsoffrequency4.114–4.122•adverbialsofposition6.84–6.92•adverbialsoftime4.1–4.112•sentenceadverbials10.48–10.56seealsoadverbsandprepositionalphrases

forindicatingdurationandfrequency4.4–4.5positionof6.7forfocusing9.56forbeingspecific9.57–9.58foremphasizing9.62

adverbparticles6.54adverbs6.16•adverbsofdegree6.45–6.46•adverbsofmanner6.36•adverbsofplace6.53•focusingadverbs9.64•indefiniteplaceadverbs6.61-lytimeadverbs4.120typesofadverb6.15meaningsrelatedtoadjectives6.17spelling6.18–6.19sameformasadjective6.24–6.25notrelatedtoadjectives6.29emphasizingadverbs6.49–6.50showingposition6.54–6.58indicatingdestinationsandtargets6.65afternouns6.72formationR136–R149

adviceandwarnings5.38reportingadvice7.39–7.42

affirmative5.6–5.9afterrelatingeventsorperiodsoftime4.107–4.108inexpressionsofduration4.129–4.130,4.139asprepositionindicatingdirection6.95intimeclauses8.15

again4.119age2.212,2.258–2.263exactage2.259approximateage2.260–2.262ofathing2.263

agreementnoun–verbagreement1.16,1.24,1.35,1.46,1.48withcollectivenouns1.48–1.50withadjectivesasheadwords1.68withtheyorthem1.123withindefinitepronouns1.129possessivedeterminerswithnoun1.199withquantityexpressions2.181,2.187

withpartitives2.194withcardinalnumbers2.217–2.218withfractions2.244withplacenames6.124withtwonoungroupsassubject8.177firstwordoffiniteverbphraseandsubjectR92

all1.242usedinsteadofpersonalpronoun1.156asindefinitedeterminer1.224–1.225,1.242aspredeterminer1.251allof2.179–2.180inexpressionsofduration4.135atstartofsplitsentences9.28

almost5.89already4.84although8.66,8.71always4.45amounts2.194,2.176–2.207omittingof2.190–2.191partitives2.194–2.207partitiveswithuncountablenouns2.195–2.198partitivesreferringtocontentsandcontainers2.200endingin-ful2.201–2.203partitivesreferringtopartsandfractions2.204partitivesreferringtoindividualitems2.205pairof2.206–2.207

an seeaandanandwithbetweenexpressingarangeofnumbers2.271linkingtwoverbs:tryand…,comeand…,etc3.200atbeginningofresultclauses8.55linkingclauses8.152linkingnounphrases8.172linkingadjectives8.181–8.183,8.185–8.186linkingadverbs8.188linkingprepositionsandprepositionalphrases8.191–8.192linkingmodifiers8.193withbothforemphasis8.195linkingmorethantwoclauses,phrases,orwordstogether8.200

another1.240asdeterminer1.224asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.182

any1.239structuresusedwithany-1.140asdeterminer1.224–1.225withvarioustypesofnoun1.239withcomparatives2.163,6.35asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.185,2.188.

anybody1.128–1.139anymore4.83

anyone1.128–1.139anything1.128–1.139anywhere6.61–6.71apostrophes1.211–1.221,1.145showingpossession1.210spellingandpronunciation1.211,R32–R40showingcloseconnection1.214–1.216usedinprepositionalphraseswithof1.218–1.221

appear7.70,7.71article seedeterminersasfortalkingaboutwhatrolesomethinghasorhowitisperceived3.178afterverbs,describingthesubject3.179–3.181forcomparingthings6.106–6.108intimeclauses8.11inreasonclauses8.50inclausesofmanner8.79–8.81

as…asafterjust,quite,nearly,andalmost2.164as+adverb+as6.108

asif8.81–8.82asthough8.81–8.82atintimeexpressions4.91forrelatingevents4.92,4.93inexpressionsoffrequency4.121atallforemphasisinnegativestatements5.90referringtoposition6.89indicatingdirection6.95afterreportingverbtomentionthehearer7.78

attitudeofspeaker9.79–9.90attributiveadjectives2.42–2.43auxiliariespositionof5.12,5.13inquestionstags5.17withnot5.55–5.58leavingouttheauxiliary8.167whenleavingwordsout10.61–10.71formsofauxiliariesR80–R88

B

bareinfinitiveR127barely5.82–5.88baseformsR52–R53beinstructuresexpressingage2.259–2.263asalinkingverb3.126–3.131

followedbyprepositionalphrases3.173followedbytimeexpression3.176asamainverb5.14,10.64inwhetherclauses8.41usedtoformpassives9.9getinsteadofbeinpassives9.24repeatingbewhenwordsareleftout10.64asanauxiliaryR80,R89contractedformsR81

because8.50become3.126beforerelatingeventsorperiodsoftime4.107inexpressionsoffrequency4.119inexpressionsofduration4.141asprepositionofposition6.86intimeclauses8.16

belief5.125below10.45best6.32,6.52better6.32,6.52hadbetter5.247

between2.271billion2.221–2.222billionsusedforemphasis2.224

bitabitandalittlebitassubmodifyingadverbs2.162abitasadverbofdegree6.52

bothusedinsteadofapersonalpronoun1.156asdeterminer1.242aspredeterminer1.251asquantityexpressionwithof2.179

broadnegatives5.82–5.88positioninclause5.83–5.84

but5.76,8.5,8.152–8.161afternegativewordsstartingwithno5.76usedforlinkingclauses8.152usedforlinkingadjectives8.187usedforlinkingadverbs8.188

byafteranounphrase2.286forspecifictime4.111infrequencyexpressions4.122asprepositionreferringtoposition6.89inpassives9.14listsofverbsusedwithbyinthepassive9.16

C

can5.161indicatingskillsandabilities5.118expressingawareness5.119talkingaboutgeneraltruths5.120–5.121indicatingbelief5.125askingforpermission5.142askingforhelp5.161makingoffersofhelp5.176indicatingability5.179

cannotindicatingimpossibility5.128indicatingcertainty5.132forbidding5.147–5.151makingrequests5.163showingunwillingness5.199showingpoliteness5.219–5.220

can’tmakingrequests5.165

capitalletters1.14cardinalnumbers2.208,2.213–2.231,R42–R45aspronouns1.157,2.220talkingaboutnegativeamounts2.216agreementwithnounsandverbs2.217–2.218largenumbers2.221approximatequantities2.224–2.225usedasquantityexpressions2.227–2.228writingandsayingcardinalnumbersR42–R45

causative3.211certainasanindefinitedeterminer1.245

classifyingadjectives2.26–2.29clauses

seealsomainclauseandsubordinateclause•clausesofmanner8.78–8.82•concessiveclauses8.65–8.72•conditionalclauses8.25–8.42•placeclauses8.73–8.77•purposeclauses8.43–8.48•reasonclauses8.49–8.53•resultclauses8.54–8.64•timeclauses8.8–8.24

cohesion seereferringbackandreferringforward

collectivenouns1.47–1.51listofcollectivenouns1.51

colouradjectives2.30–2.34

colournouns1.71,2.35addingextrainformationtocolouradjectives2.31approximatecolours2.32–2.33linkingcolouradjectives8.182

come3.200commonnouns1.3–1.4comparativeadjectives2.103–2.111positionofcomparativeadjectives2.55infrontofanoun2.104afteralinkingverb2.105usedasnouns2.109modifyingcomparativesadjectives2.157–2.163irregularforms6.32–6.35formationR20–R31

comparativeadverbs6.30–6.35,R150–R154forms6.31structures6.35formationandirregularformsR151–R154

comparingthings2.103–2.139,8.80–8.82comparisonofcolouradjectives2.34structuresusedaftercomparatives2.106position2.107moreandmorethan2.108withless2.110contrastedcomparatives2.111withlike2.132–2.134adjectivesmeaningthesame2.138modifyingadjectivesusedincomparisons2.139withlikeandas6.106–6.108,6.119withthan6.119

complement3.127,8.70,9.1,9.21seealsolinkingverbs

complete2.36compoundadjectives2.16,2.94–2.102formation2.95–2.96compoundqualitativeadjectives2.97compoundclassifyingadjectives2.98compoundcolouradjectives2.99longcompoundadjectives2.100–2.101foreigncompoundadjectives2.102

compoundnouns1.83–1.92twowords,onewordorahyphen?1.84listsofcompoundnouns1.85–1.88fromphrasalverbs1.89pluralforms1.91–1.92expressingage2.259

compoundverbs3.117–3.125writtenformsofcompoundverbs3.119formsofcompoundverbs3.120–3.121intransitivecompoundverbs3.122

transitivecompoundverbs3.123–3.124inflectingcompoundverbs3.125

conditionalclauses8.25–8.42summaryofuses8.25beginningwithiforunless8.26inimperativestructures8.27choiceoftense8.28–8.32thingsthatoftenhappen8.29thingsthatoftenhappenedinthepast8.30possiblesituations8.31thingsthatmighthappeninthefuture8.32–8.33unlikelysituations8.34whatmighthavebeen8.35omissionofifwithshould,were,orhad8.36

contractionsn’tfornot5.61–5.62,5.104,5.249ofwillandwould5.108ofauxiliariesR80

conjunctions8.2–8.5,10.55subordinatingconjunctions8.4coordinatingconjunctions8.5functions8.153emphasizing8.194–8.199

coordination8.149–8.201seealsolinkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether

listofcoordinatingconjunctions8.149copula seelinkingverbscouldindicatingabilityinthepast5.112,5.118–5.121indicatingawareness5.119talkingaboutgeneraltruths5.120–5.121indicatingpresentpossibility5.126makingstrongassertions5.128requestingpermissioninthepast5.144–5.145givinginstructionsandappealsforhelp5.160makingrequests5.164makingsuggestions5.183showingpoliteness5.219–5.220expressingopinions5.220inreportedclauses7.54

couldhaveindicatingpossibility5.117–5.141indicatinguncertainty5.139withnegativeforimpossibility5.141

couldnotindicatingimpossibility5.128withcomparativesforstrongassertion5.129makingrequests5.165showingunwillingness5.199–5.201

countablenouns1.15–1.22

useofdeterminers1.17listofcountablenouns1.18singularandpluralforms1.19sameformforsingularandplural1.20singularformwithpluralmeaning1.21–1.22

D

dareanddaren’t5.248–5.253declarativeform5.7–5.10makingpromises5.9

definingrelativeclauses8.89–8.108,8.144–8.145delexicalverbs3.32–3.45listofdelexicalverbs3.33relativepronounsindefiningclauses8.89referringtopeople8.90referringtothings8.91useafterpronouns8.145

demonstrativeadjectives1.184–1.193demonstrativepronouns:this,that,theseandthose1.5,1.124–1.127determiners1.162–1.250•aandan1.228–1.229•demonstratives1.184–1.193•possessivedeterminers1.194–1.207•the1.163–1.83listofdefinitedeterminers1.163this,that,these,andthose1.184listofindefinitedeterminers1.223usingnounswithoutdeterminers1.227modifyingdeterminers1.248

difference2.157–2.168directobject seeobjectdirectspeech7.16–7.26changingtheorderofthesubjectandthereportingverb7.25punctuationofquotes7.26

ditransitiveverbs3.7,3.73–3.82,9.20lists3.82inthepassive9.20

doasdelexicalverb3.33foremphasis5.10asauxiliary5.15,5.26,5.56,5.69,5.252usedinformingquestiontags5.18replacingaverbphrasewhenwordsareleftout10.63

duration4.123–4.134nounphrasesthatexpressduration4.133startandendtimes4.142

during4.103–4.104,4.121

dynamicverbsR120

E

eachassubject1.144aspronoun1.154,1.156foremphasis1.156usedinsteadofpersonalpronoun1.224,1.243asindefinitedeterminer1.243eachofandeachoneofasquantityexpressions2.186

eachotherandoneanotherasreciprocalpronouns1.142–1.143withreciprocalverbs3.70

-edadjectives2.15,2.77–2.93formandmeaning2.81–2.82modifying-edadjectives2.85–2.86withanactivemeaning2.87afterlinkingverbs2.88–2.90formedfromnouns2.91unrelatedtoverbsornouns2.92–2.93

-edparticiple2.293,2.300,3.201,3.212,8.137–8.138,8.142–8.143,R71–R80getwithan-edparticiple3.201wantandneedwithan-edparticiple3.212

either1.224,1.242,8.156asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.182usedwithorforemphasis8.197

either/or-questions5.22ellipsis seeleavingwordsoutelse1.138withindefinitepronouns1.138withindefiniteplaceadverbs6.63elseandorelseinresultclauses8.64

elsewhere6.63emphasisusingreflexivepronouns1.114,1.116–1.117,3.29–3.30usingall,both,oreach1.156emphasizingthe1.181emphasizingnumbersandamounts1.242,1.244.2.214,2.224emphasizingadjectives2.36–2.39,6.49–6.50submodifyingadverbsemphasizingadjectives2.148emphasizingfrequency4.24emphasizingduration4.129usingdo,does,ordid5.10emphasizingwh-questions5.36usingneverfollowedbydo5.69puttingtheadverbialfirst6.8,6.82emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.194–8.199

usingsplitsentences9.25–9.30usingsentenceadverbials9.62–9.64fronting9.69–9.72

emphasizingadjectives2.36–2.39,6.49emphasizingadverbs6.49,6.50–6.50enoughasdeterminer1.224–1.225,1.241withadjectives2.150asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.185insentenceadverbials9.81

ergativeverbs3.59–3.67even1.128–1.139withcomparatives2.160evenifinconditionalclauses8.39eventhoughinconcessiveclauses8.67

everasfrequencyexpression4.114afternegativewordsforemphasis5.92

everystructuresusedwithevery-1.139asdeterminer1.224,1.243infrequencyexpressions4.114

everybody1.128–1.139everyone1.128–1.139everything1.128–1.139everywhere6.61–6.64,6.71–6.72,6.99,8.76except8.69exclamations9.91–9.94expectation5.132,5.136

F

far1.246modifyingdeterminers1.248withhowinwh-questions5.34followedbyadverbsofposition6.59asadverbofdestination6.65

feelings2.36few1.246asdeterminer1.224,1.241afewasdeterminer1.247aftertoo2.153asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.182

fewerasdeterminer1.154,1.246asquantityexpressionwithof2.189fewerthanindicatingamaximumamount2.267

finiteverbsR89

first2.232–2.239focusinasentence,changing9.1–9.68bychangingthesubject3.59usingadverbials9.7

following2.232,4.107,10.43forlistofnounsusuallyfollowedbyfor2.288introducingindirectobject3.77,8.97withthepresentperfect4.34forlengthoftime4.125–4.129withwhatinwh-questions5.35inreasonclauses8.53aftersentenceadverbials9.83

forbidding5.147formerandlatter10.13–10.14fractions2.210,2.240–2.248,R48singularfractions2.241,2.242pluralfractions2.243agreementwithverb2.244aspronouns2.245expressedinfigures2.248

frequency4.114–4.122forandinwithgeneralorspecifictime4.132

fromfrom…toexpressingarangeofnumbers2.271regularintervals4.117–4.118prepositionalphrases4.121inexpressionsofduration4.138expressingdistance6.91indicatingstartingpoint6.98listofadverbsthatcancomeafterfrom6.99aftercertainreportingverbs7.80

fronting seeputtingsomethingfirstfuturecontinuous seefuturetimefuturepossibility5.134futuretime4.52–4.63,5.130–5.134will4.53generaltruths4.54,5.120–5.121futureprogressive4.55futureperfect4.56futureperfectprogressive4.57begoingto4.58plannedevents4.59presentprogressive4.60modalswillandshall5.110–5.134modalwould5.115

G

genericpronouns1.119–1.123gerunds see-ingnoungetwithan-edparticiplewithpassivemeaning3.201,9.24forshowingcause3.211withimpersonalit9.36

givenounsusedwithdelexicalgive3.43withtwoobjects3.73

goaslinkingverb3.157begoingtotoexpressfuturetime4.58,5.233begoingtotoexpressintention5.237

got seegetandhavegotgradability2.23–2.25

H

habitualactionsexpressedbysimplepresent4.11expressedbypresentprogressive4.20expressedbysimplepast5.32expressedbywould5.114expressedbyusedto7.57

hadhadbetter5.247inconditionalclauses8.36

halfaspredeterminer1.251,2.247assubmodifyingadverb2.147halfofbeforepronoun2.242

hardlyasbroadnegative5.82beforeatimeclause8.17

havehavegotforshowingpossession3.16nounsthatgowithdelexicalhave3.41forshowingcause3.211havegotasmainverbinyes/noquestions5.16havenotshortenedtohaven’t5.58invitingpersuasively5.180,5.181asauxiliary10.68,R84,R100,R107inflectedformsR80

have(got)tohavetoandhavegottoforsayinghowlikelysomethingis5.232havetoandhavegottoforindicatingimportance5.240,5.244havetoinreportedspeech7.56

havingand-edparticiple

forshowingresults8.137he1.96,1.99usedforreferringtopeopleingeneral1.123usedforreferringbacktoanindefinitepronoun1.133

her1.96,1.99asobjectpronoun1.104–1.106aspossessivedeterminer1.194–1.222

hers1.107–1.109herself1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31himasobjectpronoun1.104–1.106usedforreferringtopeopleingeneral1.123usedforreferringbacktoanindefinitepronoun1.133

himself1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31hisaspossessivepronoun1.107–1.109aspossessivedeterminer1.194–1.222

hopesandwishes5.210how5.33,5.34inwh-questions5.23–5.27inclausesaftersomeadjectives9.43inexclamations9.93inrhetoricalquestions9.94

however8.42hundred2.221hundredsusedforemphasis2.224

hyphens1.84,2.78,2.100,3.119

I

I1.96,1.97ifafterwhatinwh-questions5.35inconditionalclauses8.26,8.37

if-clausesusedtoreportquestions7.35listofverbsthatcomebeforeif-clauses7.36followedbythen8.26

imperative5.37makingappeals5.39givingexplanations5.40withlet5.41forbidding5.151givinginstructions5.170

imperialmeasurements2.253impersonalit9.5,9.31–9.45describingaplaceorsituation9.34asanobject9.35

describingtheweather9.36givingtimesanddates9.37talkingaboutthetime9.38followedbylinkingverb9.39commentingonafactthatyouareabouttomention9.42,9.43

importance5.211–5.218,5.244–5.247impossibilityinexpressingage2.260describingwhatsomeoneiswearing2.285intimeexpressions4.94infrequencyexpressions4.121forendofaperiod4.130–4.131withgeneralorspecifictime4.132referringtoposition6.89extendedmeanings6.121usedwithverbsinthepassive9.16

indefinitedeterminers1.223–1.250withuncountablenouns1.225,1.226a/an1.228–1.235some1.236–1.238any1.239enough1.241all,bothandeither1.242eachandevery1.243littleandmuch1.244more,lessandfewer1.246no5.71

indefinitedirection6.71indefiniteplaceadverbs6.61indefinitepronouns1.6,1.128–1.141usedwithpersonalpronounsandpossessivedeterminers1.132–1.133usedwithelse1.138

indicative seedeclarativeindirectobject3.6inphrasesthatbeginwithapreposition3.74withto3.76withfor3.77–3.81ofverbswithtwoobjects6.113

indirectquestions5.15indirectspeech seereportedspeech-ingadjectives2.15,2.63–2.76describinganeffect2.64–2.67describingaprocessorstate2.68–2.72formandmeaning2.73–2.76

infinitivesR124–R135infinitivewithouttoR127-ingformsR133–R134-ingnouns1.77–1.82usedwithadjectives1.80,1.81

-ingparticiple:2.293,2.301,3.190–3.191,3.204,8.71,8.72,8.88,8.133–8.136,8.139–8.141,R59–R70verbsfollowedbyan-ingparticiple3.190–3.191afterpossessivedeterminer3.203-ingparticipleclauses8.71–8.72,8.88eventshappeningatthesametime8.133oneactionafteranother8.134reasons8.135–8.136innon-definingclauses8.141

instructions5.43,5.156–5.160,5.167,5.235–5.236firminstructions:will5.168imperative5.170

intensifiers seesubmodifyingadverbsintentions5.190–5.195,5.237–5.240reportingintentionsandhopes7.45–7.47

interjections seeexclamationsinterrogativeadverbs seewh-wordsinterrogativeform5.10–5.36

seealsoquestionsinterrogativepronouns1.151–1.153intransitiveverbs3.2–3.13,8.165followedbyphrasesthatbeginwithapreposition3.10–3.11followedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase3.12intransitivephrasalverbswithadverbs3.85–3.86intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.87–3.88,9.23–9.24intransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.111–3.112linkingintransitiveverbs8.165

introducingyourstatement5.216–5.224,9.73inversionafteranadverbial6.15afteraprepositionalphrase6.83whenreportingverbcomesafteraquote7.25

irregularcomparativeformsR28,R153irregularpluralformsofnounsR12–R19irregularverbformsR71–R76itaspersonalpronoun1.100–1.101withbe3.130assubjectinsplitsentences9.26

its1.195–1.222itself1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31

J

justinfrontofas…asstructure2.164asemphasizingadverb6.50toshowrestrictions9.65

K

keepfollowedbyobjectcomplement3.163

L

lastshowingpositioninsequence2.232aspronoun2.254inexpressionsoffrequency4.119asverb4.133

leastleastandtheleastassuperlatives2.122assuperlativeadverbofdegree6.52

leavingwordsout10.60do10.63withnot10.66–10.69repeatingthemainverb10.70inconversation10.74inquestions10.75–10.76inreplies10.77–10.79whenyouareagreeing10.80–10.81

less1.246asdeterminer1.246formingthecomparativeofanadjective2.110lessthanindicatingamaximumamount2.267

let5.41likelihood5.122–5.123,5.232–5.234linkingadverbials seesentenceconnectorslinkingverbs3.126–3.181twoormoreadjectivesafteralinkingverb2.57function3.127followedbyapreposition3.129,3.172–3.177followedbyanadjective3.132–3.137listsoflinkingverbs3.133,3.138,3.174followedbyanoun3.138–3.145commentingonbehaviour3.149commentingonsuitability3.150commentingonanevent3.151commentingonwillingness3.152commentingonsomething3.153commentingonanaction3.154otherverbswithfollowingadjectives3.155–3.159

linkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether8.149–8.150linkingclauses8.151

linkingverbstogether8.164–8.170linkingnounphrases8.171–8.172linkingpronouns8.178–8.179linkingadjectivesandadverbs8.180–8.189,8.201linkingqualitativeadjectives8.181linkingprepositions8.191linkingprepositionalphrases8.192linkingmodifiersanddeterminers8.193linkingmorethantwoclauses,phrases,orwords8.200linkingpartsofaconversation10.57–10.59

littleasdeterminer1.225,1.244alittlemodifyingcomparatives2.162asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.183alittleasadverbofdegree6.52

lookaslinkingverb3.126,3.135

lotlots2.158alotofasquantityexpression2.178alotasadverbofdegree6.52

M

mainclauses8.1mainverbsR89makeasadelexicalverb3.44

manyasdeterminer1.224,1.241,1.247aftertoo2.153asquantityexpressionwithof2.179withhowinwh-questions5.35

massnouns1.28–1.31listofmassnouns1.31

mayindicatingpresentpossibility5.126maynotfornegativepossibility5.127expressingfuturepossibility5.134mayhaveforuncertaintyaboutthepast5.139askingforandgivingpermission5.143maynotforforbidding5.148makingrequests5.166offeringtohelp5.177mayaswellforsuggesting5.187expressinghopesandwishes5.210expressinganopinion5.221

me1.104

measurements2.213,2.252–2.259,2.266–2.273metricmeasurements2.251afterlinkingverbs2.252adjectivesaftermeasurements2.253approximateamountsandmeasurements2.264

mightindicatingpresentpossibility5.126mightnotfornegativepossibility5.127,5.140indicatingfuturepossibility5.134mighthaveforpossibilityinthepast5.138mighthaveforuncertainty5.139makingrequests5.166makingpolitesuggestions5.186mightaswellforsuggesting5.187expressingapproval5.221

million2.221–2.222millionsusedforemphasis2.224

mine1.107–1.108modals5.94–5.257

seealsosemi-modalsseealsocan,could,may,might,must,have(got)to,shall,should,will,would

uses5.96–5.100,5.109–5.222specialfeatures5.101,5.108noinflections5.103negatives5.104questions5.105questiontags5.106contractions5.107–5.108referringtotime5.109fortalkingaboutthefuture5.130–5.134expressionsusedinsteadofmodals5.223–5.247

modifiers1.8,1.45,2.2–2.174innounphrasesstartingwiththe1.176innounphrasesstartingwitha/an1.231

mood seedeclarativeform,interrogativeformandimperative

moreasdeterminer1.224–1.225,1.246andmorethan2.108ascomparativequantityexpressionwithof2.189incomparativestructures6.52,R21,R26

mostasdeterminer1.224–1.225,1.241assubmodifyingadverb2.113insuperlativestructures6.52,R21,R26

muchasdeterminer1.225,1.244aftertoo2.153withhowinwh-questions5.34muchandverymuchasadverbsofdegree6.52

mustexpressingbelief5.125indicatingcertaintyaboutthefuture5.132mustnotfortalkingaboutundesirableactions5.152–5.153invitingpersuasively5.180–5.181makingpersuasivesuggestions5.185expressingintentions5.194–5.195indicatingimportance5.212,5.217

my1.194–2.206myself1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31

N

names seepropernounsnecessity5.213–5.214need5.248–5.253usedwithanothermainverb3.191,3.198,3.212withan-edparticiple3.212needtousedinsteadofmust5.245assemi-modal5.248–5.253needn’t5.249

negativepossibility5.127,5.140negativestatements5.49–5.93•broadnegatives5.82–5.88•neither5.77–5.81•never5.66–5.70•no5.71–5.72•noone5.75–5.76•none5.74•nor5.77–5.81•not5.54–5.65•nothing5.75–5.76•nowhere5.75–5.76listofnegativewords5.49usinganyasadeterminer5.51positioninverbphrase5.55addingdo5.56positionwith-ingformsandto-infinitives5.59contractionsofnot5.61–5.62emphasisin5.69,5.90–5.93wordsbeginningwithno-5.75withmodals5.104

neither5.77–5.81asdeterminer1.224withnortoexpressalternatives5.77–5.81inreplies5.78–5.79positioninclause5.79withsingularnouns5.80

asquantityexpressionwithof5.81neither…norlinkingadjectivesoradverbs8.187–8.188

never5.66asnegativeadverb4.114positioninverbphrase5.66usedwithdoasauxiliaryforemphasis5.69inimperatives5.70

nextshowingpositioninasequence2.232,2.237withtimereferencetoexpressfuture4.63usedforreferringforward10.44

no5.71–5.72structuresusedwithno-1.141withcomparativeadjectives2.163nolonger4.83asdeterminer5.71–5.72,1.224–1.225usingn’twithanyinsteadofno5.72withcomparativeadverbs6.35

nobody1.128–1.141,5.75–5.76nominalrelativeclauses8.112–8.116nominalthat-clauses8.117–8.118forcommentingonafactoridea8.122–8.125

non-definingnon-finiteclauses8.88,8.129–8.145non-definingrelativeclauses8.104,8.85–8.86,8.132–8.143relativepronounsinnon-definingclauses8.92forcommentingonafact8.110forcommentingonatimeorsituation8.111

none5.73asnegativepronoun5.73noneof5.74

non-finiteclauses8.129,8.162–8.163with-edparticiple8.138,8.142–8.143

non-finiteverbsR124noone1.128–1.141,5.75–5.76nor5.77–5.81withneithertoexpressalternatives5.77–5.81linkingnegativeclauses5.79,8.156withneitherforemphasis8.198

not5.54positioninverbphrase5.55,5.59–5.60withhaveandhavegot5.56,5.58withdoasauxiliary5.57shortenedton’t5.61–5.62,5.104withveryandothersubmodifyingadverbs5.64usedforcontrast5.65,8.199linkingnounphrases8.172afterif10.25withreportingverbs10.26

nothing1.128–1.141,5.75–5.76nounmodifiers2.169–2.174

singularandpluralforms2.170usingmorethanonenounmodifier2.171usedwithadjectives2.172useofpropernouns2.173–2.174

nounphrases1.1–1.12seealsonouns

nouns1.1–1.92•collectivenouns1.47–1.51•commonnouns1.3•compoundnouns1.83–1.92•countablenouns1.15–1.22•massnouns1.28–1.31•pluralnouns1.41–1.46•propernouns1.3,1.52–1.53•singularnouns1.34–1.40•uncountablenouns1.23–1.33determinerswithcommonnouns1.4addinginformationafterthenoun1.9–1.10noun–verbagreement1.16,1.24,1.35,1.42,1.68singularandpluralforms1.19listofuncountablenouns1.25–1.26thatarebothuncountableandcountable1.32thatarerarelyusedalone1.59–1.65alwaysusedwithmodifiers1.62alwaysusedwithpossessives1.63referringtomalesorfemales1.73listsofcompoundnouns1.85–1.88referringtoonethingonly1.167,1.235adjectivesafternouns2.58–2.62withprepositionalphrases2.275–2.276withadjectives2.291followedbyto-infinitive,-edparticiple,or-ingparticiple2.293followedbyto-infinitiveclauses2.294–2.299followedby-edparticipleclauses2.300withnoequivalentverb3.40usedwithhave3.41usedwithtake3.42usedwithgive3.43usedwithmake3.44usedwithhaveandtake3.45afterlinkingverbs3.138usedwithreportedclauses7.86,8.1formingpluralsofR2–R19

nowhere5.75–5.76,6.61–6.71n’tcontractionofnot5.61–5.62insteadofno5.72addedtomodals5.104

numbers1.157,R41–R49andquantityexpressions1.12

referringtoanexactnumberofthings2.208ordinalnumbers2.209,2.232–2.239,R46–R47fractions2.210age2.212andagreement2.217–2.218withordinalsandpostdeterminers2.219aspronouns2.220aslabels2.226aftersubjectpronouns2.229incompoundadjectives2.230withtimeexpressions2.231followedbyfractions2.246percentages2.249

O

objectcomplement seeobjectofaverb,describingobjectofaverb,describing(objectcomplement)3.161–3.171objectalreadymentioned3.51–3.53verbswithobjectcomplements3.128

objectpronouns1.104–1.106ofinprepositionalphrases1.109,2.277–2.283afternounsandadjectives6.120withreportingverbs7.85

objects•indirectobjects3.6,3.73–3.82,6.113•directobjects3.3,3.14–3.18leavingobjectsout3.22–3.33,3.49–3.50inphrasalverbs3.101–3.106ofprepositions3.106,6.73,6.77withreportingverbs7.82–7.84

offersandinvitations5.44,5.173–5.175offersofhelp5.176–5.178onlistofnounsusuallyfollowedbyon2.288intimeexpressions4.96–4.98referringtoexactposition6.89withreportingverbs7.85

onceasadverboffrequency4.115referringtosequenceofevents8.15

oneasgenericpronoun1.121aspronoun1.161,3.140aspossessivedeterminer1.208asdeterminer1.249–1.250ascardinalnumber2.214–2.215

oneanother seeeachotherandoneanotheronly9.65opinions5.7orafterwhetherinconditionalclauses8.40linkingwordsandphrases8.152,8.173,8.187,8.193,8.200

ordersandinstructions5.37,5.45reportingordersandrequests7.39–7.42

ordinalnumbers2.209,2.232–2.239,R46–R47asmodifiers2.233writtenforms2.234withof2.235aspronouns2.236–2.237asadverbs2.238

otherothersandtheothersaspronouns1.160–1.161usedwithcountablenouns1.224usedwithpluralnounsanduncountablenouns1.240everyother4.118

oughttoexpressingexpectation5.133–5.136makingsuggestions5.184expressingimportance5.215,5.218

oughtn’tto5.104our1.194–1.208ours1.107–1.110,1.122ourselves1.111–1.118,1.122out6.68,6.94overtalkingaboutage2.260–2.261talkingaboutperiodsoftime4.106

own1.200,1.215

P

participlesR124–R135-edparticiple2.293,2.300,3.201,3.212,8.137–8.138,8.142–8.143,R71–R80-ingparticiple2.293,2.301,3.190–3.191,3.204,8.71,8.72,8.88,8.133–8.136,8.139–8.141,R59–R70

partitives seeamountspassive3.207,3.208,9.3,9.8–9.24,R109–R119,R129forexpressinggeneralbeliefs7.69inreportedspeech7.73–7.74formation9.9,R109–R119,R129withby9.14mentioningthingsormethodsused9.15ofverbsreferringtostates9.16phrasalverbsin9.17verbsthatareusuallyusedinthepassive9.18

verbsthatarerarelyusedinthepassive9.19ofreportingverbs9.45

pastcontinuous seepastprogressivepastformsR52–R84pastperfect4.37–4.39,R102foremphasizingtimeandduration4.38forexpectationsandwishes4.39timeadverbialsusedwiththepastperfect4.49–4.51

pastperfectprogressive4.38–4.39,R103pastprogressive4.31–4.32,R99repeatedactions4.31contrastingevents4.32usedwiththepastsimple4.44timeadverbialsusedwithpastprogressive4.45foreventsplannedinthepast4.67–4.68

pastsimple4.27–4.30,R98forhabitualandregularactions4.30timeadverbialsusedwithpastsimple4.44

pasttime4.26–4.51•pastperfect4.37–4.39,R102•pastperfectprogressive4.38,R103•pastprogressive4.31–4.32,R99•pastsimple4.27–4.30,R98•presentperfect4.33–4.36,R100•presentperfectprogressive4.35,R101repeatedactions4.31usingtimeadverbialstoindicatepasttime4.40modalsin5.135–5.141

percentages2.249,R49performativeverbs(verbsusedtoperformanaction)7.64–7.66permission5.142–5.145personalpronouns1.5,1.95–1.106subjectpronouns1.96–1.103positioninclause1.105–1.106

persuading5.185persuasiveinvitations5.180–5.181

phrasalverbs3.83–3.116,6.111,9.17intransitivephrasalverbswithadverbs3.85–3.86intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.87–3.88,9.23–9.24transitivephrasalverbs3.91–3.92usedbothwithandwithoutanobject3.93–3.96ergativephrasalverbs3.97–3.100positionoftheobject3.101–3.102whentheobjectisapronoun3.103transitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.107–3.108intransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.111–3.112transitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.113–3.114inquestionsandrelativeclauses3.115–3.116

placeclauses8.73–8.77placenames6.122–6.127

fortalkingaboutthepeoplewholiveorworkthere6.125fortalkingaboutevents6.126asmodifiersbeforenouns6.127

pluralforms1.19–1.20,1.91–1.92,2.170,2.182,2.184,2.243,R2–R19pluralnouns1.41–1.46usewithmodifiers1.43withorwithoutdeterminers1.44

politeness9.90,5.219–5.220,5.222,5.186possession1.194–1.222possessivepronouns1.107–1.110possessivedeterminers1.194–1.210apostrophes(’s)1.211–1.221otherwaysofshowing1.222

possessivedeterminers1.194–1.210tableofpossessivedeterminers1.195–1.196position1.197–1.198agreementwithnoun1.199useofown1.200usesofpossessivedeterminers1.201–1.207genericuse1.208intitles1.210before-ingparticiple3.203

possessiveform seeapostrophespossessivepronouns1.107–1.110usedwithof1.109–1.110

possibility5.117,5.137–5.138,5.227–5.231,7.54,9.87postdeterminers2.40predeterminers1.251predicativeadjectives2.44–2.50prefacingstructures(introducingyourstatement)9.73–9.78preference5.206prefixes2.77,R68,R77–R78prepositionalphrases6.3,6.78–6.121referringtotime4.85–4.142,6.103positionof6.78afternouns6.100–6.101showingreason,cause,orpurpose6.110afternounsandadjectives6.117–6.120withreportingverbs7.85

prepositions6.73–6.121afterverbsshowingposition6.78afterverbsindicatingmovement6.79–6.83afterverbsindicatingactivities6.80–6.81showingposition6.85–6.87withcomparativeforms6.88showingpositionanddistance6.92showingdirection6.93–6.99usedwithverbs6.111–6.116extendedmeaningsofprepositions6.121

presentcontinuous seepresentprogressive

presentperfect4.33–4.36,R100situationsthatstillexist4.35emphasizingdurationofevent4.36timeadverbialsusedwiththepresentperfect4.46–4.48

presentperfectprogressive4.35–4.36,R101presentpossibility5.126presentprogressive4.17–4.20,R128momentofspeaking4.17emphasizingthepresentmoment4.18progressivechange4.19habitualactions4.20firmplansforthefuture4.60vividnarrative4.65inconditionalsentences8.29

presentsimple4.8–4.16generalpresentincludingpresentmoment4.9regularorhabitualactions4.11inreviews4.12–4.13incommentaries4.14inreporting4.15commenting4.16vividnarrative4.65inconditionalsentences8.29

presenttime4.7–4.25presentsimple4.8–4.16presentprogressive4.17–4.20usingtimeadverbialstoindicatepresenttime4.21–4.25

previous2.232,4.107,10.11promises5.8pronouns1.93–1.161•genericpronouns1.119–1.123•indefinitepronouns1.128–1.141•interrogativepronouns1.151–1.153•demonstrativepronouns1.124–1.127•personalpronouns1.95–1.106•possessivepronouns1.107–1.110•reciprocalpronouns1.142–1.145•reflexivepronouns1.111–1.118•relativepronouns1.146–1.150asobjects3.75afterlinkingverbs3.145usedforreferringback10.3

pronunciationR1ofthe1.165ofaoran1.229ofthere9.46ofthepluralsofnounsR4–R8ofpossessivesR32–R40ofapostrophesformsR37–R38ofverbformsR55–R59,R72

propernouns1.3,1.52–1.58relationshipnouns1.54titles1.55innounmodifiers2.173–2.174

punctuationofquotes7.26ofnon-definingrelativeclauses8.86

purposeclauses8.43–8.48puttingsomethingfirst9.69verbfirst8.36–8.37adverbialsfirst9.70reportedquestionfirst9.71usingwholesentencestopointforward9.78

Q

qualifiers(expandingthenounphrase)1.178,1.231,2.272–2.301,6.100–6.101qualitativeadjectives2.7,2.22–2.25qualitative-edadjectives2.80compoundqualitativeadjectives2.97intensifyingqualitativeadjectives2.143–2.144reducingtheeffectofqualitativeadjectives2.145linkingqualitativeadjectives8.181

quantityexpressions2.176–2.193numbersasquantityexpressions2.227

questions5.10–5.36yes/no-questions5.12–5.13indirectquestions5.15questiontags5.16–5.21either/or-questions5.22withoutaverb5.27,5.47rhetoricalquestions5.46,9.94withmodals5.105reportingquestions7.32wh-questions7.37–7.38

questiontags5.16–5.21formingquestiontags5.17checkingstatements5.18replyingtotags5.19otheruses5.20all-purposequestiontags5.21withmodals5.106

quite2.193,6.49–6.50quotationmarks7.16,7.26quotes7.2,7.16

R

rarely5.82–5.88ratherbeforeacomparative2.162wouldrather5.206

reasonclauses8.49–8.53reciprocalpronouns1.142–1.145reciprocalverbs3.5,3.68–3.70referringback1.173–1.174,10.2–10.39withdeterminers10.4–10.5demonstrativesreferringtothings10.7–10.9demonstrativesreferringtosentences10.10

withformerandlatter10.13–10.14referringtopiecesofwriting10.23withdoso10.27withadjectives10.32withadverbials10.38–10.39

referringforward10.40–10.47usingthisandthese10.41–10.42usingfollowing10.43usingnext10.44usingbelow10.45usingsuch10.46

reflexivepronouns1.111–1.118usedasobject1.113–1.114usedasobjectofpreposition1.115usedforemphasisorcontrast1.116–1.118,3.29–3.31inreportedspeech7.81

reflexiveverbs3.26–3.31inthepassive9.22

refusal5.116,5.196–5.198regret5.209relativeclauses8.83–8.116withsuperlatives2.116withindefiniteplaceadverbs6.62punctuationin8.86useafterpronouns8.87

relativepronouns1.146–1.150,8.84–8.116whoandwhom1.147which1.148that1.149whose1.150referringtopeopleindefiningclauses8.90referringtothingsindefiningclauses8.91referringtopeopleinnon-definingclauses8.93referringtothingsinnon-definingclauses8.94

reportedspeech5.113,7.27–7.85reportedquestions1.153,7.32–7.38reportingverbs3.24–3.25,7.5–7.15indicatingthewaythatsomethingissaid7.12negativesinreportingclauses7.13positionofreportingverb7.22–7.24positionofreportedclauses7.31timereference7.49tenseofverbinreportedclause7.52modalsinreportedclauses7.53–7.58makingyourreferenceappropriate7.60avoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinking7.68–7.71referringtothespeakerandhearer7.72–7.81useofpassive7.73–7.74,7.69nounsusedwithreportedclauses7.86passiveofreportingverbs9.45

reportingverbs3.24–3.25,7.5–7.15,7.33–7.34showingthepurposeofspeaking7.7–7.8reportingspeechandthoughtininformalspokenEnglish7.14–7.15reportingstatementsandthoughts7.29reportingquestions7.32reportingrequests7.39–7.42reportingsuggestions7.43–7.44reportingintentionsandhopes7.45–7.47reportinguncertainthings7.48reportingconditionalstatements7.59usedforperforminganaction7.64–7.67mentioningthehearer7.77–7.80

reportingsomeone’sactualwords seedirectspeechrequests5.45,5.159–5.166,5.171politeadditionstorequests5.172reportingrequests7.39–7.42

resultclauses8.54–8.64rhetoricalquestions5.46,9.94

S

sformofverbsR52–R58’s seeapostrophessame10.33–10.35sameas2.135–2.137say7.6,7.36,7.84seem3.132–3.136,7.70–7.71,9.53seldom4.114,5.82–5.88semi-modals5.248–5.257dareandneed5.249–5.253inflectedforms5.250usewithothermodals5.251usewithdo5.252usedto5.254–5.258negatives5.257

sentenceadverbials9.56–9.68sentenceconnectors10.48–10.56indicatinganaddition10.49indicatingasimilarpoint10.50contrastsandalternatives10.51showingcause10.52showingsequenceintime10.53puttingpointsinorder10.54conjunctions10.55

several1.154,1.223–1.224,4.115,8.87severalof2.177,2.179,2.182

shalltalkingaboutthefuture4.53,5.110,R104

expressingcertainty5.132shallnotforforbidding5.150givingformalinstructions5.169makingsuggestions5.188–5.189expressingintentions5.193

shan’t5.61she1.95–1.96,1.98shouldexpressingcertainty5.124expressingexpectation5.133–5.136shouldnotforundesirableactions5.152shouldlikeforrequests5.171makingoffersofhelp5.178makingsuggestions5.184expressingwishes5.205expressingimportance5.215,5.218beingpolite5.222

shouldn’t5.61similarity2.123thingswiththesamequality2.124–2.131withlike2.132–2.134sameas2.135–2.137adjectivesmeaningthesame2.138

sincewithpresentperfect4.34,4.137intimeclauses8.19inreasonclauses8.50

singularnouns1.34–1.40soso,sothatandsoastoinpurposeclauses8.43–8.47soandsothatinresultclauses8.54–8.60soasasubstituteforsomethingalreadymentioned10.24–10.27ifso10.25sowithreportingverbs10.26

some1.236–1.238structuresusedwithsome-1.139asindefinitedeterminer1.223someof2.179–2.180,2.185

somebody1.128–1.139someone1.128–1.139something1.128–1.139somewhere6.61–6.71splitinfinitive6.11splitsentences9.4,9.25–9.30itasthesubject9.26usingwhatandall9.28–9.30focusingonthetopic9.29focusingonwhatsomeonewantsorneeds9.30

statements5.2–5.9stativeverbs4.69,R120–R122

stillwithcomparatives2.160,6.51forexistingsituations4.77forexpectedsituations4.78

subjectpronouns1.96–1.104I1.97you1.98heandshe1.99it1.100–1.101we1.102,1.222they1.103

submodifyingadverbs2.142–2.158usedwithotheradverbs6.51

subordinateclauses4.6,8.1–8.145,R124subordinatingconjunctions8.1–8.82substitutingforsomethingalreadymentioned:usingsoandnot10.24–10.27suchwithnot2.130usedinresultclauses8.61–8.63asadeterminer10.29asapredeterminer10.30asanadjective10.31referringforward10.46

suffixes1.74–1.75,2.118,2.201,9.61suggestions5.48,5.182,5.183–5.189politesuggestions5.186

superlativeadjectives1.180,2.112–2.122,R20–R31usedinfrontofanoun2.114usedafteralinkingverb2.115structuresusedaftersuperlatives2.116–2.117usedwithotheradjectives2.118usedasnouns2.119–2.120usedwithordinalnumbers2.121theleast2.122

superlativeadverbs6.30–6.35,R150–R154

T

takelistofnounsusedafterdelexicaltake3.42,3.45forduration4.133

tenses,formationofR89–R123than2.106,6.35thatasdemonstrativepronoun1.124–1.126forjoiningclauses1.149,8.90–8.91asdeterminer1.184,1.187–1.189forreferringback10.7–10.10

that-clausesfollowinganadjective2.53forreportingspeech7.27–7.81forexpressingpurpose8.47–8.48withimpersonalit9.42–9.45

the1.163–1.183pronouncingthe1.165withanoun1.166specificplacesandorganizations1.168generalizingaboutpeopleandthings1.169usingadjectivesasnouns1.170formalgeneralizations1.171–1.172withlongernounphrases1.175withuncountablenouns1.179emphasizingthe1.181withindefinitedeterminers1.182withnumbers1.183withcomparativesandsuperlatives2.109,2.112–2.122withdaysoftheweek4.96

their1.194–1.210theirs1.107–1.110,1.123them1.104–1.106,1.123themselves1.111–1.118,1.123,3.26–3.31thenreferringbackorforward4.75,10.15inconditionalclauseswithif8.26,8.152,8.155

thereassubject3.131,9.6,9.46–9.55withbe3.131,9.6,9.46–9.52sayingthatsomethingexists9.46–9.47sayingthatsomethinghappened9.48describingsomethingthatishappening9.49contractions:there’s,there’dandthere’ll9.51withverbsotherthanbe9.53formalandliteraryuses9.54–9.55

theseasdemonstrativepronoun1.124,1.127asdeterminer1.184,1.186informaluse1.193forreferringback10.7forreferringforward10.41–10.42

they1.103,1.123this1.184asdemonstrativepronoun1.125–1.126asdeterminer1.185–1.186informaluse1.193forreferringback10.7,10.9forreferringforward10.41–10.42

thoseasdemonstrativepronoun1.124,1.127asdeterminer1.187–1.191

insteadofthe1.192forreferringback10.7

though8.66,8.70–8.71asthough8.78–8.82

thousand2.221–2.224thousandsusedforemphasis2.224

timeontime4.71atthesametime4.109everytimeandeachtime8.13bywhichtime8.21

timepositionoftimeadverbial4.3referringtoanearlieroralatertime4.21–4.25,4.71–4.73timeadverbialsandprepositionalphrases4.70–4.112previouslymentionedtime4.75specificclocktimes4.85–4.86,9.37–9.38clocktimes4.86timesoftheday4.87months,seasons,anddates4.89years,decades,andcenturies4.90inforperiodsoftime4.94inforspecifictime4.95on4.97–4.98orderingof4.99approximatetimes4.100–4.102over4.106eventsthathappenatthesametime4.109

timeadverbials4.70–4.112withreferencetothepresent4.21–4.25withreferencetothepast4.40–4.51withreferencetothefuture4.60–4.63toindicatepast,present,orfuture4.70

timeclauses8.8–8.24tensesintimeclauses8.9–8.12sayingwhenasituationbegan8.19sayingwhenasituationends8.20–8.22

timeexpressionsseealsotimeadverbials

usedformodifyingnouns4.143–4.144timereferenceinreportedspeech7.49titlesofpeople1.55,9.97–9.98usedwithoutnames1.56usedascountablenouns1.57ofworks3.170

toafterpredicativeadjectives2.46expressingarangeofnumbers2.271listofnounsusuallyfollowedbyto2.287

inprepositionalphrasecontainingindirectobject3.76inreportedspeech7.70,7.77withrelativepronounasindirectobject8.97

to-infinitiveafteradjectives2.51–2.52,2.291afterordinalnumbers2.235afternouns2.294–2.299usedwhencommenting3.148–3.154afterverbs3.192–3.194verbsfollowedbyforandato-infinitive3.209usedwithnot5.58inreportedspeech7.39–7.48,7.70showingpurpose8.45–8.46,3.188,3.199–3.200inimpersonalitstructures9.39–9.40formR126

too1.248,2.153transitiveverbs3.3–3.4,3.14–3.45,3.123differenttypesofobject3.15–3.16humanobjects3.17–3.18thatneedtobefollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase3.19–3.20ofpositionandmovement3.21–3.23reflexiveverbs3.26–3.31transitivephrasalverbs3.91–3.92,3.101–3.106transitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.107–3.108transitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.113–3.114transitivecompoundverbs3.123–3.124withan-ingparticiple3.204withato-infinitive3.206withaninfinitivewithoutto3.210linkingtransitiveverbs8.166withanobjectcomplement9.21

U

uncertainty5.137uncountablenouns1.23–1.33listofuncountablenouns1.25–1.26endingin-s1.33uncountable-ingnouns1.78–1.79usedwiththe1.179usedwithaoran1.233

undesirableactions5.152–5.153until4.140,4.142,8.20,8.24unwillingness5.196,5.199–5.201,5.241–5.243us1.104,1.122usedto5.254–5.257,7.57

V

verbs•auxiliaryverbs5.12–5.13,5.17,5.55–5.58,8.167,10.61–10.71,R80–R87•compoundverbs3.117–3.125•delexicalverbs3.32–3.45•ditransitiveverbs(verbswithtwoobjects)3.7,3.73–3.82,9.20•ergativeverbs3.59–3.67•intransitiveverbs3.2–3.13,8.165•linkingverbs3.126–3.181•performativeverbs(verbsusedtoperformanaction)7.64–7.66•phrasalverbs3.83–3.116,6.111,9.17•reciprocalverbs3.5,3.68–3.70•reflexiveverbs3.26–3.31•reportingverbs3.24–3.25,7.5–7.15,7.33–7.34•stativeverbs4.69,R120–R122•transitiveverbs3.3,3.14–3.45,3.123listofverbsofposition3.12verbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject3.46listofverbsthatcanbetransitiveorintransitivedependingonthemeaning3.48verbsthatdonotalwaysneedanobject3.49–3.50listoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwithoutanobject3.50verbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphrase3.55–3.57verbsofmovement3.58verbsthatinvolvepeopleaffectingeachotherwiththesameaction3.68verbsthatcanhavetwoobjects3.73–3.82verbsthatusuallyhavebothadirectobjectandanindirectobject3.82verbswithobjectcomplements3.128verbsthatrelatetocausingsomethingtohappen3.162verbsthatrelatetogivingsomeoneajoborrole3.164verbsofopinion3.165–3.168usingtwomainverbstogether3.182–3.211verbsfollowedbyan-ingparticiple3.190–3.191verbsfollowedbyato-infinitive3.192–3.194verbswithaninfinitivewithoutto3.205verbsfollowedbyforandato-infinitive3.209listofverbsusedtospecifyposition6.78verbsofthinkingandknowing7.9verbsoflearningandperceiving7.10–7.11verbsthatdescribethewayinwhichsomethingissaid7.19–7.21verbsusedwiththat-clauses7.30verbsusuallyusedinthepassive9.18listofverbsrarelyusedinthepassive9.19listofverbsoftenusedinsplitsentencesaboutneedsandwants9.30listofverbsthatcanhaveimpersonalitasobject9.35listofverbsusedwithimpersonalittodescribetheweather9.36verbformsR50–R88pronunciationR55,R57,R59

formationofparticiplesR59–R75listofverbswithirregularpastformsand-edparticiplesR72formsofauxiliariesR80–R88formationoftensesR89–R119formationofinfinitivesandparticiplesR124–R135

very1.248,2.39,2.140,2.165,2.167vividnarrative4.65vocatives9.95–9.99withreportingverbs7.23

W

want3.191,3.198,3.212,5.236we1.102,1.122weather9.36whatasinterrogativepronoun1.151–1.152inwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.35whataboutandwhatofinquestions5.47–5.48innominalrelativeclauses8.112–8.116insplitsentences9.28–9.30inexclamations9.92–9.93

whatever5.36inwh-questions5.36inconditionalclauses8.42innominalrelativeclauses8.112,8.115

whatsoever5.91wh-clauses8.126–8.128wheninwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.31intimeclauses8.10–8.17,8.24inrelativeclauses8.104–8.105

whenever8.13,8.24whereinwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.31withadjectivessuchasnecessaryandpossible8.24inplaceclauses8.73–8.77inrelativeclauses8.104–8.106,8.114

whereverinwh-questions5.36withadjectivessuchasnecessaryandpossible8.24inconditionalclauses8.42inplaceclauses8.76

whetherinreportedspeech7.35–7.36,7.48inconditionalclauses8.40–8.41

whichasrelativepronoun1.148

asinterrogativepronoun1.151–1.152inwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.30ofwhich8.102inrelativeclauses8.110–8.111

whichever8.42,8.115whileintimeclauses8.11,8.24inconcessiveclauses8.66,8.71

whilstintimeclauses8.11inconcessiveclauses8.66,8.71

whoandwhomasrelativepronouns1.147,8.84,8.90,8.93asinterrogativepronouns1.151–1.153inwh-questions5.23–5.28ofwhom8.102

whoeverinwh-questions5.36inconditionalclauses8.42innominalrelativeclauses8.115

whoseasrelativepronoun1.150,8.101–8.102asinterrogativepronoun1.151–1.153inwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.29

wh-questions5.23–5.36,5.48,5.258,9.94,10.77reportingwh-questions7.37–7.38

wh-words5.24–5.36•how5.33•what5.35•whenandwhere5.31•which5.30•why5.32•whatever,wherever,whoever5.36•whoandwhom5.28•whose5.29assubject5.25asobjectoradverb5.26usedtoreportwh-questions7.37–7.38

why4.26insuggestions5.48indefiningclauses8.107

willtalkingaboutthefuture4.53,5.108,R104expressinggeneraltruths4.54expressingcertainty4.55–4.56,5.131expressinglikelihood5.123willnotandwon’tforforbidding5.149givinginstructionsandappealsforhelp5.158givingfirminstructions5.168makingoffersandinvitations5.174

expressingintentions5.191–5.192willnotandwon’tforrefusal5.197inreportedspeech7.55

wishes5.202–5.205,5.207–5.208with2.286afteradjectives2.50inreportedspeech7.79inthepassive9.15–9.16

within4.130,4.131won’t5.18,5.21,5.61,5.104,5.149,5.191,5.197wordorder5.5,8.7,8.36,8.54,8.62,8.70,8.75,8.99–8.100,8.131,8.144,9.1–9.2,9.21,9.67,9.96positionofadjectives2.19–2.21,2.54–2.62positionofnumbers2.213,2.219,2.233positionofobjects3.79,3.101–3.106,3.115,6.77positionofadverbsandadverbials4.41,4.71–4.84,6.7–6.13,6.24,6.48,6.50,6.61innegatives5.55–5.59,5.66–5.68,5.79,5.83–5.87inreportedspeech7.22–7.25,7.27,7.31

worseandworst6.32,6.52,R28wouldtalkingaboutthingsthathappenedregularlyinthepast5.114thinkingaboutthefuture5.115wouldnotforrefusal5.116,5.198expressinglikelihood5.123expressingcertainty5.124wouldhaveforpossibility5.137givinginstructionsandappealsforhelp5.159makingoffersandinvitations5.175expressingwishes5.203–5.204wouldrather,wouldsooner5.206wouldhaveforwishes5.207–5.208beingpolite5.222usedinreportedspeech7.54–7.55

wouldlikegivinginstructions5.167makingrequests5.171

wouldn’t5.104,5.175,5.198

XYZ

yes/no-questions5.12–5.14,5.46reportingyes/no-questions7.35–7.36

yetusedwithcomparativesandsuperlatives2.160,4.81referringtoexpectedsituations4.79–4.81usedtolinkwordsandclauses8.152,8.157,8.187–8.188

you1.98,1.104,1.120your1.194–1.210yours1.107–1.110,1.120

yourself1.111–1.118,1.120,3.26–3.31yourselves1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31

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UnitedKingdomHarperCollinsPublishersLtd.1LondonBridgeStreetLondonSE19GFhttp://www.harpercollins.co.uk

UnitedStatesHarperCollinsPublishersInc.195BroadwayNewYork,NY10007http://www.harpercollins.com