SPECIAL FEATURE: ORIGINAL ARTICLE Understanding and Managing Global Changein Small Islands

Coastal management, climate change adaptationand sustainability in small coastal communities: leatherbackturtles and beach loss

Michelle A. Mycoo • Judith F. Gobin

Received: 1 October 2012 / Accepted: 7 April 2013 / Published online: 5 May 2013

� Springer Japan 2013

Abstract Beaches are frequently subjected to erosion and

accretion that are influenced by coastal development

interventions and natural variations due to storms and

changes in river flow. Climate change may also exacerbate

beach erosion and accretion. Natural scientists are con-

cerned with the sustainability of species dependent on the

beach ecosystem. Policymakers are pre-occupied with the

economic sustainability of coastal communities should

species decline and prolonged beach loss occur. The aim of

this paper is to explore the linkage between science and

policy by reporting the findings of a study of coastal

change impacts on leatherback turtle nesting and analysing

the socio-economic and adaptation implications of these

changes for coastal communities. Grande Riviere, Trini-

dad, was used as a case study. Primary fieldwork investi-

gated unsustainable coastal management practices. A

questionnaire was administered to examine livelihoods,

including ecotourism based on leatherback turtle nesting,

and knowledge and awareness of climate change. One key

finding of the study was that the community’s livelihoods

were natural resources dependent, and that natural beach

dynamics and unsustainable coastal management practices

posed major threats to natural resource and economic

sustainability. Another key finding was that, despite these

impacts, community knowledge and awareness of climate

change in general was low, and there was a perception of

state responsibility for climate change adaptation. The

research findings have global applicability for coastal

communities at risk of exposure and that are highly vul-

nerable to natural resources damage arising from anthro-

pogenic stress and potential climate change. These

communities require policy reforms to strengthen current

coastal management practices and adaptation responses

aimed at ensuring long-term sustainability.

Keywords Beach dynamics � Coastal management �Climate change � Leatherback turtles � Sustainable coastal

communities

Introduction

Coastal communities around the world are confronting

issues of natural resource and economic sustainability in

the context of natural beach dynamics and unsustainable

coastal management practices that may make them even

more vulnerable given climate change forecasts. In com-

munities where the habitat of endangered species and

sustainable livelihoods are threatened, research is needed in

order to close the gap between scientific findings and the

uptake of policy reform aimed at adaptation to these threats

and the achievement of natural resource and livelihood

sustainability. This paper uses Grande Riviere, Trinidad, as

a case study to investigate coastal change challenges and

policy reforms that may increase the long-term sustain-

ability of communities facing the need to protect and

manage their coastal ecosystems, which are important

resources.

Handled by John E. Hay, Ibaraki University, Japan.

M. A. Mycoo (&)

Department of Geomatics Engineering and Land Management,

Faculty of Engineering, The University of the West Indies,

St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago

e-mail: michelle.mycoo@sta.uwi.edu

J. F. Gobin

Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies,

St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago

e-mail: judith.gobin@sta.uwi.edu

123

Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453

DOI 10.1007/s11625-013-0212-x

Grande Riviere is located along the northeast coast of

Trinidad that forms part of the shelf area and is a high

productivity zone influenced by the inshore upwelling

system associated with the Caribbean current. This pro-

ductivity, in turn, supports a rich fishery, which includes

coastal demersal species (e.g. shrimp, salmon, white-mouth

croakers), coastal pelagic species (e.g. shark, cavalli,

kingfish), oceanic species (e.g. swordfish, king fish, marlin)

and deep-water demersal species (e.g. snapper, grouper).

Grand Riviere is also a landing area for artisanal fishing

vessels for each of the marine finfish categories that are

caught off the northeast coast.

The beach at Grande Riviere has a moderate slope and is

composed of coarse-grained, quartz-rich sand (Institute of

Marine Affairs 2004). The Grande Riviere River enters the

beach at the eastern end. High-energy waves of up to

200 cm, which approach the beach from the north, pre-

dominate during November to April. From May to October,

there are moderate-energy waves of approximately

100 cm. This allows for recreational swimming and surf-

ing, as well as rock fishing. The beach and coastal vege-

tation typically comprise almond trees, coconut palms and

strand vegetation, including Ipomoea sp. In the inshore

coastal area, the macroalgae species Gracilaria cervicornis

and Gracilaria domingensis are harvested by several

members of the community.

As in many other coastal areas, the alluvial erosion and

transportation of sediment from the Grande Riviere River

are responsible for beach formation. Overall beach stability

is attributed to the coarseness of beach sand and shelter

provided by Grande Riviere Point (PLANVIRON Limited

1999). Beach profile data (Lee Lum 2001) also described

the beach as stable in terms of coastal dynamics.

Trinidad and Tobago supports the second largest nesting

assemblage of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea)

in the Atlantic (Fournillier and Eckert 1998; Eckert 2012,

personal communication). Moreover, Grande Riviere has

the highest nesting density of leatherback turtles in the

world. An estimated 3,000 or more turtles nest on this

small length of beach (Chu Cheong 1990; Eckert 2012,

personal communication). Figure 1 shows the location of

leatherback turtle nesting sites in Trinidad at Grande

Riviere, Salybia and Matura. The Grande Riviere beach is

only 0.8 km long, but varies in width from 28 m in the

western section to 60 m in the eastern section (Lee Lum

2001).

Annual cycles of erosion are prevalent on beaches

located along Trinidad’s east and northeast coasts (Gov-

ernment of Trinidad and Tobago, GOTT 2010), and trends

in accretion and erosion are observed annually at Grande

Riviere, including as recently as mid-2012 (Trinidad &

Tobago Guardian 2012). These beaches are characterised

Fig. 1 Location of leatherback turtle nesting sites in Trinidad

442 Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453

123

by high-energy wave action, which can result in a heavy

loss of leatherback turtles nests (GOTT 2010). At sites such

as Grande Riviere, rivers emerging on nesting beaches

annually burst their banks and incite considerable periods

of erosion during the nesting season (Godley et al. 1993;

Lee Lum 2001).

Community members have suggested that beach erosion

and seasonal river flooding are the main factors which

annually destroy nests and turtle hatchlings. In response,

the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) conducted a study

during the 2001 turtle-nesting season (between March and

September) to examine the spatial and temporal distribu-

tion of nests. According to Lee Lum (2001), the main study

objective was to determine if there was a need for devel-

oping a leatherback turtle hatchery because of severe ero-

sion. The study used Global Positioning System (GPS)

locations and measured beach dynamics using permanent

benchmark profile stations (Lee Lum 2001). Lee Lum

(2001) noted that, at the start of the season in March, the

majority of nests were deposited at the eastern section of

the beach, while between May and August, there was a

continuing westward shift in the location of nests. This

shift coincided with increasing beach erosion that accom-

panied the rainy season, which occurred between May to

December, and the swollen proximal river. At the same

time, the backshore remained relatively stable along the

entire beach throughout the nesting season, with erosion

being predominant in the foreshore area at the eastern

section of the beach. Figure 2 illustrates that most of the

nesting (41 %) occurs on the eastern portion between

points O and T compared with the decrease in the western

section of the beach, which is estimated to be 19 %

between points A and E. The results at that time suggested

that there were both high-risk areas in the foreshore as well

as more stable regions in the backshore for continued turtle

nesting at Grande Riviere beach. Lee Lum (2001) con-

cluded that developing hatcheries was unjustifiable.

Under the Forests (Prohibited Areas) Order, Grande

Riviere beach was assigned Prohibited Area status in 1997

for turtle protection. In the years preceding the declaration,

an alarming unsustainable number of egg-bearing female

leatherback turtles were slaughtered for their meat.

According to the Government of Trinidad and Tobago

(GOTT 2010), prior to the declaration, 500 or more unre-

strained visitors per night converged on this short stretch of

beach, where they stressed egg-laying females with

crowding, noise and lights, and endangered newly born

hatchlings.

Despite legal reforms, enforcement remains weak.

Turtles are hunted during the closed season on both land

and sea, although this has eased considerably with the

advent of community-based conservation efforts in the late

1980s to early 1990s (GOTT 2010). The leatherback turtle

remains critically endangered and is listed as an Environ-

mentally Sensitive Species by the Environmental Man-

agement Authority (EMA).

Unsustainable coastal management

Unsustainable coastal management practices have had

negative repercussions on the natural ecosystem of Grande

Riviere. Built coastal development has been especially

detrimental to the leatherback turtles. A hotel that attracts

the most overnight visitors was constructed in 1993 without

guidelines on adequate setback distances or any environ-

mental impact assessment (EIA) to determine impacts on

Fig. 2 Percentage distribution

of leatherback nests and areas of

erosion and accretion along

Grande Riviere Beach

Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453 443

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the beach and coastal waters. Currently, new approved

commercial development remains without prescribed sci-

entifically calculated setback guidelines. Additionally, no

enforcement action has been taken by the Town and

Country Planning Division against the owners of illegally

constructed buildings which have violated setback regula-

tions. Furthermore, several establishments built prior to

2000 have not benefited from mitigation measures recom-

mended by EIAs to minimise environmental damage.

Legislation mandating compliance with regulations of the

EMA only came into force in 2000.

Mismanagement, such as the clearance of natural coastal

vegetation to facilitate construction of visitor accommo-

dation, has reduced the role of vegetation as a natural

buffer against erosion and inundation. Coastal vegetation

destruction, and the absence of coastal setbacks, have

resulted in artificial beachfront lighting from hotels/guest-

houses, restaurants, beach bars and the jetty adversely

affecting egg-bearing females and hatchlings. The turtles

suffer from misorientation (they move in the wrong

direction) and disorientation (the inability to orient in a

constant direction). This causes death and severe harm to

hatchlings due to attacks from predators, exhaustion and

fatal encounters with vehicles (GOTT 2010). Lights asso-

ciated with the Mt. Plaisir Estate Guesthouse, built on the

nesting beach at Grande Riviere, once attracted both

hatchling and adult leatherbacks. Bloodied walls marked

the point at which adults collided with the building (GOTT

2010). The estate management has since taken steps to

minimise the lighting hazard, including removing some

light sources and turning others off after sunset. However,

hatchlings continue to be disoriented by the lights of newer

hotel developments, by parking and security lights, and by

a single brilliant light marking a fishing depot on the south

end of the beach (GOTT 2010).

Deforestation in the wider coastal zone at Grande

Riviere, which has occurred as part of slash-and-burn

cultivation on state lands illegally occupied by agricultural

and residential squatters, has also contributed to coastal

changes. Erosion of the watershed and transportation of

sediment by the Grande Riviere River is responsible for the

formation of the beach. The sediment supply has increased

over time because of the on-going deforestation of the

watershed for farming purposes and housing.

Exponentially increasing sediment deposition has

resulted in the need to re-engineer the river. In 2012, the

river changed its course over an 8-month period. Poorly

designed and executed coastal engineering works were

undertaken by the Drainage Division of the Ministry of

Works in order to re-direct the river in response to a request

by the owner of a beachfront property, which was unap-

proved, as it did not allow for the requisite coastal setback

distances. Hundreds of leatherback turtle eggs were

excavated by bulldozer operators who were commissioned

to re-align the river course. Furthermore, there was inad-

equate consultation with coastal management experts and

the community. Beach erosion and inundation of beach-

front areas occurred where built development and turtle

nesting co-exist. This episode has brought coastal dynam-

ics and climate change into sharper focus among commu-

nity members.

Climate change projections and potential impacts

As shown in Table 1, the main projected climate change

predictions for Trinidad are increases in mean annual

temperature, sea surface temperature (SST) and sea-level

rise (SLR). Several studies have focused on SLR.

According to Pulwarty et al. (2010), the Caribbean region

experienced an average SLR of about 10 cm over the

twentieth century. Satellite data over the past 15 years

show a global SLR that is twice the rate observed over

the past century, even as the rate of atmospheric warming

has slowed (Pulwarty et al. 2010). Detailed research has

been conducted on SLR for Trinidad by Sutherland et al.

(2009). They reported that over the period 1984–1992, the

sea level around Trinidad and Tobago rose by 1.6 to

3.0 mm. Furthermore, the potential impact of SLR on

Grande Riviere was investigated in detail as part of the

International Community-University Research Alliance

(ICURA) project on Managing Adaptation to Environ-

mental Change in Coastal Communities: Canada and the

Caribbean.1 Six Intergovernmental Panel for Climate

Change (IPCC) scenarios of projected SLR to explore the

implication of these changes (IPCC 2007). Using a

Geographic Information System (GIS) model which

incorporated primary topographic and hydrographic field

survey data collected at Grande Riviere, Sutherland pre-

dicted that, even at the lowest scenario of a 0.4-m

increase in sea level, Grande Riviere beach would be

inundated, with detrimental consequences for the turtle-

nesting habitat. The study also revealed that a 0.8-m

increase would threaten beachfront hotels, bars and

physical infrastructure, such as roads providing access to

these properties.

Naturally occurring beach dynamics and unsustainable

coastal management can be further aggravated by climate

1 The International Community-University Research Alliance (ICU-

RA) project on Managing Adaptation to Environmental Change in

Coastal Communities: Canada and the Caribbean, also called the

C-Change Project, links community members and university

researchers from Canada with members of the Caribbean community

in support of research on coastal adaptation to environmental change,

including the impacts of storm surge and sea-level rise on susceptible

coastal communities. Michael Sutherland has mapped the projected

SLR at Grande Riviere as part of the research.

444 Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453

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change. Coastal modifications raise issues about the com-

munity’s risk exposure, vulnerability and adaptive

capacity.

Aim of paper

This study goes beyond previous research in that it seeks to

determine the impact of beach dynamics caused by natural

and anthropogenic factors on leatherback turtle nesting,

and the socio-economic and adaptation implications of

these changes for coastal communities. Grande Riviere is

used as a case study. The research has global applicability

for coastal communities that are threatened by coastal

changes which climate change may further exacerbate,

making these communities at risk of exposure, and highly

vulnerable because of natural resources damage which may

undermine economic sustainability.

Methods

In 2009, the Benefit-Sharing in Latin America and the

Caribbean/International Community-University Research

Alliance (BIOLAC/ICURA) conducted a socio-economic

survey.2 The aim of the survey was, inter alia, to determine

the community’s views on climate change, SLR, climate

change adaptation and the techniques of knowledge

dissemination that would be most effective to build adap-

tive capacity in this type of coastal community.

The method of investigation was the administration of a

questionnaire designed by the research team, including the

principal author, who was involved in a study of building

adaptive capacity to climate change in the selected case

study. Face-to-face interviews, using the questionnaire

method, ensured a high level of response. This was

important due to the limited population size of the com-

munity. In Grande Riviere, there are 147 households and a

sample of 101 (69 %) households was used. The potential

of the face-to-face technique to bias the interview process

was overcome by the intensive training of interviewers prior

to the pilot survey and before questionnaire administration.

The questionnaire was structured into five sections: (1)

general; (2) demographic and socio-economic; (3) eco-

system services; (4) ecotourism and the leatherback turtles;

and (5) awareness/knowledge of climate change. Questions

in section one were aimed at determining the issues that

were considered important to the respondents on a com-

munity level, their perception of what constituted climate

change and the significance of possible climate change.

Section two elicited data on population cohorts, income,

employment and livelihood practices of the community.

Section three on ecosystem services was aimed at

extracting data on the use of the coastal ecosystem for

livelihoods and the potential threat of climate change to

these livelihoods. Section four on ecotourism and leather-

back turtles investigated the economic importance of eco-

tourism and leatherback turtles to the community.

Community awareness and knowledge of climate change

were investigated in section five of the questionnaire.

Table 1 Summary of projected

climate change for TrinidadClimate variables Projections by 2090

Hurricanes No increases for Trinidad

De Souza (2001)

Sea-level rise SLR by the 2090s relative to 1980–1999

0.13–0.43 m B1 Scenario

0.18–0.56 m A2 Scenario

Christensen et al. (2007)

Rainfall patterns Annual rainfall decreases. The largest changes are in June, July–August (wet

season) rainfall where, on average, rainfall has decreased by 6.1 mm per month

(2.6 %) per decade

Maximum 5-day rainfalls tend to decrease in model projections, changing by

-29 to ?20 mm by the 2090s

McSweeney et al. (2012)

Sea surface

temperature (SST)

General increase in the mean monthly SST for each month

Ramdath et al. (2004)

Mean annual

temperature

Increased by around 0.6 �C

Since 1960, average rate of 0.13 �C per decade

Increase between 0.7 to 2.6 �C by 2060 and 1.1 to 4.3 �C by 2090

McSweeney et al. (2012)

2 The survey forms part of the International Community-University

Research Alliance (ICURA) project on Managing Adaptation to

Environmental Change in Coastal Communities: Canada and the

Caribbean.

Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453 445

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Results

This section presents the survey results under the sub-

headings demographic and socio-economic characteristics,

economic activity related to leatherback turtle watching,

and knowledge and awareness of climate change.

Demographic and socio-economic characteristics

Approximately half of the households had lived for more

than 35 years in Grande Riviere, but just over 54 % built

houses on land for which they had no security of tenure.

The data confirmed that almost three-quarters of respon-

dents (72 %) worked in the village. Most households were

employed by the private sector (26 %) or were self-

employed (19 %), while under a quarter (19 %) of the

respondents were working in the public sector (see

Table 2). Approximately 46 % of respondents were farm-

ing, although more than half (56 %) of the farmers was

agricultural squatters without clear title of land ownership

or in possession of a land lease. The survey confirmed that

fishing was not a key livelihood because 81 % of the

persons interviewed did not fish. A small percentage of the

households surveyed (18 %) was employed in the tourism

sector, mainly as beach tour guides (see Table 2).

The BIOLAC/ICURA survey found that over 90 % of

the households in the survey earned a monthly income of

between TT$1,000 to TT$6,000 (USD156 to USD1,000).

Of those respondents engaged in farming, fishing and

tourism, the majority earned between TT$1,000 and

TT$3,000 (USD156 to USD500) per month (see Fig. 3).

Ecotourism and leatherback turtles

An estimated 84 % of the survey respondents agreed or

strongly agreed that visitors to Grande Riviere came

mainly to see leatherback turtles. Furthermore, almost all

(98 %) of the respondents agreed that turtle nesting

increased over the last 10–15 years. This is confirmed by

the GOTT (2010), which reported that, after nearly two

decades of focused conservation, there is evidence of

increasing numbers of seasonally present adult leatherback

turtles. Additionally, Livingstone and Downie (2003)

reported that, compared to past estimates of leatherback

populations in Trinidad (Bacon 1969, 1970, 1981; Chu

Cheong 1990; Nathai-Gyan et al. 1987), there was sub-

stantial evidence of an increase in this species.

Very few persons are directly involved in tourism

activity, such as tour guiding. This may be explained by the

seasonality of income generation. Approximately 9 % of

the survey respondents were tour guides for leatherback

turtle watching, with the percentage of income earned in

this way being highly variable, ranging from 10 to 75 % of

the monthly income.

Awareness and knowledge of climate change

Thirty-six percent of the respondents had never heard the

phrase ‘climate change’. Of these, half interpreted the

term to mean more intense hurricanes. Approximately

66 % of the respondents either did not know, or had

limited knowledge about, climate change. Furthermore,

only a quarter of the respondents believed that climate

change was a risk to Grande Riviere. Interestingly,

however, nearly three-quarters of the survey respondents

were of the view that SLR would pose a challenge to the

community in the future. Over half (53 %) of the persons

interviewed indicated that they had noticed higher tides

and rising seas over the last 10–15 years. The same

percentage of respondents indicated that they had noticed

coastal erosion in that period. Table 3 summarises the

key findings on knowledge of climate change and

observations of coastal dynamics.

A key survey finding was that the community indicated

an interest in having greater access to information on cli-

mate change. Moreover, a high proportion (83 %) of the

respondents were either ‘somewhat interested or ‘very

interested’ in learning more about the impact of climate

Table 2 Economic patterns by

economic sector and

employment

Economic

activity

Individual

employed by sector (%)

Employment

by sector

% Population

Fishing 19 Private sector 26

Farming 46 Self-employed 19

Tourism 18 Public sector 19

Other 17 State enterprise 7

Retired 9

Public assistance 4

Other 16

Total 100 100

446 Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453

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change on Grande Riviere. Some 43 % of the persons

indicated that they frequently or occasionally read, listened

to or watched documentaries on climate change.

Respondents indicated that some techniques for knowl-

edge transfer would be more effective than others in their

community. Over three-quarters of the respondents indi-

cated that traditional media should be used to disseminate

climate change information to the community, compared

with less than half the respondents who selected modern

technology. Furthermore, written communication was not

perceived to be as highly effective as verbal communica-

tion. The results highlighted that respondents selected radio

(89 %), television (89 %) and newspaper articles (81 %) as

the main popular media for information dissemination,

followed by face-to-face contact with community groups

(72 %) (see Fig. 4). Only 27 % of the interviewees selected

posters and pamphlets as tools and approaches for knowl-

edge transfer. Additionally, less than half of the respon-

dents (47 %) selected modern technology such as the

Internet as a technique for knowledge dissemination. In

summary, community members unequivocally considered

traditional techniques for knowledge transfer to be more

appropriate in contrast to more expensive, less accessible

computer-based technology and preferred verbal commu-

nication over written communication.

The majority (80 %) of respondents were of the opinion

that the government was responsible for addressing climate

change. Only 5 % of the respondents identified community

organisations as a key stakeholder in addressing climate

change, compared with 15 % who indicated that private

citizens were responsible for dealing with climate change.

Discussion

This section provides more in-depth discussion of the

economic patterns, importance of leatherback turtle nest-

ing, knowledge and awareness of climate change among

respondents, opinions of the interviewees on the responsi-

bility for adaptation to climate change in Grande Riviere

and coastal management practices.

Economic impact

Leatherback turtle nesting has generated economic activity

because of the large numbers of visitors that travel annually

to the remote coastal village of Grande Riviere for turtle

watching. Visitation records confirm that as many as 15,000

visitors per annum come to view the laying and hatching of

the leatherback turtle (Ganase and Teelucksingh 2011). This

finding is substantiated by Harrison (2007), who estimated

that 10,000 persons visited Grande Riviere in 2006 for this

purpose. Consequently, turtle nesting has influenced small-

scale investment in accommodation for visitors. Five small

resorts now exist compared with two that were established

between 1993 and 2000, and 12 guesthouses currently pro-

vide 150 rooms. According to a recent survey by Richards

and Hosein (2011), during the turtle-nesting season, 92 per-

sons (29 % of the total population of Grande Riviere) were

employed by the resorts and guesthouses which accommo-

dated turtle watching visitors. The resorts also generated

revenue for their owners. Mt. Plaisir Estate Hotel recorded

steadily increasing revenues from 1995 to 2001, earning

Fig. 3 Percentage of individual

monthly income by economic

sector in Grande Riviere

Table 3 Respondents’ knowledge of climate change and observa-

tions of coastal dynamics

Knowledge of climate change

and observation of coastal dynamics

Percentage

respondents

(%)

Did not know or had limited knowledge of climate

change

66

Believe Grande Riviere at risk of climate change 25

Believe SLR was a risk to Grande Riviere 65

Noticed rising tides and sea levels over 10–15 years 53

Noticed coastal erosion over 10–15 years 53

Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453 447

123

TT$238,000 (US$37,245) in 2001 (Richards and Hosein

2011). Economic benefits were also gained by bus and taxi

drivers who lived outside the community and provided

transport for visitors to Grande Riviere.

Although turtle watching resulted in increased economic

activity, employment opportunities were quite limited for

persons seeking direct employment as turtle watching tour

guides. Only 9 % of households interviewed were engaged

in such activity. This is not surprising given that turtle

nesting is a seasonal activity that occurs for only 7 months

of the year, from March to September. Studies conducted

by Pantin et al. (2004) found that, in rural coastal com-

munities of the Caribbean, households had multiple live-

lihoods and many streams of income to minimise the risks

associated with seasonal employment.

The uncertainty surrounding climate change makes it

difficult to determine the effect on the turtle-nesting area and

its consequences for economic activity associated with turtle

watching. However, if SLR continues to occur in Trinidad,

flooding of the beach area is likely. Flooding, particularly at

the mouth of the Grande Riviere River, may cause increased

salinisation associated with seawater inundation in the lower

reaches of the river. Salinisation effects on the agricultural

sector may be deleterious because the sector employed

almost half of the households interviewed. If beachfront

properties are forced to close due to inundation or exposure

to erosion, SLR may also impact on persons employed as tour

guides as well as those hired by resorts and guesthouses

which provide income-earning opportunities for both resi-

dents and operators of these establishments.

Ecosystem services

Scientists have established that sea turtles contribute to the

overall biodiversity of Trinidad and Tobago and, therefore,

provide important ecological and economic benefits. The

extent to which climate change will affect sea turtle

populations will depend on their ability to adapt to changing

conditions (Poloczanska et al. 2009). While they have sur-

vived large climatic fluctuations during their history of

evolution (Hawkes et al. 2009), sea turtle adaptation to

climate change may be limited by the rate of sea tempera-

ture changes and SLR, as well as by the anthropogenic

stressors on the turtles and their habitat. Changes in ocean

currents may result in a decline of turtles visiting the shores.

Ocean currents are vital to both juvenile and adult leather-

backs, which use them for navigation and long-distance

migration (Poloczanska et al. 2009). Fewer sea turtles may

lead to a bloom in jellyfish and extinction in fish larvae

(Fish et al. 2008; Fuentes and Cinner 2010) and the loss of

important habitat such as seagrasses, which are essential for

the survival of commercial fishes. Moreover, loss of beach

habitat arising from SLR is likely to lead to species decline.

Awareness and knowledge of climate change

The community of Grande Riviere had limited awareness

and knowledge of climate change. The overwhelming

majority of respondents were more aware of SLR and

viewed this as challenging because they had observed

increasing coastal erosion and rising tides and seas over the

last decade and a half. This is confirmed by beach erosion

caused by changes in the river flow, which was particularly

acute over an 8-month period in 2012.

The survey respondents held the view that traditional

media for knowledge dissemination would be more effec-

tive than modern technology. Few residents had Internet

access, so traditional audio-visual techniques, such as

radio, television and newspapers, were regarded as the

media which were the most suitable to ensure that climate

change messages are disseminated. At a community

meeting hosted by the ICURA C-Change researchers at

Grande Riviere in 2011, participants suggested that one of

the ways to build awareness of coastal changes was the

Fig. 4 Respondents’ selection

of modes of communication for

climate change knowledge

transfer

448 Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453

123

engagement of students from Grande Riviere to place

markers along the beach. This exercise would help monitor

sea-level changes and the erosion rates of beach sand over

time. Although several documentaries on leatherback turtle

nesting at Grande Riviere have been produced, no videos

have been made on the possible changes resulting from

climate change and projected SLR.

One tool that may be effective in communicating SLR

scenarios is cartographic maps produced by a GIS. The

ICURA C-Change project plans to intensify communica-

tion through incorporating the results into videos for dis-

semination in the community. A public participatory GIS is

currently being developed by the ICURA research team.

The aim of this exercise is to improve communication

using visuals of projected SLR scenarios to enhance the

community’s knowledge of potential climate change

impacts on the coastal area.

Responsibility for climate change adaptation

The community of Grande Riviere assumed that the gov-

ernment was responsible for climate change adaptation.

This may be the result of a perception of a lack of adaptive

capacity because of the community’s limited access to

technical and financial resources. This perception is also

not unusual in a community where employment and

income levels are low. Although, historically, rural coastal

communities on the northeast coast of Trinidad have

demonstrated self-reliance and resilience to flood events

associated with storm surges and tropical storms, there

appears to be a belief that the consequences of climate

change may be better addressed by central or local

government.

Coastal management implications and global

applicability

Eckert and Eckert (2005) calculated that 88 % of leather-

back turtles nesting in the Caribbean use the beaches of

Trinidad. Trinidad is, therefore, a significant site for nest-

ing leatherback turtles regionally. Grande Riviere beach

has the highest leatherback turtle nesting density in the

world. It is of even greater value in the context of serious

declines elsewhere as a result of coastal development and

human disturbance (Livingstone and Downie 2003). In

light of these findings, it is imperative that coastal man-

agement reforms are introduced to arrest problems asso-

ciated with current unsustainable coastal management

practices. Furthermore, coastal management challenges are

expected to grow given the increasing potential impact of

climate change, especially storm surge and SLR. Respon-

ses to coastal management challenges are applicable

globally.

A key policy message is that addressing climate-related

risks proactively is often beneficial, even if the climate

does not change (Hay and Mimura 2006). As Hay et al.

(2003) note, the most desirable adaptive responses are

those that augment actions that would be taken even in the

absence of climate change, due to their contributions to

sustainable development. A major implication is that,

where adaptation leads to less pressure on natural resour-

ces, improved environmental management and enhanced

social well-being of the poor, not only is vulnerability to

climate change reduced, but such measures also contribute

to sustainable development.

Another key message is that ecosystem management is

essential to local and national economic sustainability.

Habitat such as seagrass beds and sandy beaches are

important not only to the survival of sea turtles, but also to

the sustainability of large sectors of the national economy,

including subsistence, commercial and recreational fisher-

ies, and coastal and marine tourism. For these reasons, the

protection and management of sea turtle habitat should be

pursued as a matter of priority and undertaken within a

larger coastal zone management framework. Measures

suggested by the GOTT (2010) which may be implemented

within this type of framework include: (1) restrict/regulate

tourism and other activities (e.g. sand mining, waste dis-

posal) near nesting beaches during the egg-laying season

and improve enforcement of such measures; (2) improve

coastal zone management capacity, including through

environmental impact assessments, particularly in relation

to tourism and other beachfront development; (3) expand

the system of protected areas to include beaches and

watersheds; and (4) strengthen the management framework

for protected areas to ensure that these areas fulfil their

stated objectives.

Among the adaptation measures available to coastal

communities are engineering, physical planning and eco-

system-based options. Policymakers must make prudent

choices based on cost–benefit analysis in adopting these

measures. A key policy implication of managing acceler-

ated erosion is that, at resort and community levels, it is

preferable to use ‘soft’ options such as the planting of soil-

binding vegetation rather than ‘hard’ options such as sea-

walls (Becken and Hay 2007).

Hard engineering options for beach protection, including

impermeable breakwaters, jetties, groynes and seawalls

positioned on the beach or in the nearshore zone, should be

considered only as a last resort. Traditional engineering

adaptation options are expensive to construct and maintain,

in addition to being aesthetically unpleasing, and can cause

more damage to the environment if poorly designed. The

physical characteristics of the coastline should be taken into

account prior to coastal construction so that adequate set-

backs, rather than expensive and often counter-productive

Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453 449

123

armouring, can be used to provide for the long-term con-

servation of the beach resource. Furthermore, re-engineer-

ing the river course should be undertaken in consultation

with coastal engineers and sea turtle experts. Bulldozing to

re-align the river course has caused a loss of turtles, which

could have been minimised with relevant sound advice from

scientists.

A specific physical planning measure that coastal com-

munities with highly sensitive ecosystems and endangered

species should adopt is a coastal setback distance. This

prescribes a distance to a coastal feature within which all or

certain types of built development are prohibited. Setbacks

provide buffer zones between the ocean and coastal infra-

structure, where the beach zone may expand or contract

naturally (French 2006). A coastal setback policy offers

many advantages in addressing coastal flooding and ero-

sion. It eliminates the need for seawalls and other engi-

neering structures to reduce beach erosion and flooding,

which may affect coastal property. Additionally, setbacks

enhance the probability that artificial light will not shine

directly on the beach to disturb turtle nesting. Coastal

setback regulations serve as a pre-emptive retreat strategy.

Shoreline characteristics differ among islands, so a

uniform distance is of limited use in guiding land devel-

opers and investors. Cambers (1999) has argued that, given

climate change projections, other factors such as long-term

trends in erosion, short-term storm effects, wave uprush,

wind forces and existing development should also deter-

mine setback distances. More recently, Abuodha and

Woodroffe (2010) suggest calculating coastal setback dis-

tances using a coastal sensitivity index. The index would

consider rock type, coastal slope, geomorphology, barrier

type, shoreline exposure, shoreline change, relative SLR,

mean wave height and mean tide range. If considered along

with social factors, the index can provide a useful frame-

work for establishing setbacks. Greater public awareness is

essential to the successful adoption of setback distances.

Researchers, such as GOTT (2010), suggest that setbacks

of 30–40 m and 80–120 m from the line of permanent

vegetation are reasonable minimum guidelines for upland

and lowland coastal development, respectively.

While planned retreat from the coast is a potential

adaptation strategy, currently, relocation is not an appro-

priate option for dealing with climate change and SLR

given the existing beachfront development. Tourism

investors may resist such a controversial approach because

it ignores the substantial investment in property and the

state will only intervene to relocate the property if the site

is highly threatened. Stakeholders will resist the abandon-

ment of high-value real estate to the sea unless cost–benefit

analysis and, of even more significance, political will,

prove otherwise. The relocation of old buildings and the

implementation of setback distances are possible only if

there is damage to these buildings by an extreme event.

The planned strategic retreat using setback distances for

hotels takes a long time. Hotels have an economic life span

of 25–30 years before they need to be extensively reno-

vated, converted or demolished (Cambers et al. 2003). At

the end of this life span, there is scope for rebuilding fur-

ther back from the water. Fish et al. (2008) contend that,

although it is an expensive option, moving buildings back

could minimise the likelihood of paying out considerable

amounts of compensation in the future.

Ecosystem-based measures also address coastal erosion

due to SLR and storm surges. Replanting of coastal vege-

tation can help restore a buffer zone which was destroyed

by built development. It also lends itself to community-

based adaptation where members of the community can be

involved in restoring the ecosystem, even as a form of

employment and income generation. A reasonable vege-

tation buffer should be preserved above the mean high tide.

Creeping and standing vegetation stabilises the beach and

offers protection against destructive erosion by wind and

waves. The beach forest offers natural shielding for the

beach from sources of artificial lighting. Fires should be

prohibited on sandy beaches. As reported by the GOTT

(2010), fires are a hazard to the surrounding dry forest,

create unsightly scars, may scorch sea turtle eggs and

hatchlings beneath the surface of the sand, and can dis-

orient hatchlings.

Although the number of visitors to Grande Riviere is

restricted by the use of permits, beach access is not well

monitored and controlled by tour guides. Beach manage-

ment policies should be applied to regulate beach access.

The use of motorised vehicles should be prohibited on sea

turtle nesting beaches at all times. However, authorised

patrol or emergency vehicles should be allowed access.

Parking lots and roadways (including any paved or

unpaved areas where vehicles will operate) should be

positioned so that headlights from approaching vehicles do

not cast light onto the beach at night. Pedestrian access to

beaches for recreational, commercial, research or film

purposes should be confined to specific locations and

strictly regulated to minimise destruction of the beach or

beach forest by trampling.

Beach litter can obstruct hatchlings on their journey to

the sea, discarded glass and metal can injure turtles, and

larger objects can prevent females from finding a nest site.

A strict waste disposal policy should be enforced to ensure

that all beach users remove their garbage when leaving the

beach area. A public education campaign and appropriate

signage at the beach should be strategically placed to

remind visitors of the impact of waste on the endangered

species. Litter wardens should also be hired from within the

community to collect and dispose of solid waste left by

visitors.

450 Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453

123

Sewage disposal by hotels/guesthouses, restaurants and

bars located near the beachfront should be approved by the

regulatory agencies such as the EMA and the Water and

Sewerage Authority. Effluent, including sewage and other

organic wastes, from land-based sources should be cen-

trally treated before its discharge into the sea or into

watercourses which enter the sea. Caution should be

exercised in positioning outflow pipes or storm drains

which emit effluent to critical nesting beaches and into

critical offshore habitat. Following approval, the treatment

system should be inspected on a regular basis to ensure

proper functioning. All too often in the Caribbean, the lack

of technical personnel to monitor these facilities has led to

a deterioration of fragile coastal ecosystems.

Existing legislation which provides protection for

coastal resources should be reviewed and a local coastal

zone authority should be established to eliminate the lack

of coordination among agencies which have decision-

making powers. Additionally, public education on these

laws should also be undertaken to facilitate enforcement.

Legislation which covers these areas includes the Town

and Country Planning Act, the Forests Act and the Envi-

ronmental Management Act. These laws can regulate

activities that are potentially harmful to sea turtles (e.g.

coastal construction, visitation and recreational activities,

beachfront lighting, nearshore dredging, and anchoring) by

mandating prescribed conservation guidelines.

Institutional support for enforcement cannot be over-

emphasised. In order to effect compliance with rules and

regulations concerning the protection of habitat, law

enforcement and good governance are crucial. Good gov-

ernance involves multiple state regulators working collabo-

ratively with community-based organisations in conducting

routine beach monitoring and tour guiding.

Policymakers should consider the co-management

model in addressing the protection of endangered species

and regulation of unsustainable coastal management prac-

tices. The Grande Riviere governance model is highly

regarded as an example of a viable partnership between

government and community-based organisations in which

the co-management approach brings together, on equal

terms, stakeholders and agendas which can be vastly dif-

ferent from one another. Meetings with the community

revealed that it takes time and patience to learn to work

together. Additionally, as the GOTT (2010) highlights, a

successful partnership yields enormous benefit to govern-

ments (which may have the will but neither the staff nor the

resources to fulfil its legislative mandate to safeguard the

nation’s ecological integrity), to communities (which are

yearning for quality local employment and a larger mea-

sure of control over issues that directly affect them) and to

imperilled natural resources (which derive no benefit from

traditional us versus them conservation and law

enforcement options). The Grande Riviere case study is an

example of co-management which has resulted in rural

communities being entrusted with a large measure of

responsibility for the conservation of their natural resour-

ces. As a result, threats to natural resources such as the sea

turtles have been virtually halted and these same resources

have been utilised for socio-economic and other benefits in

a sustainable manner.

Grande Riviere, in particular, is of local and global

importance as a leatherback turtle nesting site and should

be given the resources to protect its hinterland, beach and

turtles. Sites such as this should be studied further in order

to determine if designation as a Marine Protected Area in

collaboration with the community would be a practical way

to safeguard them for managed resource use by this gen-

eration and resource sustainability for future generations.

Conclusion

Scientists have confirmed that, at all beaches, erosion and

accretion are naturally occurring coastal processes. How-

ever, these processes may be accelerated due to anthro-

pogenic activities such as unsustainable coastal

management practices that can place human population at

greater risk to climate change threats. This study found

that, while leatherback turtles depend on sandy beach

habitat for nesting, the quality of the nesting beach was

already compromised by beachside construction, which

exposed sea turtles to lights, activity, noise and altered

physical characteristics, all of which affect nesting success.

If sea levels rise, and beaches are squeezed between

development and an advancing sea, females will be

restricted to nest in a narrow band, exposing them to both

the impacts of development and greater risk of nest overlap

and salt-water inundation of their nests. Coastal ecosystems

which support endangered species such as leatherback

turtles, which are of regional and international significance,

should be granted special status. Furthermore, financial and

technical resources should be provided to communities for

the management of critical habitat and species.

Remote coastal communities want and need more

knowledge of climate change. However, they feel disem-

powered to adapt to climate change because of the lack of

understanding and a perception of limited adaptive

capacity to deal with what appears to be a challenge of

significant magnitude that could only be addressed by the

government. Adaptation to coastal changes is possible at

the local community level once efforts are focused on

building community adaptive capacity through knowledge

transfer and management, dedicated technical and human

resources, co-management and the offer of economic

incentives to community members. Synergies between the

Sustain Sci (2013) 8:441–453 451

123

state and local community should be developed further in

response to current coastal changes and in anticipation of

projected climate change threats.

Finally, the impact of human interventions and climate

change on the economies of coastal communities should be

the subject of further research which seeks to understand

the direct links between the sustainability of natural

resources and livelihoods, and helps close the gap between

scientific research and its uptake in policymaking for small

coastal communities.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the contri-

bution of Gabrielle Thongs in ensuring that the figures met publica-

tion requirements. Ms. Thongs is a graduate research assistant at the

University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad, where she is

pursuing a Ph.D. degree in Geomatics Engineering.

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