CLIMATECHANGEANDBOODEREENATIONALPARK

IMPACTS,CHALLENGES,ANDIMPLICATIONS

TERMPAPERFORGEOG466,ENVIRONMENTALPOLICY

OTTOF.HUCKE

GraduateCollegeoftheUniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign,2016

ABSTRACTClimatechangeposesproblemsonfaunaandfloraofprotectedareas.Inthispaper,theimpactsonBoodereeNationalParkarediscussed.BoodereeisanAustraliannationalparkapproximately100milessouthofSydneyandownedbyindigenouspeoplewhilebeingmanagedundersharedgovernancetogetherwiththeAustraliangovernment.ThepaperwillalsoexamineclimatechangeimplicationsforBoodereeincludingpotentialchangesinconservationgoalsandmanagementstrategiesandwilldiscusshowactionsandmonitoringactivitiesareaffectedbyclimatechange.Finally,comparisonswillbemadebetweenBoodereeandtwootherselectedAustraliannationalparks.

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

1INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................................22CLIMATECHANGEIMPACTS.........................................................................................................................32.1FireIntensityandFrequency........................................................................................................................................32.2SeaLevelRise.......................................................................................................................................................................42.3StormIntensityandFrequency....................................................................................................................................42.4HigherTemperature.........................................................................................................................................................42.5ChangingOceanCurrent.................................................................................................................................................42.6InvasiveSpecies..................................................................................................................................................................53IMPLICATIONSANDDERIVEDMEASURES...............................................................................................53.1ClimateChangeStrategy.................................................................................................................................................53.2ManagementPlan...............................................................................................................................................................63.3ActionsandMonitoring...................................................................................................................................................74COMPARISONTOOTHERAUSTRALIANPARKS......................................................................................84.1KakaduNationalPark.......................................................................................................................................................84.2ChristmasIslandNationalPark...................................................................................................................................95CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................................................11

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1INTRODUCTION

Boodereenationalparkisoneamongmorethan500nationalparksinAustralia(AustralianGovernment,2015).Itislocatedatthesouth-eastcoastofAustraliaapproximately100milessouthofSydneyandisbasicallypartoftheJervisBayareawhilecoveringmostofBherwerrePeninsulaandBowenIsland(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).Theparkcoversnearly25squaremilesoflandareaaswellasalmost3.5squaremilesofmarineterritory.Figure1givesagoodoverviewofthelocationofBooderee.

Figure1:OverviewofBoodereeNationalPark(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a)

Boodereenationalpark’smanagementplanliststhesite’shistoricdevelopment:Firstsettlementsdatebackmorethan20,000yearsago.WhenEuropeansettlersarrivearound1800,landdispossessionfromAboriginalpeoplestart.AfterBoodereeisfirstenactedasJervisBayNatureReservein1971,theareabecomesJervisBayNationalParkin1992.Before,in1986about1.6squaremilesoflandweregivenbacktotheAboriginalcommunity.In1996,theBoardofManagementisfoundedwithamajorityofAboriginalrepresentatives.In1997,thenameischangedtoBoodereenationalparkinordertoreflecttheAboriginalownershipoftheland(DirectorofNationalParks,2015a).

AccordingtotheDirectorofNationalParks,Boodereeishabitatfor26kindsofmammals,200birdspecies,17reptiles,14typesofamphibians,308sortsoffish,and625differentkindsofplantspecies.Itisspecialbecauseofitsimplementedsharedgovernance:TheprotectedareaisownedbylocalindigenouspeopleandgovernedbytheBoardofManagementwhichmakescooperationbetweenindigenouspeopleandtheAustraliangovernmentpossible.Morethan100historicalAboriginalsitesareprotectedandallowvisitorstoexperiencetheindigenouscultureoftheWreckBayAboriginalcommunity(DirectorofNationalParks,2009b).Inconclusion,Boodereeisnotjusta

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protectedareafornaturalheritagebutalsofortheculturalhistoryoftheterritorynexttoJervisBay.

Climatechangehasbecomeaseriousprobleminourtimes.Risingcarbonlevelsintheatmospheretrapsolarradiation,thusleadingtoanincreaseofaveragetemperatureonEarth.Inthisway,theincreaseofcarbondioxideandotherso-calledgreenhousegasesisleadingtoachangeofglobalclimatewithtremendousimpactsonhumansandecosystems.Protectedareasarenoexception:Whileecosystemsareprotectedbecauseofthevalueoftheirbiodiversity,climatechangeposesmanyproblemsonfloraandfaunaduetochangesinseasonalpatternslikerainfallortemperaturetrend.Especiallyendangeredspeciescanbenegativelyaffected,evencausingextinctionofsuchplantsandanimals.BoodereehasalreadyexperiencedadownwardtrendintermsofbiodiversitytogetherwithotherprotectedareasinAustralia(DirectorofNationalParks,2009b).Inthenextchapters,wearegoingtodiscusstheseimpactsmoreindetail.

2CLIMATECHANGEIMPACTS

Boodereeprovideshabitatforfiveendangeredand11atleastvulnerableanimalspecies,furthermorethemagentalilly-pillyislistedasavulnerableplantwithinBoodereeterritories(DirectorofNationalParks,2009b).In2008,HyderConsultingpreparedareportonbehalfoftheAustraliangovernmentabouttheimpactsofclimatechangeonAustralia’sprotectedareas.ItsummarizesuniquefeaturesofBoodereenationalparkasfollows:Besidestheendangeredspecieswhichwerealreadymentioned,theparkprovided“[o]neofthemostdiversemarineenvironmentsrecordedintemperateAustralia,withtropicalandtemperatespeciesrepresented”(HyderConsulting,2008,p.42).Othermentionedcharacteristicsarelargeseagrassmeadows,exceptionalwaterclarity,theimportanceofBowenIslandasabreedingcolonyforlittlepenguins,andtheprotectionofnaturalsandstoneandduneecosystems.Becauseoftheirendangeredstatus,threatenedspeciesareverysensitiveforenvironmentalimpactsthatcausechangestotheirhabitats.Sincetheparkcoversmarineaswellasterrestrialareas,climatechangeaffectsBoodereefromtwodifferentsides.

AccordingtoHyderConsulting,CO2concentrationisexpectedtoriseby165ppmuntil2030and365ppmuntil2070.Thiswouldleadtoanaverageannualtemperatureincreaseof1.3°Crespectively4.0°C,thuscausinganincreaseofannualdayswithtemperaturesabove35°Cby3daysin2030and15daysin2070.Whiletheaveragesealevelisassumedtoriseby17cminthe2030casescenarioand50cmuntil2070,rainfallnumbersareveryuncertainandcouldeithershowhigherorloweramountofrainfallperyear(HyderConsulting,2008).

2.1FireIntensityandFrequency

Oneofthemostfrequentlymentionedimpactsofclimatechangeistheincreasedriskofbushfires:ResearchshowsthatincreasingCO2levelsarebeneficialforphotosynthesis.Itisthereforeexpectedthattherisingcarbonlevelswillbeadvantageousforundergrowth,thusleadingtomorefuelloadintheforests(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).TheDirectorofNationalParksconcludesfurther,thatthisfacttogetherwithrisingtemperaturesandincreasedevaporationwillexposeBoodereenationalparktohigherrisksoffire.Fireisexpectedtoappearmorefrequentandintense.Becausesomeplantspeciesisbettercapabletosurvivewildfiresthanothers,itiseasytoinferhowsuchachangewouldbebeneficialformorefireresistantspeciesandinthisway,thenaturalcompositionandfinally,Booderee’sbiodiversitywouldchange(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).Theimpactoffireisdependentontheinterconnectednessofthelandaswellasthehabitatitselfthatrepresentsobstaclesforfiretospreadoutandspeciestorecoverthroughintroductionfrom

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unaffectedplaces.Ofcourse,wildfireswillalsocausedamagetoinfrastructureandfacilitiesinthepark.

2.2SeaLevelRise

RisingsealevelposesahighriskonthecoastlineofBooderee.Whilealotofdifferentbirdspeciesarecurrentlyusingthehightidewaterlineastheirnestingspaces,suchplaceswillgetlostduetoerosionandfloodinginthefuture(HyderConsulting,2008).HyderConsultingalsoestimatesthatthelossofcoastalhabitatwillcausechangesinforaginganddiethabitsandthattheincreasingsoilcontaminationcouldleadtohigherturbidityofseawaterwhichagainwouldnegativelyaffectmarinespeciesthatisdependentontheclarityofitshabitat.

2.3StormIntensityandFrequency

Climatechangeisexpectedtocausemorefrequentandsevererstorms(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).Strongwindsandheavyrainfallswillinducedevastationssimilartotheonescausedbysealevelrise.Becauserainfallisprojectedtobecomemorevariablewithlongerperiodsofdroughtinbetween,morefrequentlocalfloodingisexpectedduetothelimitedabsorbingcapacityofsoilafterdroughtperiods(HyderConsulting,2008).HyderConsultingestimatescoastalareasandespeciallyBowenIslandcouldbeaffected.ThisisalarmingbecauseBowenIslandisprovidingbreedinghabitatforlittlepenguinsandotherbirdspecies.Stormswillintensifyerosiveforces,thereforedamagingnaturalhabitat.Anotherfactoristhesalinizationofsoilclosetothewaterfronttroughtemporaryseawaterfloodinginconsequenceofstorms.

Theincreasedlikelihoodofseverestormsalsoexposesculturalheritagetohigherrisk.Erosionandwindscoulddamageartefactsofindigenouscultureandtherefore,climatechangecreatesachallengenotjustfornaturalattributesofBoodereebutalsoforuniquewitnessesofthehistoryofhumanculture(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).

2.4HigherTemperature

Temperatureisanimportantindicatorforfloraandfaunatoadjustseasonalpatterns.“Higherannualaveragetemperaturesarelikelytoaffecttriggersforlifecycleevents,populationecologyandtheoccurrenceofsuitablehabitatsforarangeofspecies”(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a,p.6):Climatechangedisturbsthenaturalrhythmofspeciesworldwide.Changinglifecyclescancauseseriousforagingproblemswhenspeciesthatarelowerinthefoodchainarenotavailableintherightquantitiesattherighttime.Populationincreaseofendangeredspeciesorextinctionarefeasible.Boodereewillexperiencechangesinwildlifepopulationdistributionforsure.

2.5ChangingOceanCurrent

JervisBayisinfluencedbytheEastAustralianCurrentwhichflowssouthwardsalongtheAustraliancoast(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).TheEastAustralianCurrentprovidesnutrientsformarinelifethroughupwellingandcyclingandisthereforeanimportantfactorforfoodsupplyinthepark.Itisexpectedthatclimatechangewillhavealteringeffectsonoceancurrents.However,predictionsaredifficultandcontradictory:SomeresearchersassumethattheEastAustralianCurrentwillalterinawaythatseagrassgrowthisfacilitatedwhileothersestimateinvasivespeciescouldbebroughtintotheprotectedarea,thereforetakingoverhabitatofnativefloraandfauna.ThiswouldofcourserepresentaseriousproblemregardingtheprotectiongoalsofBoodereenationalparkascoveredinthenextparagraph.

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2.6InvasiveSpecies

Boodereenationalparkisawellattunedcompositionofnaturalspeciesandenvironmentalconditions.Climatechangewouldalterhabitatconditionsanddisturbthesensitivebalance.HyderConsultingestimatesthatinaconsequence,nativeplantsandanimalscouldbedisadvantagedwhilespeciesfromotherplacescouldfindnewpleasantconditionsinBooderee.Thesespecieswouldbeconsideredinvasivebecauseoftheiroriginandcouldendangerlocalfloraandfauna.Examplesforexplicitconcernsarekikuyugrassandbitoubushasterrestrialspeciesaswellasmarinealgaelikecaulerpataxifolia(HyderConsulting,2008).Thespreadofinvasivespeciesevokesmorecompetitionforavailablehabitatandcouldthusnegativelyinfluencenativeplantandwildlife(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).

3IMPLICATIONSANDDERIVEDMEASURES

Climatechangecreateschallengesfortraditionalprotectedareasandtheirmanagement.MichaelDunlopandPeterBrownsummarizedthedilemmain2008:Climatechangewillnecessarilyleadtochangesinthenaturalcompositionofterritories.Changingclimateconditionsarebeneficialforsomespeciesandunfavorableforothers.Therefore,specieswillchangegeneticallyaswellasintermsofassemblages.Theywillmoveandsearchforbetterspacestolive,otherswillintrudeinformerhostilehabitats.Extinctionisnotavoidablebutotherendangeredanimalsandplantscouldevenbenefitfromchangedlivingconditions.Climatechangecomeswithtransformationbutquestionsonhowthischangewilllooklikecannotbeansweredforsure(Dunlop&Brown,2008).Climatechangethereforeinevitablyraisesquestionsforeveryprotectedareaanditsmanagement:WhatdoIwanttoprotect?Whataremyconservationgoals?

Inthepast,biodiversitywasusuallyseenasmoreorlessstable.Protectedareaswereenactedtopreservebiodiversityinaspecificregion.Conservationgoalswerethereforedesignedinordertopromotefurtherexistenceofnaturalcompositionasitwasfoundwhentheparkwasestablishedorasitwasexpectedtobesuitablefortheterritory.Manyprotectedareaswerecreatedwithfixedgoalsliketheprotectionofspecificspecies(Dunlop&Brown,2008).Now,intimesofclimatechange,weknowthatbiodiversity’sstructurewillchangeinthefuture.Boodereeparkmanagementandothermanagementboardshavetodecidewhethertheywanttocontinuetryingtoconservethearea’spopulationasitis,knowingthatchangeisinevitableorwhethertheyadapttheirconservationgoalstomeetfuturechallenges(Dunlop&Brown,2008).

3.1ClimateChangeStrategy

The2010BoodereeNationalParkClimateChangeStrategyrecommendsthefollowingfivesteps:

1. Understandclimatechangeimplications,

2. implementadaptationmeasurestoenhanceresilience,

3. reducethecarbonfootprintoftheparkanditsmanagement,

4. collaboratewithdifferentstakeholderslikecommunitiesandindustriesinordertodevelopmitigationandadaptationprojects,andfinally

5. communicateinformationaboutclimatechangeandBooderee’smanagementanswerstothepublic(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).

Inthefirststep,understandingofclimatechangeanditsimplicationsonBoodereeshouldbeenhanced.Thisincludesdisclosureofexistingknowledgegapsandaddressingofthoseincooperationwithresearchinstitutesinordertoallowunderstandingandeliminationofthesegaps.

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ExtensionofexistinginformationanddatamanagementsystemsareexpectedtooptimizeconservationeffortsandtosupportariskassessmentprocesstoidentifythelikelihoodofdifferentclimateimpactsonBoodereeinpartnershipwiththeWreckBaycommunity(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).

Steptwoaddressestheearliermentionednecessaryshift,awayfromsinglespeciesbasedconservationgoalstowardsanecosystemapproachinwhichtheprotectedareaisconsideredasacomprehensivebiodiversitysystemthatinteractswithotherregions.Someofthekeysareimplementationofaweedandpestmonitoringprogramtomaximizeresilience,continuingdevelopmentoffiremanagementstrategies,andongoingcollaborationwiththeAustralianNationalUniversity,landplanningagencies,andneighborparksandstakeholderstoensurecoordinationbeyondparkborders.Aninterestingandbycomparisonconcretegoalintermsofclimatechangeimplicationsisthesearchforareasthatarelikelytoprovidespaceformigratorylatitudinalshiftofspeciestofindnewhabitats(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).

Asathirdrecommendation,Boodereenationalparkissupposedtosetagoodexamplebyreducingitsowncarbonfootprint.Thisisplannedtobeachievedbyminormeasureslikereplacementofwood-firedBBQplaceswithelectricorgaspoweredones,switchtomoreefficientvehicles,conservationofenergythroughinstallationofefficientLEDlightingsystems,heatpumporsolarwaterheatingsystemsandmotionsensors,andutilizationofrenewableenergythroughsolarPVsystems.Itisalsoscheduledtoparticipateinanyfurthercarbontradingprogramsinordertocapitalizethecarbonsequesteringqualityofthepark(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).

AccordingtoBooderee’sclimatechangestrategy,stakeholdercollaborationincludespromotionofrenewableenergyamongtheWreckBaycommunityandotherstakeholders,determinationofemploymentopportunitiesforindigenouspeopletomonitorclimatechangeimpacts,andsupportoftourismbusinessestoadapttheiroperationstoclimatechange(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).

Lastbutnotleastpubliccommunicationisacornerstoneoftheelaboratedclimatechangestrategy:Itisimportanttokeepallstakeholdersinformedabouttheimplicationsofclimatechangeandthemanagement’sresponses.Furthermore,documentsrelatedtoclimatechangeshouldbeavailabletothepubliconthewebsitesofBoodereenationalparkandtheAustraliangovernmentinordertospreadinformationfurther(DirectorofNationalParks,2010a).

Thediscussedfive-stepapproachisingeneralnospecificBoodereeactionplan.Asitturnsout,ParksAustraliadevelopedthemainpointsofthisstrategyasanoverallframeworktoopposeclimatechangeimplicationsonallitsprotectedareas(DirectorofNationalParks,2009a).

3.2ManagementPlan

In2015,theclimatechangeresponseswerefactoredintothesecondmanagementplanforthedecade2015-2025.Passage6.11inBoodereenationalpark’smanagementplanformulatestheaim:“Climatechangeimpactsonparkvaluesarebetterunderstoodandmanagementactionsandplanningareadaptedtotakeaccountofthelatestavailableinformation”(DirectorofNationalParks,2015a,p.82).Themanagementplanisclearlybiasedbytheclimatechangestrategydocument.ItcallsforfurtherresearchtosupportunderstandingofimpactsofclimatechangeonBoodereeandparticipationinnationalstrategiesforcarbontradingshouldbeconsidered.Managementprioritiesshallbeadaptedtoderivedclimateimpactsinordertofindappropriatesolutionsincludingecosystemsmanagement,emergencyresponsecapacity,infrastructuredesignandmaintenance,andvisitormanagementandsafety(DirectorofNationalParks,2015a).

Thepolicydescription“[…]theDirectorandtheBoard,inconsultationwithrelevantstakeholders,willjointlydecideonfurthermonitoringrequirementsandwhetherprotective,

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rehabilitationoradaptationmeasuresarefeasible.Ifcosteffective,appropriateresponsesandactionswillbeimplemented”(DirectorofNationalParks,2015a,p.83)remainsvagueandsketchyandisformulatedasopenaspossibletotakeanyfuturethreatsintoaccount.Withtwodedicatedpagesina183pagescomprisingmanagementplanandjustafewmentionsinothersections,itseemsthatclimatechangeiscurrentlynotinthemainfocusoftheBoardofManagement.EvenmoresurprisingisthefactthatthelatestDirectorofNationalParksannualreportmentionsclimatechangeonlyonce–notinconnectionwiththreatsforconservationgoalsbutinsteadjustinthecontextofcarbonfootprintreductionofAustralianparks(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).

3.3ActionsandMonitoring

MeasuresinBoodereearenotdirectlyrelatedtoclimatechangebecauseoftheindirectcharacteroftheproposedclimatechangestrategy:Actionsarejustadaptedinawaytomeetconservationgoalslikeforinstancethemaintenanceofaspecificpopulation.Climatechangeisthereforemoreunderstoodasafactorinfluencingtheachievabilityofbiodiversitygoalsinthenationalpark–lessasaseparatephenomenonthatwouldneedseparateconservationmeasuresandattentionlikeforinstanceinvasivespecies.

Inordertodoso,foxnumbersarekeptlowthroughbaitingsincetheearly2000s:Thenumberofbaitsisadaptedtothefoxpopulation.In2014,1,080baitswereusedandshooterswereemployedtoshootbaitshyfoxes(DirectorofNationalParks,2014b).Thislongtermcontrolallowedthereintroductionoflong-nosedpotorootoBooderee.Inaconsequencetothefoxpopulationcontrol,threatenedbirdspeciespopulationisrecovering(DirectorofNationalParks,2013).Suchbirdsareeasternbristlebird,hoodedplover,sootyoystercatcher,andpiedoystercatcher.Mammalsthatbenefitfromfoxcontrolarebesidesthelong-nosedpotoroothelong-nosedbandicoot,commonbrushtailpossum,andeasternchestnutmouse(DirectorofNationalParks,2012).

Thepopulationofthementionedspeciesismonitoredbydifferentapproachesdependingontheplaceofitsnaturaloccurrence.Whilethefoxesthemselvesarecaughtbyfaunacameras,birdsaremonitoredthroughearlymorningsurveysincludingcallsandsightingsormonthlysurveysbyboat.Mammalsareusuallycountedbytheuseofseveraltrapsacrosstheparkorcameras(DirectorofNationalParks,2013)(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).Inthisway,afeedbackloopexiststoprovideinformationontheeffectivenessofconservationmeasures.Mostkeyspeciesshowstablenumberswhilethecommonbrushtailpossum’spopulationdecreasedinallannualreportsstartingfrom2011.Thelong-nosedbandicooncouldbestabilizedafterseveralyearsofdecline(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).

Anothermeasureforbiodiversityprotectionisthecombatagainsthighlyinvasivebitoubushbyhandspraying,groundspraying,handpulling,andaerialhelicopterspraying(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).Afterbitoubushcoveragewastremendouslyreducedby90%inhighinfestationareasandabout75%inareasofmediuminfestationbetween2011and2012(DirectorofNationalParks,2012),numbersarenowsteadysincefiveyears(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).Monitoringisundertakenbyaerialsurveyseverythreeyearswhichdeterminelocalbitoudensityandrecordtheminageographicalinformationsystem(DirectorofNationalParks,2012).

Inordertoimprovenestingopportunitiesforlittlepenguin,kikuyuweediscontrolledbyaerialsprayinginnestingareasonBowenIsland(DirectorofNationalParks,2014b)(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).Thesuccessofthisactionismonitoredthroughcountingoflittlepenguinindividualsduringnightlandings(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b)ormonitoringofchickmortality(DirectorofNationalParks,2012).

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AlltheseactionsanditsresultmonitoringisundertakentomitigateindirectclimatechangeimpactsonBoodereenationalpark.Actualimplementationofotherproposedmeasureslikeutilizationofrenewableenergyisnotdocumentedintheannualreport(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).

4COMPARISONTOOTHERAUSTRALIANPARKS

Asalreadymentionedintheprevioussection,ParksofAustraliaimplementedthesameclimatechangeactionplanframeworkforallAustraliannationalparks(DirectorofNationalParks,2009a).Themainfive-stepstrategyisadaptedtoeverypark’sindividualneeds.Inthefollowing,Booderee’sclimatechangestrategyiscomparedtotwoothernationalparks.

4.1KakaduNationalPark

Asvisibleinfigure2,KakadunationalparkislocatedatthenorthcoastofAustraliaapproximately125mileseastofDarwin(DirectorofNationalParks,2010b).With7,650squaremiles,theparkismuchbiggerthanBooderee.HalfoftheparkwasgivenbacktotheAboriginalcommunityundertheAboriginalLandRightsActin1976.Sincethen,thelandisleasedbacktotheDirectorofNationalParksinordertobemanagedasKakadunationalpark(DirectorofNationalParks,2016).JustasinBooderee,KakaduismanagedunderanimplementedsharedgovernanceapproachthatincludesaBoardofManagementinwhichtheAboriginalcommunitycollaborateswiththeAustraliangovernment.AccordingtotheDirectorofNationalParks,theparkisfurtherexpectedtobemoreresilienttoclimatechangeimpactsalsobecauseofitssandstonestructureswhichprovideanaccommodatingmicroclimateformanyspeciesthatareendangeredintheconsequenceofclimatechange.

KakadusharesmanyaspectsofitsclimateactionplanwithBooderee.Overseveralpassages,thelistedrecommendedmanagementmethodsareidentical.Onemajordifferenceisthespecificallyaddeddangerbysaltwaterintrusionthroughrisingsealevel.CoastalplainsofKakaduarelocatedjustafewfeetabovesealevel.Furthermore,theparkincludeswetlandswhichareimportanthabitatformigratorybirdsandotherspecies.Thesewetlandsareatrisktobecomesaltywhichwouldcreateproblemsforanimalsandplantsthataredependentonthose.

ManagementactionsareadaptedtothespecificbiodiversityofKakadu.Endangeredkeyspeciesarenorthernquoll,northernbrownbandicoot,northernbrushtailpossum,brush-tailedrabbit-rat,black-footedtree-rat,palefieldrat,flatbackturtle,andestuarinecrocodile(DirectorofNationalParks,2012).Accordingtothelastfiveannualreportsthepopulationofthosementionedspeciesisalmoststeadilydecreasing.Justthelattermentionedestuarinecrocodileandflatbackturtleshowsteadyorincreasingnumbersinthelastyears(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).Tosupportvulnerablefloraandfauna,Kakaduparkmanagementheavilyreliesoncontrolledfiremanagementtoimprovehabitatquality(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).The2014-2015reportisthefirstthatlistssupplementalmeasureslikethreatenedspeciesworkshopsandsupportofnationalresearchprogramstodetermineimpactsofferalcatsonlocalmammals.Also,wilddogcontrolisundertakentogetherwitheducationalprogramstoinformthepublicabouttheconsequencesofwilddogfeedingonlocalfauna.Monitoringismaintainedthroughsurvey,sightingandroadkillrecords.

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Figure2:LocationofKakadu(DirectorofNationalParks,2010b)

Threatstolocalplantsandwildlifearewaterbuffalosandferalpigsaswellasmimosaandmultipleweeds.MonitoreddevelopmentindicatesnegativetrendssimilartothenegativeeffectsintheevolutionofKakadu’sendangeredspecies.Whilethemonitoringitselfisundertakenbyincidentalsightings,helicoptermapping,andobservationatspecificsites,actionscovereradicationprograms,pesticideandfireuse,andopportunisticmeasures(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).Eventhoughalltheseprovisionsarenotdirectlyrelatedtoclimatechange,theyshowthespecificconservationchallengesinKakadunationalpark.Italsodemonstrateshowindividualmeasureshavetobeadaptedtotheneedsoftheparkandthatbesidestheclimatechangeactionplan,theAustralianparksmainlyfocusonindividualactionsunderanopportunisticmindsettomanagetheirprotectedareasinthefaceofclimatechange.

4.2ChristmasIslandNationalPark

ChristmasIslandisanotherinterestingnationalparkinAustralia.Asshowninfigure3,theislandislocatedapproximately1,600milesnorth-westofPerth,2,700mileswestofDarwin,and310milessouthofJakarta.Theterrestrialprotectedterritorycoversanareaofaround50squaremileswhichrelatestoaround60%oftheislandarea.Additionally,marineterritoryisprotecteddowntoadepthof164feetbelowwatersurface(DirectorofNationalParks,2011).

ChristmasIslandnationalparkisspecialbecauseofitsremoteness.Isolationfromthemainlandallowedtheislandtodevelopauniquebiospherealmostcompletelyindependentlyfromnatureelsewhere.ThischaracteristicmakesChristmasIsland’sspecieshighlyvaluablebutalsohighlyvulnerableespeciallytoinvasivespeciesandotherexternalinfluences.Togetherwithmorethan100migratoryseabirdspecies,theparkishomefor88coralandover600fishspecies,andtwoturtlespecies(DirectorofNationalParks,2011).

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Figure3:LocationofChristmasIsland(DirectorofNationalParks,2014a)

Theclimatechangestrategyfrom2011providesforthesamefive-stepframeworkasalreadydiscussedforBoodereeandKakadu.However,implementationisadaptedtothespecificneedsofthemarine-terrestrialprotectedareaandtherefore,climatechangeimpactsareextendedcomparedtoBooderee:Theredcrabrepresentstheisland’sdominantkeyspecies(DirectorofNationalParks,2011).Becauseitsmigrationisdependentonthestartofthewetseason,rainfallreductionandshiftsinthenaturalrhythmareoneexampleforhowclimatechangecandisturbthesensitivelocalbalanceofflora,fauna,andenvironment.Also,wateracidificationthroughincreasingatmosphericcarbondioxidelevelsandrisingwatertemperaturecouldtriggercoralbleachanddecreasingfishstock(DirectorofNationalParks,2011).Acidificationwouldalsoleadtoaggravatedconditionsformarinelifethatdevelopsacalciumcarbonateshellanddisturbancesinmarinepopulationwouldnotjustaffectthefoodchainbelowthewaterlinebutalsoseabirdspecieswhichisheavilydependentonfish.

ThemanagementplanforChristmasIslanddefinesthegoalregardingclimatechangeasfollows:“TheDirectorwillworkwithstakeholdersandencourage,andwherefeasiblesupport,researchandinvestigationsintopotentialclimatechangeimpacts,andthedevelopmentofmitigationandadaptiveresponses”(DirectorofNationalParks,2014a,p.63).EventhoughthispolicyisformulateddifferentlycomparedtoBooderee’s,thegeneralideaalsoremainsrelativelyvague.Thepolicyisfurtherexplainedbythreeactionswhichshouldbeimplemented:First,climatechangebasedresearchisaskedtobeprioritizedandsupportedtogainmoreknowledgeaboutclimatechangeimpactsonChristmasIslandandadequatemitigationandadaptationstrategies.Second,aclimatechangestrategyshouldbeimplementedandreviewedinordertoimproveparkmanagementaccordingtothelessonslearnedfromresearch.Andlastly,managementprioritiesandprogramshavetobechangedtotaketheresearchoutcomesintoconsideration(DirectorofNationalParks,2014a).ThiscaseagainshowsthattheAustralianclimatechangestrategyratherprovidesagenericframeworkwithinitsbordersconservationgoalsareadaptedifnecessaryinsteadofchangingconservationaimsingeneral.

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TheDirectorofParks’2014-2015annualreportrevealsexceptionallyhighnumbersofkeyperformanceindicatorsforChristmasIsland.Nearlyalllistedendangeredspeciesindicateupwardtrends.ChristmasIslandflying-fox,lister’sgecko,forestskink,andothersaresupportedthroughresearchprojectsthataimtodeterminethespecies’threatsandcaptivebreedingprojectsthatallowcaptivebreedingincaseifthealreadycriticallowpopulationshouldfurtherdecrease.However,suchcaptivebreedingeffortscanbedifficultasthespreadofanunknowndiseaseamongcaptiveindividualsoflister’sgeckosshows(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).Fortunately,threatspeciesastheyellowcrazyant,falsecurrybush,Siamweed,andferalcatarekeptincheckasmostlydecliningpopulationsevaluatedbysurveysandcameratrapsshow.Especiallyferalcatsarecombatedviaalargescaleremovalprogramwhichremoved600individualsin2014-2015.Siamweedisdetectedbyunmannedaerialvehiclesandimagerecognitionsoftware(DirectorofNationalParks,2015b).

ChristmasIslandconfirmstheinsightthatBoodereenationalparkmakesuseofAustralia’sgenericclimatechangestrategy.Thecomparisonrevealshowthefive-stepstrategyitselfisappliedtowardsmultipleprotectedareasinAustraliaandhowtheframeworkisadaptedfortheindividualcharacteristicsofeachpark.

5CONCLUSION

BoodereenationalparkisagoodexampleforAustralia’sreactiontoclimatechange:Thenationalparkseachpublishedaclimatechangestrategypaperinwhichtheydescribeafive-stepstrategytotackleclimatechangeimpacts.Thekeypointsoftheoverallfive-stepframeworkarethesameforeveryparkwhilefurtherspecificationsarecarriedoutindividually.ForBooderee,morefrequentandseveredroughtsandwildfires,risingsealevel,andmorestormsareexpectedtoposerisksonnaturalaswellasculturalheritagethroughdirectandindirectimpactslikeerosionandspeciesinvasion.InBooderee,managementstrategiescallforcooperationbetweenresearchinstitutionsandlocalindigenouscommunitiestofacilitateinvestigationonclimatechangeeffects,optimizeprojections,andthusenhanceunderstandingofweakspotsinthemanagementplan.Basedontheseinsights,weedandpestmonitoringprogramsareplannedtobeimplementedtofurtherimproveresilienceofthepark’sbiodiversity.Conservationgoalsareadaptedtotakeintoaccountpotentialshiftsofspeciesandtheirhabitat,managementstrategiesshouldbereviewedtoprovideforbalancingmeasurestoprotectfloraandfaunaasfaraspossible,andmonitoringisusedtoadjustconservationeffortsaccordingtoclimatechangeimpacts.Atthesametime,Boodereeminimizesitscarbonfootprintandaimstosupportlocalstakeholderstoadapttoclimatechangeconsequences.

Inconclusion,theBoardofManagementofBoodereenationalparkseemstounderstandthechallengesofclimatechangeitisfacingeventhoughclimatechangedoesnotseemtobeonthetopofitsprioritylist.However,implementationisoftennotspecificandconcreteactionsareprimarilyderivedinamicro-perspectiveof“day-to-day”business,leadingtomeasuresthatusuallyconsistofaimstostabilizefloraandfaunapopulation.Macro-perspectiveapproachesliketheeducationalroleoftheparkoreventhereconsiderationofBooderee’sconservationgoalsintermsofwhatshouldbepreserveddonotseemtobeimplementedyet.

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