Cleaner production as a means for effective environmental management

Journal of Cleaner Production 6 (1998) 171–179

Cleaner production as a means for effective environmentalmanagement

Johannes Fresner*

Stenum GmbH, Geidorfgu¨rtel 21, A-8010 Graz, Austria

Abstract

Cleaner production is a strategy to prevent emissions at the source and to initiate a continuous preventive improvement ofenvironmental performance of organizations. In terms of Cleaner production the focus of management should be on preventionrather than on cure in avoiding environmental problems. The inclusion of commitment to prevention in the environmental policyis one prerequisite of the standard ISO 14001. But how can a formalized environmental management system help to start a processof continuous improvement and voluntary self regulation? We conclude from our experience that Cleaner production and ISO 14001go well together and support each other in helping an organization to really decrease its environmental effect. Analysing environmen-tal management systems introduced on the basis of Cleaner production projects demonstrates, that Cleaner production suppliesmanagement and employees with systematic tools to decrease the environmental impact and at the same time save costs frominefficient use of materials and energy and motivates the organization as well by creating awareness throughout the enterprise.1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:ISO 14001; Environmental management systems; EMAS; Cleaner production

1. What is Cleaner production?

Cleaner production is a preventive strategy to minim-ize the impact of production and products on theenvironment. The principal actors of Cleaner productionare the companies, which control the production pro-cesses. They are influenced strongly by their customers(private, public or other companies) and politics (bylaws, regulations, taxes). Projects which foster Cleanerproduction in Austria focus on the implementation of thephilosophy and the triggering of changes in companies.

The main focus is always to create awareness for theprevention of pollution, to find the source of wastes andemissions, to define a program to reduce emissions andincrease resource efficiency by implementing and docu-menting Cleaner production options.

According to the interdisciplinary Cleaner productionapproach a range of options can be used, including:

I good housekeeping with materials and energy

* Tel.: 1 43-316-367156; Fax:1 43-316-367156-13; E-mail:[email protected]

0959-6526/98/$19.00 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.PII: S0959-6526 (98)00002-X

I training of employees, better logistics, improvementin data availability and the communication betweendepartments

I substitution of raw and auxiliary materials with lessharmful ones or ones that can be used more efficientlyor can be recycled internally or externally

I modifications of products to eliminate productionsteps with large environmental impact

I process modifications to minimize waste and emis-sions

I internal recyclingI introduction of waste into external recycling networks

Cleaner production contributes to the model of sus-tainable development on a company level. The mostfamous definition of sustainable development was givenin the Brundtland report in 1987. Sustainable develop-ment considers the necessities of present generationswhilst taking into consideration the needs of future gen-erations. Sustainable development does not allow aneconomy which wastes resources, which uses non-renewable energy, or which destroys valuable naturalcapital. This development can be characterized by thefollowing guiding principles [1]:

172 J. Fresner /Journal of Cleaner Production 6 (1998) 171–179

From → To

Throughput economics Material flow management

Waste of materials Productivity of materials

Waste of energy Energy efficiency

Product orientation Service orientation

End of pipe environmental Preventive environmentalprotection protection

Consumption of natural Sustainable use of naturalcapital capital

Dominating nature Orientation at nature

Throw away mentality Respecting andappreciating mentality

By introducing material and energy flow managementinto the companies instead of end-of-pipe measures, Cle-aner production aims to avoid wastes and emissions anduse materials and energy as efficiently as possible. Ourgroup has been active in the Ecoprofit and Prepare pro-jects in Austria for six years now. The projects includedcompanies from the textile, pulp and paper, food pro-cessing, machine building, wood working, printed circuitboard manufacturing and galvanizing industries coveringall the sectors and sizes, well over 100 companies inAustria by now [2–4].

In these projects the methods and tools, which wererefined in the Austrian Prepare project [4] and the Ecop-rofit project with the City of Graz [2] were used. As afirst step a systematic balance of all the inputs and out-puts of a company is conducted. Then wastes and emis-sions are traced back to their respective source.

The companies cover technological and organizationalproblems as well and consider waste and emissions tothe atmosphere and water bodies. The weak points andinefficiencies of material and energy use are identifiedand options for improvements, both economically andecologically, defined. Consequently, modifications toproducts and production lead to a situation with lesswaste and emissions [4]. The systematic analysis of acompany in all its aspects, its accounting and costingcalculations, its technology, the training of its employeesand its legal boundary conditions makes it possible todevelop a company specific strategy to increase theefficiency of material and energy consumption and theprevention of emissions and environmental effects.

In projects like Prepare a company works togetherwith a consultant to increase the efficiency of the con-sumption of materials and energy by organizational andtechnological innovations. The solutions will always

have to be worked out specifically in the company.Experience shows that external consultants can introducenew impulses into the project and are not hindered byprejudices. At the same time it is useful to includeemployees of different company divisions — account-ing, technology, data processing, purchasing, sales,environment — into a pollution prevention team to geta broad picture of the problems and collect all the neces-sary data available in the corporation.

The model Ecoprofit of the city of Graz and Stenumuses a different methodology [2]. The basis of the modelis the cooperation of companies, the City of Graz and aconsulting company. The program consists of the fol-lowing components:

In a series of nine workshops which are conductedmonth by month, company representatives learn theapproach and apply the ideas in their companies. At theend of this program an award is granted to all the partici-pating companies which

I comply with environmental lawI develop a company specific environmental policyI implement measures to actually decrease environmen-

tal effectsI have an environmental program

The workshops deal with the following topics:

I motivation and information of the corporationI emissions and their prevention, environmental costsI design of a company specific environmental programI material flow analysisI waste logistics, handling of hazardous materialsI legal aspectsI energy analysisI environmental controllingI preparations of a company report and for the award

Regular discussion among the companies in the work-shops fosters continuous work in special areas and theimplementation of options. Additionally, new solutionscan be found and ideas initiated. Parallel to this series,experts from the consulting team visit the companies inbetween the workshops and give their input.

This approach has proven successful over five years.It fosters the idea of self-help and so builds a solid basisfor a continuing process. Moreover, it creates a networkor a club of companies pursuing a sustainable develop-ment in a geographical region. Furthermore, it is com-paratively cheap for the companies to participate anddoes not require a huge budget from the City at the sametime. Especially for this program, recognition has beenworldwide: similar programs have been done in threemore cities and regions in Austria, in the cities of Decinand Zlin in the Czech republic, for the cities of Martinand Trnava in the Slovak republic and in two cities inBrazil.

In all the projects, emissions could be reduced sig-

173J. Fresner /Journal of Cleaner Production 6 (1998) 171–179

nificantly. In a machine producing company the projectaim for the reduction of solid waste was defined by: ‘halfis enough’. The project resulted in a 60% reduction ofsolid wastes. The same is true for at least four morecompanies. The COD of waste water could be reducedby 25 to 40%, the water consumption and the wastewater amount also.

One company, only by better servicing its fat separ-ator and by proper cleaning could reduce the COD by50%! Solvent use for painting generally could bereduced by 20–50%. Also the consumption of energycould be reduced up to 40% in some companies,especially if drying operations are employed.

All in all projects typically give a net benefit of 0.5–1.5% at a payback time of approx. 1–2 years. Numeroussolutions have been implemented, saving literally milli-ons of Austrian schillings in some plants, annually. Thecompany leaders now know their processes better thanbefore; the work has stimulated innovations. The compa-nies can also use the results of their work for improvingtheir public image and marketing.

Fig. 1 shows the results from a Cleaner productionconsulting project with 13 Styrian companies conductedin 1994 and 1995. These results are typical of the find-ings from the other projects. Almost half of the optionsfound in the projects were not technical ones, but organi-zational ones and good housekeeping! They involvedpurchasing, the formation of environmental teams wherethere were none, waste separation, handling of chemicalsand waste. Moreover, most of these options were alreadyknown to the operators and they only had to be collectedsystematically, evaluated financially or presented to themanagement [4].

The projects showed a need for a systematic approachto network information from different stages of the pro-duction process. The solutions also often require the

Fig. 1. Classification of options from a Cleaner production consulting project with 13 companies in Styria [4].

cooperation of suppliers of raw materials and equipment,producers and customers.

Cleaner production is a process that takes time, as itinvolves organizational, as well as technological,changes. It is not enough for consultants to locate thetechnological options: they also have to be effectivecatalysts in a process that changes attitudes and organi-zation. Leadership of the management is a prerequisitefor successful pollution prevention projects.

Proper organization of the environmental aspects ofmanagement is also important for another reason. A Cle-aner production project will always come to an end.However, we should find ways to make pollution pre-vention a part of the companies’ culture and everydaylife.

Scheck [5] has shown, analysing the case studiesdescribed by Fresner [4] 18 months after their com-pletion, that especially in bigger companies (more than100 employees) it is difficult to guarantee that goodhousekeeping measures survive. Creating responsi-bilities, introducing formal information, documentation,training and working instructions can alleviate this prob-lem. From an organizational point of view, this meansthat we must introduce Cleaner production into the com-panies’ management systems.

2. What is ISO 14001 and what is EMAS?

ISO 14000 is a series of voluntary international stan-dards covering environmental management tools andsystems. It will ultimately include 20 separate standardscovering everything from environmental labelling toassessing life-cycles of products. ISO 14001 is the firststandard in this series. It provides specifications withguidance for use for environmental management sys-tems [6].


It is the standard a company will use to establish itsenvironmental management system and to integrateenvironmental management with overall business man-agement activity. ISO 14001 tells an organization how to

I establish a disciplined system for achieving statedenvironmental objectives that adhere to relevant legis-lative and regulatory requirements

I perform according to its policies and procedures, andI audit of the system, ensuring full conformance and

continual improvement

Elements required in effective management systemsare considered to be:

I environmental policy, including a commitment to pol-lution prevention and a commitment to meet all appli-cable legislation and regulations

I review of environmental effectsI registration of and compliance with legal require-

mentsI objectives and targetsI environmental programI organization and responsibilitiesI trainingI communicationI documentationI proceduresI emergenciesI measurementsI correction and preventionI recordsI auditingI evaluation by top management

An environmental management system is “the part ofan overall management system that includes organiza-tional structure, planning activities, responsibilities,practices, procedures, processes and resources fordeveloping, implementing, achieving, reviewing, andmaintaining environmental policy.” The standard alsoinsists that an organization identify and put in place asystem to manage significant environmental impacts ofits activities, products or services. However, it does notdefine what ‘significant’ impacts are or which methodsshould be used to determine them. It leaves it up to theorganization to evaluate its impacts and set priorities ina systematic and documented way.

Reference to pollution prevention is given in twomajor aspects: The standard demands, that the environ-mental policy of a company shall contain commitmentto continuous improvement and the prevention ofenvironmental effects of the organization. The environ-mental targets and goals of the organization have to con-form to the environmental policy, including this obli-gation for prevention of environmental effects. Theextent to which an environmental management systemdelivers preventive results will clearly depend on the

extent to which the idea of prevention is incorporatedinto the policy and the national legislation.

The EMAS scheme (Environmental Management andAuditing Scheme), according to regulation 1836/93 ofthe European Community creates a common Europeansystem in which companies can participate, if they:develop an environmental policy; introduce an environ-mental management system and produce an environmen-tal statement, analyse their important environmentaleffects, and demonstrate the basics of their environmen-tal management system and their environmental pro-gram. An external certifier then checks this statement. Ifit holds valid, the company is registered as taking partin the EMAS. The regulation leaves it to a great degreeup to the organization of the company which elementsare needed for an effective environmental managementsystem.

Positive effects of the introduction of an environmen-tal management system are:

I legal complianceI reduced riskI documentation of environmental performanceI motivation of employees

Financial effects can also be pronounced: one of thefirst companies in Austria which introduced an environ-mental management system now pays 1% less interestrates and 30% less insurance fees, because the risks ofthis company are estimated lower by the bank and theinsurance company [7].

The two-level-model of environmental managementsystem in Fig. 2 shows how the organization of the com-pany acts to minimize the environmental effects, wastesand emissions of the firm.

Management controls the flow of materials and energyin, within and out of the company during regular andabnormal operation. For this, they need information onthe materials and energy used (input, output, consump-tion in the processes). This information is matched withthe objectives and targets which are derived from theenvironmental policy and information on the legalrequirements and on the development of technology.

The management influences the employees by trainingand motivating them or by giving them working instruc-tions. It also organizes maintenance and prevention ofproblems with the plants and the use of best availabletechnology applicable in the company. The introductionof an environmental management system can be achance to create the necessary framework for continuousimprovement and for the introduction of preventiveenvironmental protection into the company’s manage-ment system. So the impact of the organization on theenvironment can be reduced continuously [3].

With a good environmental management system themanagement should have no problems in answering thefollowing questions:


Fig. 2. Model of an environmental management system.

I What is your environmental policy?I How do you determine the environmental effects

caused by your organization?I How do you make sure that your organization com-

plies with current environmental law?I How do you make sure that your organization is com-

pletely informed about new environmental legis-lation?

I How do you make sure that the best available andeconomically sound technology is used to avoidenvironmental effects?

I Does your pollution prevention program work?I Does your planning and budgeting process include

environmental responsibilities and needs?I How do you make sure that your employees are

trained for their responsibilities?I How do you make sure that your employees and you

are informed adequately about environmental effects?

It seems obvious, that not the certificate itself is theaim, but a living system which reduces the environmen-tal impact of a firm efficiently. How can an effectiveenvironmental management system be introduced? Forthis the preventive strategy of Cleaner production iswell suited.

3. Our experience with ISO 14001 and EMAS

We have introduced environmental management sys-tems in 11 sites so far (Table 1). In the first projects(Erste Obermurtaler Brauereigenossenschaft, Steweag,ESG and Eurostar) we cooperated with another con-sulting company from Graz, Infora. The Erste Obermurt-aler Brauereigenossenschaft was the first company inAustria to introduce an environmental management sys-

Table 1Environmental management systems introduced by Stenum (basisApril 1997)

Company Year Sector

Erste Obermurtaler 1995 BreweryBrauereigenossenschaftSteweag (Mellach, Graz, 1996 Steam power plantsWerndorf, Pernegg)ESG-Linz (Two sites) 1996 Steam power plantsEurostar 1996 Car assemblerAlfred Wall AG 1996 PrinterDI Robier Bau GmbH 1996 Construction companyLeopold Pharma 1997 Pharmaceutical company


Table 2Current projects (basis April 1997)

Company Country Sector

Dunapack Hungary Paper millPurator Hungaria Hungary Engineering companyKobanyai So¨rgyar Hungary BreweryZnovin Znojmo Czech republic VineryBerglandmilch GmbH Austria DairyKnaus Austria JoinerHeuberger GmbH Austria Anodizer

tem. Table 2 shows the current projects. They includecompanies in Hungary and the Czech Republic.

We use the following approach for the introduction ofan environmental management system (Fig. 3).

First, the environmental policy is defined. In this pro-cess the consultant assists with his knowledge of thecompany and its environmental problems. Then parallelworking groups make a detailed initial review of theenvironmental performance of the company producing aregister of laws and regulations relevant to the company.Today there are more than 100 federal laws and regu-lations in effect in Austria concerned with environmentalaffairs [8]. After this an actual input/output analysis ismade. This analysis is not demanded by ISO 14001, butit has proved to be an effective basis for environmentalcontrolling. The organization of the company is analysedfor the existence of the elements of ISO 14001. Existingelements e.g. of other management systems, e.g. ISO9000 are included. By the introduction of the planningprocess to identify and eliminate digressions from thepolicy and from legal compliance, the wheel of continu-ous improvement is started. This process then is docu-mented in a manual with working instructions for

Fig. 3. The introduction of an environmental management system.

important activities (environmental controlling, purchas-ing, planning, operation of plants, handling of chemi-cals, auditing).

The actual work is done in working groups of twoto five, usually each one headed by a member of theenvironmental team. Together they develop the elementswhich have been specified during the first review in thefirst environmental program together with the consult-ants. They describe the actual practice within the com-pany themselves and only add what is missing. By this,an active system is generated, which guarantees thecycle of planning the environmental performance andmeasures to improve it, introducing the measures, check-ing the performance and refining the systems elements,where necessary. The program involves many employeesand motivates them to act according to what was selfdefined. Usually, many creative and innovative ideasresult from this process.

Some lessons learned from these projects are givenhere to highlight key points in the introduction ofenvironmental management systems:

I The importance of an environmental policy address-ing the relevant impacts of the company.It is important that the organization develops an hon-est policy which addresses the actual situation of thecompany. The development of a vision needsemotional involvement of the employees [9]. Other-wise, the policy has no motivational power and willbe accepted by many employees only as a sheet ofpaper.

I Quantitative description of material flowsIn a company it was discovered during the collectionof data for an input/output analysis that their work-shop used more than 150 different chemicals, sol-vents, and sprays. It was not only hard to keep stock,but also very complicated to define proper storageand handling instructions. So they decided to reducethe number to 30. This proved possible, reduced therisks involved and saved storage room and moneyfor unused chemicals which were disposed of fromtime to time.

I The importance of trainingIn one Austrian company with 200 employees anintensive training program was carried out, involvingliterally all the employees in the production. In smallworkshops, the environmental manager discussed theenvironmental policy with groups of seven to tenemployees, and then together they worked out therelevance of this policy for their work places. Duringthis program more than 70 options for technical andorganizational improvement were raised, althoughthe company had done a Cleaner production programbefore resulting in significant savings of water,energy, and raw materials.


4. Comparing the elements of a Cleaner productionprogram and ISO 14001

After a Cleaner production project, the followingelements of an environmental management system arein place:

I environmental teamI environmental policy and aimsI description of environmental effectsI first environmental programI legal compliance audit

The following tools for controlling the environmentalperformance are developed during a Cleaner pro-duction project:

I evaluation of materials and processesI energy analysisI material flow analysisI use of indicators

Widenmeyer [10] did a comparison of the introductionof an EMS into a company which had prepared itself bya Cleaner production project and one that did not. Heconcluded that the latter, equally, had to create the fun-damental elements of a Cleaner production program: aninput/output-analysis as a basis of a register of theenvironmental effects and of the environmental programand the creation of the position of an environmentalmanager and an environmental team. The descriptionand documentation of best available technology and thediscussion of the actual situation in the company inrelation to this is an important part of a Cleaner pro-duction project. The description of material flows, wherelegislative rules apply is equally important to documentthe legal compliance.

A Cleaner production program will mainly deal withthe regular operation of the company. Abnormal busi-ness (especially emergencies, fire) might not get theattention it deserves in a Cleaner production project.

Many steps of a Cleaner production project coincidewith the needs of an environmental management system.Cleaner production gives a basis for the development ofan environmental management system and an environ-mental information system, as is demanded by ISO14001 (Table 3). Cleaner production projects usuallyexceed the demands of the standard in some respectsregarding the methodological approach of aninput/output-analysis, the systematic documentation ofweak points, the extended view of environmental costsand the immediate application of change. These are thepoints in which a Cleaner production project usuallyrelieves avoidable environmental impact and at the sametime unnecessary cost from the company. Cleaner pro-duction therefore is a good preparation for the introduc-tion of an environmental management system, but therestill remain some requirements to fulfil [11].

Primary differences are based on the degree of docu-mentation: Cleaner production starts with a holistic opti-mization of the companies production processes in mind.Technical as well as organizational processes are rese-arched, weak points identified and options for improve-ment generated. So the analysis deals equally with tech-nical and management problems. The documentation ofenvironmental effects and of the environmental policyof the company and of responsibilities is done with afocus on processes and the project, mostly also focusedprimarily on the weak points. For an environmental man-agement system the documentation has to includeenvironmentally relevant procedures for all departmentsof the company efficiently.

In addition, there are three more important differ-ences:

I In Ecoprofit, the companies define their environmentalpolicies. This is not the case in other Cleaner pro-duction projects. The same is true for the environmen-tal statement. For obtaining certification according toISO 14001, a written environmental policy must beprepared and published within the company. ForEMAS, an environmental statement must be availableto the public.

I In a Cleaner production project there is no formalqualification of internal auditors. The process of audit-ing the management system is introduced only duringthe building of the system. The auditing process isthe engine of further improvements to improve theeffectiveness and the efficiency of the environmentalmanagement system.

I In a Cleaner production project the environmentalreview is done from or together with a consultant. Inthe case of an environmental management system thefinal certification is done by an external certifier, forEMAS by one that is accredited officially.

So, additional steps from a Cleaner production projectfor the introduction of an environmental managementsystem are:

I involvement of all employeesI definition and description of responsibilitiesI congruency of environmental planning process with

management calender and budgetsI definition and description of proceduresI clear, transparent documentationI extension of areas under consideration (planning of

plants, purchasing, products, communication, training,measuring equipment, abnormal situations, correctivemeasures, environmental records, audits)

I review of the system, not only the program

The Austrian Federal Secretariate for Science, Trafficand the Arts subsidized the introduction of environmen-tal management system for 25 pilot companies in 1996[12]. In the evaluation of this action, company represen-


Table 3Matrix of the elements of a Cleaner production program and an environmental management system according to ISO 14001

CP Environmental Environmental Input/ Output Material Energy Legal EnvironmentalManager team and indicators flow analysis compliance program (options

ISO 14001 analysis audit and measures)

Environmental policy P/FReview of environmental effects F F FLegal requiremnts FObjectives and Targets PProgramme POrganization and responsibilities P/F P/FTraining PCommunication PDocumentation P P P P PProcedures PEmergencies PMeasurements P P P PCorrection and prevention P PRecords P/F P/F P/F P/F PAuditingEvaluation by top management P

P 5 prepared by a CP (Cleaner production) project.F 5 fulfilled (of course, this depends on the focus and the scope and the exact definition of the Cleaner production project, this table refers to CPas we understand it [2,4]).

tatives were interviewed for the project: this yielded sur-prising facts. On average, the project cost had a paybackof 14 months. Additional benefit was seen in thereduction of risks, optimization of the organization andimproved image. Minimization of risks means mainlythe reduction of uncertainty regarding legal affairs,development of a controlling instrument and preventionof abnormal operation. Improved organization means theopportunity to document the companies’ activities toprovide environmental information.

In addition, a main focus is to detect weak points inthe future more quickly and efficiently. In the course ofthe projects, in more than 40% of the companies techni-cal innovation was stimulated (changes in materials,recovery of exhaust heat, introduction of water basedpaints). For more than 60% of the consultants eco-audit-ing is more stimulation of innovation than a controlinstrument. The study concludes that this was becausemost of the consultants who were active in the investi-gated projects had Cleaner production experience. Theintroduction of environmental management systems fos-ters the dissemination of specific know-how, the gener-ation of this know-how however is attributed to Cleanerproduction activities.

Jurgens et al. [13] concluded from interviews with 13companies which participated in the EMAS scheme ofthe European Community, that eco-audits can consider-ably contribute to improving environmental protection incompanies by a better application of legal regulationsand important improvements concerning the organiza-tion of environmental aspects as for the field of accidentprevention. In addition to EMAS requirements, most

companies performed a flow analysis of their energy andmaterial input and output. Most companies revealed, thatthe exact analysis of the material and energy flowsentering and leaving the companies was a very importantstep during the work, which showed the amounts ofwaste and emissions, which were not previously known.

5. Advantages of introducing an environmentalmanagement system with a focus on Cleanerproduction

Basic elements of a successful environmental manage-ment system are:

I commitment of top managementI committed environmental policyI clear aimsI a dedicated project managerI an environmental team as a network covering all the

organization and acting as multipliersI immediate feedbackI increased room for actionI documentation of relevant dataI quick changeI information for everybody involvedI allocation of sufficient resources (time)

Analysis of the efficiency of the use of materials andenergy leads to an increased efficiency of the wholeenterprise. It yields a better use of materials and energy,and thus decreases the environmental impact and helpsto decrease cost. It also gives a sound basis for an


environmental management system. Existing manage-ment tools should be integrated to avoid parallel devel-opments.

Doing input/output analyses regularly yields animportant information and controlling tool. EMAS andISO 14001 are mainly focused on the auditing of themanagement system. So Cleaner production tools helpthe organization to understand and measure its waste,discharges and emissions. The standards and the regu-lation do not provide the organization with explicit toolsto do so. Without a regular analysis of the flows ofenergy and materials caused by a company it has no realpicture of its environmental relevance.

So we can go one step beyond a Cleaner productionproject towards a continuous improvement process todecrease the environmental effects of an organization byintroducing an environmental management system basedon Cleaner production. Cleaner production is focused onthe improvement of the level of material and energyflows reaching partly into the organization’s manage-ment system. Using it as a tool within environmentalmanagement guarantees, that the focus of the environ-mental management system really is on the importantenvironmental effects. ISO 14001 does not specify theinstruments used, Cleaner production can provide them.

References

[1] Enquetkomission, 1994. “Schutz des Menschen und der Uhrwelt”des Deutschen Bundestages Economical Verlag, Bonn, 1994.

[2] Baumhakl M, List D, Mooshammer B, Sage J, Schauer K. O¨ kop-rofit. Umweltamt der Stadt Graz, 1997.

[3] Fresner H, Schnitzer H. Die Vorbereitung auf O¨ ko-Audits in stei-rischen Industrie- und Gewerbebetrieben. VT-Newsletter, Insti-tute of Chemical Engineering, Graz University of Technology,1994.

[4] Fresner J, Kellerman J, Sebesta B, Schnitzer H. Ecoprofit–Styria–prepare. 2nd European Roundtable on Cleaner Production Pro-grams, Rotterdam, 1995.

[5] Scheck P. Evaluation of the results of the 13 Ecoprofit–Styria–prepare case studies. Diploma thesis, Institute for ChemicalEngineering, Graz University of Technology, 1997.

[6] Jackson S. ISO 14000, what you need to know. HydrocarbonProcessing 1997;4.

[7] Seidl J. Personal communication, 1996.[8] Umweltrecht, Kodex des o¨sterreichischen Rechtes, Orac-Verlag,

7 Auflage, 1996.[9] Block P. Entfesselte Mitarbeiter. Stuttgart: Scha¨ffer-Poeschel,

1997.[10] Widenmeyer H. Introducing eco management systems into Styr-

ian companies. 7th International Solid Waste Association Con-gress and Exhibition. Pacifico Yokohama, 27 October–1 Nov-ember 1996.

[11] Ferner H, Fresner J, Gelinek O, Schauer K. From ecoprofit to eco-audit. 3rd European Roundtable on Cleaner Production Programs,Kopenhagen, 1996.

[12] BMWVK. Oko Audit, Evaluierung der ITF-Pilotfo¨rderung. Linz:Oberosterreichische Umweltakademie, 1996.

[13] Jurgens G, Liedtke C, Rohn H. Zukunftsfa¨higes Unternehmen(2). Wuppertal Papers 1997;72(April).

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Cleaner production as a means for effective environmental management