Clean air - Miljøstyrelseneng.mst.dk/media/mst/69140/Clean air - Danish efforts 2003.pdf · Clean air – Danish efforts 3 Pure air is a human right, as are clean drink-ing water

Clean air – Danish effortsClean air – Danish efforts

Lakes are deprived of fish, the number of flora and

fauna species is falling, harvest yields are reduced,

disease and premature deaths prevail. These are some

of a range of harmful effects caused by air pollution.

Through targeted efforts, both at EU and UN level, we

have succeeded in reducing or solving a number of

these problems. The most recent achievement was the

adoption of the Gothenburg Protocol – a huge step

forward in our efforts to reduce air pollution all over

Europe. However, a number of problems remain to be

solved. Urban transport is still a source of danger to

human health. Emissions of sulphur dioxide from inter-

national shipping are still not regulated. Dioxin and

other dangerous compounds still threaten animals and

Man. The depletion of the ozone layer has not been

definitely curbed. And perhaps the largest problem: the

risk that greenhouse gas emissions will influence the

Earth's climate, is still unsolved. This leaflet gives an

outline of air pollution control efforts made in Denmark.

The leaflet is available free of charge at

Frontlinien

The Danish Ministry of the Environment

Phone: +45 32 66 02 00

[email protected]

www.frontlinien.dk

Strandgade 29 · DK-1401 Copenhagen K · Phone (+45) 32 66 01 00 · www.mst.dk/hompage/

514357_omsuk 30/01/03 15:24 Side 2

Publisher:

Danish Environmental Protection Agency29, StrandgadeDK-1401 Copenhagen KPhone: +45 32 66 01 00Fax: +45 32 66 04 [email protected]/homepage/

Year of publication: 2003

Title: Clean air – Danish efforts

Author: Jes Fenger, National Environmental Research Institute (NERI)

Editors: Jes Fenger, National Environmental Research Institute. Ulrik Torp and Bodil Harder, Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Edition closed: December 2002

Number of pages: 32

Format: A4

Circulation: 500, 1st issue, January 2003

ISBN: 87-7972-400-0

Layout: Rumfang

Photo editor: Mikkel Østergaard

Photos: Mikkel Østergaard, except page 6, 20 and 23: BAM

Printed by: Schultz

Paper: Galarie Silk Matt and Cyklus Print

Price: Free of charge

Available at: Frontlinien The Danish Ministry of the Environment Phone: +45 32 66 02 [email protected]

Quotation allowed provided the source is acknowledged

The leaflet is Swan-labelled.The printing house is ISO 14001 certified and registered under EMAS

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Clean air – Danish efforts

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Contents

3 Preface

4 A problem of increasing dimensions

7 From emissions to impacts

10 Danish environmental regulation

12 Danish energy policy

14 Sulphur and acidification

16 Nitrogen and eutrophication

18 Organic compounds and photochemical smog

20 Other hazardous compounds

22 Lead and other metals

24 Large and small particles

26 From the Geneva Convention to the Gothenburg Protocol and the NEC directive

28 The hole in the sky – the CFC gasses and the Montreal Protocol

30 Global Warming – the greenhouse gasses and the Climate Convention

32 Literature

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Clean air – Danish efforts 3

Pure air is a human right, as are clean drink-ing water and food. Polluted air is hazardousand has negative impacts not only on Man,but also on soil, water areas, plants and ani-mals and Man.

Unfortunately it is not possible to secure airthat is completely free of pollution. Humanactivities will always put pressure on our atmospheric environment to a larger orsmaller extent. But recent decades haveshown that it is possible to limit the pressuresignificantly.

Within the UN Economic Committee forEurope, UNECE, the agreement on theGothenburg Protocol is a large step towardslimitation of air pollution in the whole of Europe. The protocol will result in less disease and fewer premature deaths due topoor air quality. And it will benefit the faunaand flora that is today exposed to acidifica-tion and eutrophication.

The protocol is a good example of a modern,rational and economically efficient strategy.Clear-cut targets for the environmental im-provements expected have been set up. Theemissions will be reduced most where actionis cheapest and has the largest effect. Andseveral compounds are regulated at the sametime, to account for their comprehensive impact. Actions are taken in international co-operation and on a scientific basis.

On the occasion of the Danish ratification ofthe protocol in June 2002 the Ministry of theEnvironment publishes this leaflet in order to give a broad outline of the Danish and international efforts to combat air pollutionand present the state of our atmospheric environment. Although we have made greatefforts, not all problems are solved. We mustput greater resources into the investigation ofthe health aspect of particles – and especiallythe fine particles – in the air. But also otherpressures, e.g. nitrogen and dioxin, must bereduced.

In the global perspective we have made greatefforts to fully outphase the ozone depleting

Preface

compounds in Denmark, but internationallyDenmark has still an important role to play.

The greatest challenge we are facing todayis, however, the threat of climate changescaused by human activities. All observationsindicate that the global population – with itsemissions of greenhouse gasses – influencesthe global climate and has started a processwhose longsighted consequences we can onlyguess. The Danish Government has met this challenge with a very ambitious targetset out in the Kyoto Protocol under the UNClimate Convention. Even though we havecome very far in relation to a number of issues, the many different environmentalproblems presented in this pamphlet willprobably be in focus also in the years tocome.

Steen GadeDirector-GeneralDanish Environmental Protection Agency

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A problem of increasing dimensions

phenomenon with a geographical extensionof several thousand kilometres and a timehorizon of decades. A UN conference inStockholm in 1972 created political attention,and in 1979 the Geneva Convention ontransboundary air pollution was establishedand signed. As a result European sulphuremissions have – by use of cleaner fuels andflue gas purification at large combustionplants – been more than halved. The Danishemissions have even been cut down to aboutone tenth. Also emissions of nitrogen com-pounds and hydrocarbons that put pressureon the ecosystems have been reduced. InSweden with many sensitive areas, the loadedarea is now halved.

In the citiesIn step with – and partly because of – the reduction of the transboundary pollution, theair quality in the cities has in several waysbeen improved.

Today air pollution in many big cities is dominated by emissions from car traffic.And it is a complicated matter, because manydifferent compounds react mutually in theatmosphere, before they start to have impacts– either in the city or at long distances.

The most serious urban problem todayappears to be particles. The relations are notfully understood, but especially small parti-cles from diesel cars are thought to be dan-gerous. In Copenhagen the particles may result in hundreds of extra deaths per yearamong sensitive persons.

Research and international collaborationThe problem with air pollution used to besimple. Everybody could see the black smokethat came out of a low chimney – and theirnumber was so small that it did not becamea serious problem when the smoke was carried with the wind to other places. Nowthis has changed, because air pollution is dispersed at all geographical scales and therelation between emissions of contaminants,the resulting pollution of the air, and the im-pact of the pollution, are very complicated.

Effective management therefore requiresmonitoring and research. We must know the

Since the beginning of the 19th century theworld population has increased from aboutone to six billions. The energy consumptionhas increased even more. Together with in-creased agricultural production, this growthhas resulted in increasing air pollution withsignificant impacts.

The London smog with sulphur dioxideand soot was notorious for centuries, and itwas not before a catastrophic episode in 1952,when pollution was than 20 times higher andthere were several thousand extra deaths,that effective legislation was carried through.A corresponding – but less dramatic – devel-opment has been seen in Copenhagen.

Across all bordersTo begin with the problem was partly solvedby dispersing pollution from high stacks, butof course it did not disappear. Instead mostof the sulphur dioxide emitted in Denmarkwas carried with the wind to other countries,predominantly Sweden and Norway.

In this way the precipitation was acidified,resulting in ecological damages in large partsof Europe – e.g. deaths of fish in a numberof Swedish lakes. It had now become a

Clean air – Danish efforts44

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Growth in Danish population and energy consumptionDuring the 20th century the Danish population more than doubled, from below 2.5million to more than five million inhabitants. This has resulted in increasing energyconsumption and more intensive agriculture and, thus, increasing pressure on the environment.The population is still slowly increasing, mainly due to immigration, but the energyconsumption is stabilised and will be reduced.The great challenge of the future – both nationally and globally – is to decouple devel-opment and environmental pressure: to establish "sustainable development".

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causes of pollution and how we can solve theproblems in the cheapest and most efficientway. Interplay of many technical disciplinesis required.

It is necessary to follow the developmentto detect unfortunate tendencies and to in-vestigate whether regulatory measures havehad the expected impact. And these activitiesmust be carried out by international co-operation. If these conditions are fulfilled itwill be possible directly to reduce the im-pact.

When the NEC Directive on nationalemission ceilings in Europe was acceded inthe EU in October 2001 and the Gothen-burg Protocol in December 1999, bindinglimits for permitted levels of air pollutionfrom the individual countries were deter-mined for the first time.

It has been estimated that if the Gothen-burg Protocol is fully implemented, the acidified areas in Europe will be reduced by

Air pollution used to be a "here and now" problem. At the fireplace in a house in the Iron Age, the qualityof the air could be worse than in a street in a moderncity. But when the fire was out, the smoke disappearedand the surroundings were not affected any further.Later the problems increased in scale – both geo-graphically and in time. Today emissions from a Dan-ish power plant can contribute to the acidification of a Swedish lake and be part of the reason why anatoll on the other side of the globe will be submersedin some hundred years. Therefore today's struggleagainst air pollution is not merely a local matter. It isa question of distribution of burdens between the individual nations and our responsibility towards thecoming generations.

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or gas are used in the energy sector, the un-avoidable end product in the combustionprocess is the gas carbon dioxide. Togetherwith other greenhouse gasses carbon dioxideis emitted in so large amounts and has so longlifetimes in the atmosphere that the concen-tration increases globally. This changes theenergy balance in the atmosphere and thusposes threats of climate changes that can affect the conditions for both humans andnature on the entire globe.

New challengesScientific investigations and international co-operation have become even more im-portant, now that environmental problemshave been moved to a global scale with a timehorizon of several hundred years. Here modelcalculations play a decisive role. They notonly give an overview of all the data that hasbeen collected in the real world. One canalso ask questions like: "What would happenif...?" The answer is not always pleasant.

The content of the leafletThe leaflet describes first a few basics in theabatement of air pollution. Then a few con-crete problems that lead up to the Gothen-burg Protocol, and EU's national ceilings forlimitation of transboundary air pollution inEurope are addressed. Finally Danish effortsrelating to the global problems with deple-tion of the ozone layer and the anthropogenicclimate changes are briefly described.

Information to the readerEmissions of air pollution are most often indicated as weight (e.g. tons per year).Concentration in the air is expressed in µg(one millionth gram) per cubic meter.

85%, the eutrophied areas by 65%, and areassuffering from ozone pressures by 50%. It isfurther expected that the impact on humanhealth will be significantly reduced. However,emissions of atmospheric pollutants from international shipping are still not undercontrol. In step with reductions of emissionsfrom landbased sources, emissions of i.a. sulphur dioxide from the shipping trade willbecome increasingly important.

Problems on a global scaleIn the industrialised world the problems withtransboundary air pollution is recognised,and the technological possibilities for solvingthem are available, although there is still along way to go. In the developing countriesand in the former communist countries, theeconomic growth still causes serious environ-mental damage. However, it is probably onlya question of time and use of existing mod-ern technology before the problems will besolved.

What is more serious is that global growthhas moved the problems one level up, interms of both time and geographical exten-sion. Now it is no longer a question of com-pounds that can be removed by using otherfuels and raw materials or by installing filterson stacks and exhaust pipes. When coal, oil

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From emissions to impacts

Air pollution may create a number of envi-ronmental problems: poor living conditionsfor animals and plants, health problems withpremature deaths among humans, materialdisintegration and climate changes.

Many compounds have the same impacts,and many sources emit the same compounds.Any reduction of pollution emissions willthus have a series of advantages. A reductionof emissions of sulphur dioxide will thuslimit the ecological damages, the degradation

of materials and the pressure on humanhealth. It is more complicated for nitrogenoxide, which takes part in a series of chemi-cal processes in the atmosphere.

A further complication is that different areas are not equally sensitive. In this con-nection the concept critical load is defined.Pollution levels below the critical load areexpected not to cause significant impacts onnature and the environment.

The critical load is not the same for dif-

The individual compounds come frommany sources and have many different impacts that overlap and interact. Com-pounds with a lifetime in the atmosphereof a few days can be dispersed more than1000 km. A reduction of the emissionscan limit different impacts, but detailedmapping is necessary, when an effectiveabatement strategy is planned.

Acidification:Damage to forests, soil, fish

and buildings

NH3

NOX

SO2

Energy

Agriculture

Transport

Households Industry

CO

VOCs

CH4

NOx

CO

VOCs

PM

NH3

NOX

NOx SO2

Climate change: Drought, flooding, storms

and agricultural changes etc.

Trophospheric Ozone:Health impacts and reduced crop yields

Eutrophication:Loss of fish and

biodiversity

Air quality in cities:health Impacts

Material damage

CO2

CH4

N2O

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The significance of long-range transportOnly a minor part of the sulphur emitted will be deposited in the same country. The tableshows how much sulphur is emitted in different countries, further the amount that is de-posited in the country itself, and finally the total amount that is deposited in the country.

Emissions Deposited Total depositionnationally in country

Denmark 54 7 35Sweden 34 12 123Norway 15 5 76United Kingdom 813 263 333Germany 705 35 389Belgium 117 17 44(Rounded values for 1997 in 1000 t.) (Data from EMEP)

A complex phenomenonAir pollution starts with an activity thatleads to emissions of chemical com-pounds. They are dispersed and possiblytransformed in the atmosphere, beforethey are finally deposited and causeharmful impacts. The relations betweenthe individual steps are often compli-cated. That must be taken into account in the planning of technically and eco-nomically efficient abatement measures.

ferent areas, but depends on vegetation, soil,climate etc. A calcareous soil in Denmarkcan, thus, be more robust than sensitive natural areas in e.g. Norway and Sweden.

Pollution sourcesAir pollution is mainly caused by combus-tion, evaporation or biological processes.

Pollution from combustion Any combustion forms new chemical com-pounds. The main constituent of the fuel,carbon, reacts with atmospheric oxygen andforms carbon dioxide (CO2). Some of theatmospheric nitrogen (N2) "burns" andforms nitrogen oxide (NOx). Combustioncan further be incomplete, leading to forma-

tion of carbon monoxide (CO), soot/par-ticles, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)and different volatile organic compounds(VOC). Finally most fuels contain impurities.Most important is the content of sulphur incoal and oil that burns to sulphur dioxide(SO2). But also incombustible constituentsthat may e.g. contain heavy metals are im-portant.

Pollution by evaporationVolatile fuels (e.g. petrol) can be spilled orevaporate during transport, filling and run-ning. Many processes in industry and crafts(e.g. surface treatment with paint) evaporateorganic compounds.

Pollution from biological processes Biologically related air pollution often arisesfrom agriculture, where storing and use ofmanure and commercial fertilisers cause formation and emissions of ammonia (NH3),methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).Methane is further formed by anoxic fer-mentation in the digestive system of domes-tic animals, especially ruminants, e.g. cows.

Methane and nitrous oxide are alsoformed by biological processes in wetlands.Human influence in the form of changes ofland use can therefore change emissions.The same applies to evaporation of organiccompounds from vegetation – especiallyconiferous. The border between natural andanthropogenic emissions of pollution is, thus,not clear-cut.

Long-range transport of air pollutionThe amount of air pollution that is emitted ina given country depends upon the size of thecountry, its degree of industrialisation, its en-ergy sources and many other parameters.But it is absolutely not the same amount thatis deposited. The possibility that contami-nants are carried by the wind means thatmeteorological conditions are decisive. Asappears from the table, a predominantlywesterly wind means that countries like Norway and Sweden receive much more air pollution than they emit. The oppositeapplies for UK, Belgium and Germany. In

Policy

Activity

Emissions

Dispersion

Deposition

Impacts

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In a street canyon pollutionfrom cars is only dispersedwith great difficulty, and highlevels can build up. At anopen motorway the sameemission of contaminants israpidly dispersed and thuscauses much lower local con-centrations. But all emissionspollute at longer distances.

all cases only a minor amount of the emittedpollution is deposited in the country itself.

In this game Denmark is for various rea-sons fortunate. The country's distribution onminor islands means that pollution sourcesare never located as closely as in foreignmegacities or industrial areas. And Denmarkhas practically no strongly polluting industry.A flat landscape and much wind allow effec-tive dispersion, and because of our predomi-nantly westerly wind in combination with thelarger cities being situated on east coasts,large parts of the pollution are blown out ofthe country. That, however, does not ex-clude that pollution can arise during specialmeteorological conditions. Also local urbanareas can be strongly polluted – especially incase of heavy traffic.

A complex phenomenonAll these conditions demonstrate that a sim-ple percentage reduction of national emis-sions is neither fair nor economically effec-tive.

Although air pollution always starts withemissions of substances, normally much happens before the unwanted effects appear.

During dispersion the compounds can betransformed before they are deposited onsoil and plants or inhaled by humans. Some-times it is only after the compound haspassed a food chain that the harmful effectsappear.

Further a series of compounds are notonly dispersed with the air, but also throughother paths. Eutrophication, with resultingoxygen deficiency, is thus caused both bywashing out of nutrients from agricultureand by deposition of nitrogen compoundsfrom the air. For the inner waters the con-taminants are also carried in the water.

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Danish environmental regulation

Already in the late 1960's air pollution with sulphurdioxide was recognised as air pollution, which had tobe limited, if only for health reasons. The sulphurcontent of fuel oils was therefore regulated in 1972.

The Environmental Protection ActWith the Environmental Protection Act in 1974 theauthorities were empowered to restrict i.e. emissionsto the air from about 7,000 polluting industries. Together with guidelines on limitation of air pollutionthe Environmental Protection Act was an efficient in-strument to reduce the local environment and healthrisks presented by industry. The guidelines and theEnvironmental Protection Act have been revised several times, and in recent years these direct regula-tory measures have been supplemented with economicmanagement tools and optional arrangements, e.g.environmental labelling and agreements on energyand environmental management.

The Danish breakthrough in the regulation ofemissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide camein 1982, when the Acidification Committee was established. Both in Scandinavia and in EEC it was at that time recognised that acidification in sensitiveareas could cause significant damages to soil andecosystems. The Committee was to investigate howthe Geneva Convention on transboundary air pollu-tion could be fulfilled, and further, evaluate the needto limit emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide and the technical and economical possibilitiesof doing so.

The work of the committee was followed up by a reduction of emissions from Danish power plants.The power plants' emissions of sulphur dioxide arelimited by flue gas desulphurisation, whereas emis-sions of nitrogen oxide can be reduced with different

technologies. The reduction of emissions from thepower plants is continuously strengthened, and todaycarbon-fuelled power plants operate without flue gasdesulphurisation, and only very few power plants donot control emissions of nitrogen oxides. Regulationof emissions from power plants is one of the mostimportant tools in Danish efforts to fulfil our obliga-tions under the Geneva Convention.

Other important elements in the improvement ofthe air quality are the Ministry of the Environment'scurrent strengthening of the regulations on sulphurcontent in both oil and coal products, as well as therecent taxes on the sulphur content in fuel and powerplant emissions of sulphur dioxide.

DioxinA serious accident at a factory in Seveso in NorthernItaly in 1976 released large amounts of dioxin to thesurroundings. Shortly afterwards damages appearedon vegetation, animals and humans. Immediately theworld's population realised the tremendous toxicity of dioxin. After the accident attention focused on thesources of dioxin, and major concern was directed towards incineration. The Danish EnvironmentalProtection Agency reacted by closing a number of minor plants without flue gas purification and bytightening the requirements for construction and operation and for purification at the remaining plants.Recently the EU has adopted very strict limits to permissible emissions of dioxin from utilities, and inDenmark similar requirements have been imposed onDanish industries.

Heavy metalsDesulphurisation at power plants and purification offlue gas from incineration plants have together withrules in the air pollution control guidelines reducedemissions of heavy metals, e. g. lead, cadmium,nickel, copper and mercury. In Denmark environ-mental problems with heavy metals are not as big asin many other countries.

TransportWithin the transport sector Denmark and the EUhave taken early action to regulate emissions to theair. During the 1970's increasing awareness arose ofthe health impact on the nervous system as a conse-quence of the steadily increasing content of lead inair. There was no doubt that the dominant sourcewas the lead content of petrol, and in 1978 the firstof many EU regulations on lead in petrol appeared.

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Action in the Ministry of the Environment to control air pollution.

Air pollutantsSulphur dioxide, SO2Lead, PbNitrogen dioxide, NO2Carbon monoxide, COVolatile hydrocarbons, VOC´sDioxinsParticles

The level is acceptableNot quite acceptable, more should be doneNot acceptable, more shall be done

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:46 Side 10

guidelines setting out limit values for the content ofsulphur dioxide and dust. The guidelines served toimplement EU directives in Denmark. Later limit values for nitrogen dioxide and ozone were intro-duced.

In 1996 the EU introduced a new concept forevaluating and managing air quality by adopting aframework directive to be implemented by daughterdirectives. To date directives have been adopted forthe atmospheric content of sulphur dioxide, nitrogenoxides, particles, lead, benzene, carbon monoxide andozone. A directive on the atmospheric content of ar-senic, cadmium, nickel and PAH is being drawn up.Limit values and the Danish levels are mentioned inthe following sections.

With the phasing out of the lead content in petrolthe exhaust gasses from cars no longer contributed an important part of the air pollution, which especiallyhit the urban population. In 1990 Denmark intro-duced strengthened requirements to the exhaust fromcars: all new cars should be fitted with catalytic con-verters, and in 1993 a similar regulation was adoptedby the EU, which Denmark has since applied. Withthe strengthened requirements emissions of nitrogenoxide, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide from carshave been reduced in step with the renewal of the carpark with catalytic converters. This has to a large extent been the reason why the limit values for thenitrogen oxide levels in the air have by and largebeen observed and are expected to be so in the future.

ParticlesOne of the problems with air pollution that wasrecognised very early was emissions of dust from in-cineration plants, power plants and industrial activi-ties. From 1974 air quality guidelines have laid downlimits to these emissions, and they are today limitedas far as technically possible by means of filters.Health problems related to particles in the air aretherefore solely due to emissions from vehicles, espe-cially diesel cars. The Ministry of the Environmenthas initiated an extensive investigation of how thisproblem is solved most efficiently.

Monitoring of air pollutionMonitoring of the air qualityThe Ministry of the Environment's efforts also in-clude surveillance of the atmospheric content of manycompounds, e.g. SO2, NO2, lead, carbon monoxideand ozone. Measurements are carried out both incities and in the countryside. They give a good im-pression of the exposure of the population to air pollution and how much originates in other countries.A significant supplement to the measurement ismodel simulations, which can give important infor-mation on the possible effects of new interventions to control the pollution level. The calculations canalso give a more detailed picture of the geographicaldistribution of the pollution.

Limit values for air qualityMonitoring of air quality does not in itself indicatewhether the pollution level is satisfactory or not. Onlywhen the measurements are compared with healthstandards can the results be evaluated. In March1983 the Ministry of the Environment issued its first


Most important Danish legislation on air pollution control:

September 6, 1972: Limits to sulphur in oil

June 13, 1973: Environmental Protection Act entering on force in 1974 provides for environmental approval and reduction of pollution from industrialenterprises.

June 21, 1977: Regulation of lead in petrol.

March 24, 1983: Limit values for atmospherric contents of sulphur dioxide and particulates.

May 23, 1984: Reduction of sulphur dioxide from power plants.

March 12, 1987: Limit values for atmospheric contents of nitrogen dioxide.

December 10, 1987: Regulation of approved waste incineration plants.

April 5, 1989: Reduction of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from power plants.

October 1, 1990: Requirement for catalytic converters in new private cars.

October 15, 1990: Reduction of emissions of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particles from large combustion plants.

January 4, 1991: Regulation of waste incineration plants.

March 11, 1994: Limit values for atmospheric contents of ozone.

September 14, 1998: Reduction of air pollution from tractors, contractors' equipment etc.

September 17, 1998: Tax on sulphur.

July 9, 2001: Limit values for atmospheric contents of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen oxides, lead and particulates.

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Danish energy policy

The major cause of emissions of air pollu-tants in Denmark is the use of fossils fuels –i.e. of coal, oil and gas products. Thereforethe emissions are closely related to the national energy policy that has been imple-mented in a series of action plans.

From coal to oil and back to coalTraditionally coal has been the dominatingsource of energy in Denmark, but in theyears after the second world war oil playedan increasing role and contributed in the be-ginning of the 1970's about 90%. With theenergy crisis in 1973 and the dramaticallyincreasing oil prices it became evident thatDenmark must be made less vulnerable tochanges in supply security and energy prices.In the first energy plan from 1976 (EnergyPolicy 1976) the main objective was to re-duce our dependence on oil, to direct thesupply towards natural gas and nuclearpower, but also to use coal and renewableenergy. The immediate result was a changeto coal in the electricity production and

application of natural gas and renewable re-sources. The introduction of nuclear powerwas postponed. At the same time the increasein energy consumption was slowed down bymeans of energy saving campaigns and eco-nomic instruments.

Environmental issues played a modestrole, and an investigation in 1980 concludedthat even with an increase in coal consump-tion by a factor of five from 1975 to 1989the problems could be handled. The questionof climate changes was not addressed at all.

Danish gas and oilAn energy plan in 1981 was based on do-mestic production of gas and oil and con-tinued efforts to save energy, i.a. for spaceheating, including an extension of districtheating based on combined power-heat pro-duction. Still, however, the main objectiveswere supply security and economic efficiency.

In 1985, after years of discussion, theDanish Parliament definitively decided to remove nuclear power from Danish energy

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Efficient energy productionand energy savings are essen-tial elements in the abate-ment of air pollution. Thetransport sector is a criticalarea in Danish environmentand energy policy. Attemptsto limit car traffic by increas-ing use of public means oftransport and bicycles haveso far had modest success.

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The threat of climate changesThe most recent official energy plan, Energy21 from 1996, focuses on emissions of car-bon dioxide and maintains the goal of a 20%reduction in 2005. At the same time theconcept ecological footprint was introduced inthe debate, and a stabilisation of the atmos-pheric concentration of carbon dioxide of450 ppm was recommended. By this it wasrecognised that much more extensive reduc-tions of carbon dioxide would be necessary.A decrease in the total energy consumptionof about 17% up to 2030 is assumed. At thesame time an almost complete phase-out ofcoal, a nearly unchanged use of oil and gasand a large increase in renewable energysources were assumed. More than half of theelectricity and district heat production shallbe based on renewable energy in 2030.

The environmental target for the develop-ment in the energy sector is dominated bythe national climate commitments under theKyoto Protocol. The declared goal thereforefocuses on reduction of emissions of carbondioxide. It is obvious, however, that by andlarge any reduction in the use of fossil fuelswill result in a reduction of emissions of aseries of other more direct air pollutants –notably sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide andhydrocarbons.

policy. In the same year an internationalconference on greenhouse effect, climatechange and ecosystems created a politicalunderstanding that emissions of carbon dioxide could be the overwhelming problemof the future.

The Brundtland Report and whatfollowedOn April 27th 1987, the Brundtland Com-mission published its report Our CommonFuture. Earlier technological developmentwas seen as a threat to the environment andhad been discussed in terms of limits togrowth. Now development was seen as anecessary prerequisite in the fight againstpoverty and environmental degradation. Itshould, however, be sustainable. As a pre-liminary goal it was proposed that energyconsumption per capita in the industrialisedcountries should be halved within 40 years(i.e. before 2027), thus enabling a 30% in-crease in the developing countries.

The environment in focusAs a direct consequence of the BrundtlandReport the Energy 2000 Action Plan for Sustainable Development was published in1990. Now the environment was seriouslyset in focus. The energy consumption, as itwas in 1988, should be reduced by nearly15% before 2005, and emissions of carbondioxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxideby 20, 60 and 50% respectively. Energy2000, however, did not address the transportsector, as it was recognised that the sectorwas facing a necessary and unavoidable de-velopment, and, therefore, a specific actionplan was drawn up: the government's trans-port plan of action for environment and development. The energy consumption andemissions of carbon dioxide should only bestabilised before 2005 and then reduced by25% before 2030. As appeared later, eventhis target has not been easy to reach. Emis-sions of nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbonshould be reduced by 40% before 2000, by60% before 2010 and further up to 2030.Emissions of particles should be halved be-fore 2010 and be further reduced up to2030.


From the end of 1950's andup to 1970 the Danish grossenergy consumption morethan doubled. since then ithas by and large been sta-bilised, although the mix ofenergy sources has changeddrastically. Since 1980 theproduction of renewable energy has more than tripled.The largest increase has beenfor wind power.

The gross domestic producthas increased much morethan the energy consump-tion. The reason is partly achange towards less energyconsuming activities, but alsomore efficient production ofelectricity and district heat-ing, with strongly increaseduse of combined power andheat production (about adoubling since 1980). In addi-tion, energy is used more efficiently by insulation ofbuildings, more effective domestic appliances etc.

By and large we have man-aged to decouple economicgrowth and the ensuing wel-fare from the increase in energy production and the related pollution.

(Source: Danish Energy Agency)

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■ Natural gas ■ Renewable energy ■ Coal and coke ■ Oil

Energy consumption and economic growth

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:47 Side 13


Sulphur and acidification

Sulphur dioxide is together with soot theclassical urban pollution, which causes respi-ratory trouble, soiling and material disinte-gration. Sulphur pollution arises mainly be-cause organic materials, comprising both fossil fuels and bio fuels, contain sulphur.During combustion the sulphur is oxidisedto sulphur dioxide (SO2). In the atmosphereit is further transformed to sulphate (SO4

-2)

that is deposited either as salts or as sulphuricacid and is a significant reason why precipi-tation polluted with sulphur becomes acid.

Until the early 1970's it was the generalpolitical assumption that sulphur pollutionwas a local problem and could be solved bycleaner fuels in residential furnaces and highstacks dispersing the pollution from powerplants. It was, however, a short-sighted solu-tion. In June 1981 Statens Naturvådsverk(Swedish Environmental Protection Agency)published a report where the problem wasspelled out as shown in the box.

At that time 18,000 of Sweden's 85,000large lakes were acidified and half of them to a degree that seriously harmed fish life.The Swedish area where the critical load foracidification is exceeded is now more thanhalved, from above 80% to below 40%.

Danish emissionsIn Denmark the sulphur content in oil hasbeen regulated since 1972 and SO2 emis-sions from power plants and combinedpower-heating plants since 1984. The ruleshave been tightened several times, and taxes

1414

Emissions of sulphur dioxideDanish emissions of sulphur dioxide peaked around1970 and have since been reduced to around 1/10.The pattern is by and large the same as for Europe asa whole.

(Sources: EMEP, Risø, NERI)

Concentrations of sulphur dioxideThe reduction of emissions of sulphur has been acontributing factor for the heavy decrease of con-centrations in Danish cities. Around 1970 the yearlyaverage in Copenhagen was about 80 µg/m3. Today itis below 5 µg/m3. For comparison, the EU limit valueis 20 µg/m3.

(Source: NERI)

”That the fish have died in thousands oflakes is something we have known for manyyears. But not until recently have we beenable to establish that drinking water fromsprings and wells may, in consequence ofacidification, contain sufficient amounts oftoxic heavy metals to be a threat to health.That forest trees on acidified land may begin to show slower growth is so far only a suspicion – it will be at least another twodecades before we know for certain”

200

300

400

500

600

700

0

20

40

60

80

1990 200019801970

0

100

1980 19001970196019501940 2000

SO2 emissions, 1000 t/year

SO2 concentration, µg/m3

■ Denmark ■ Europe/100

”

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:47 Side 14

high peak values can appear. In the 19thcentury the average concentration of sulphurdioxide in the centre of Copenhagen musthave been nearly 100 µg/m3 during the win-ter. When measurements proper were initi-ated in the beginning of the 1960's it wasabout 80 µg/m3. The impacts can still beseen in the form of deteriorated sandstonemonuments and corroded statues. Today the levels of sulphur dioxide are less than 5µg/m3 and thus significantly below both cur-rent and planned limit values.

A corresponding development has beenseen in other cities in Denmark and abroad,caused by several conditions: less sulphur in fuel oil and coal, regulation of emissionsfrom power plants, and increased use of natural gas that does not contain sulphur. A contributing factor is increasing use of dis-trict heating often based on combined powerand heat production in large plants with highstacks and flue gas desulphurization.

on sulphur were introduced in 1998. By useof cleaner fuels and desulphurisation of fluegas in power plants it has been possible toreduce Danish emissions of sulphur dioxidefrom nearly 600,000 tons per year to below50,000 tons. Thus the target set for 2010 inthe ECE and EU agreements (55,000 tons)is already achieved.

To this must, however, be added a signifi-cant, but not yet regulated contribution fromshipping in the Danish waters. In 1990 to2000 it was 133,000 tons per year and thusmore than twice the contribution from land-based Danish sources. This contribution,however, is of minor importance for the airquality in urban areas, since ferries usecleaner fuel in harbours.

Sulphur dioxide in Danish citiesEfforts to reduce airborne sulphur pollutionhave contributed significantly to a reductionin local levels. It does not exclude, however,that under special meteorological conditions


Extensive damages to ecolog-ical systems focus attentionon transboundary sulphurpollution. The phenomenon,however, is complicated, andwith decreasing emissions ofsulphur the largest acidifyingcontribution today comesfrom nitrogen. Also pollutionwith ozone can be important.The recent years' growing occurrence of the "red" Norway Spruce in Denmarkmay be related to climatechange.

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:47 Side 15


Nitrogen and eutrophication

1616

Air pollution with nitrogencompounds contributes toeutrophication of the aquaticenvironment. This can resultin extensive oxygen deficiencyand fish deaths. For the total inner waters aroundDenmark about 1/4 of thebio-available nitrogen comesvia the air. Also for naturalecosystems, where thespecies are adjusted to a nutrient-poor environment,pollution with nitrogen compounds may change thecomposition of the speciesand reduce their number.

Air pollution with nitrogen compounds ismore complicated than sulphur pollution.Like sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide(NO2) immediately irritates the respiratorysystem and harms vegetation. Furthermore,NO2 can be oxidised and contribute to acid-ification. However, NO2 can under the influ-ence of sunlight react with hydrocarbons and form photochemical oxidants, of whichozone (described in the following section) isthe most important.

Finally, nitrogen has a fertilising effect.Air pollution with nitrogen compoundstherefore contributes to the eutrophicationthat puts pressure on sensitive nature. Alsothe deposition of nitrogen to inner Danishwaters is a contributing cause of oxygen deficiency.

Through chemical processes in the soilammonia can liberate hydrogen ions and,thus, contribute to acidification.

Formation and emissions of nitrogen oxidesAs was the case with sulphur dioxide, pollu-tion with nitrogen dioxide is mainly due to

combustion – partly because the fuels con-tain nitrogen compounds. But also nitrogenin the combustion air is oxidised – first intonitrogen monoxide (NO) and later in the atmosphere into NO2, which is the actualharmful compound.

Danish emissions of nitrogen oxide ex-pressed as NO2 increased to about 300,000tons per year in the middle of the 1980's. It then remained nearly constant until themiddle of the 1990's, but is now reduced toabout 200,000 tons per year. The reason hasmainly been installation of low-NOx burnersand de-NOx equipment in power plants anddistrict heating plants. Increasing use of catalytic converters in cars has at the sametime more than counteracted the increase in traffic. Emissions today, however, are stilllarger than the EU and ECE targets for2010 of 127,000 tons a year.

Nitrogen dioxide in Danish citiesIn the last decade, the yearly average of nitrogen dioxide in Danish cities has alsofallen, although not as fast as the emissions.In Copenhagen, thus, from about 50 to 40

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:47 Side 16

µg/m3. This corresponds to the present EUlimit value, whereas the level envisaged is 30 µg/m3. The reason why the decrease hasnot yet been larger is, partly, that the NO2level depends upon the occurrence of ozonein the air.

AmmoniaNitrogen is also present in the form of am-monia (NH3) – a gas that is i.a. formed inbacterial decomposition of organic material.Earlier ammonia was only discussed in con-nection with odour problems, although infact it is not the ammonia, but a series ofdegradation products that cause the greatestnuisances. In Denmark emissions of ammo-nia are almost exclusively due to agriculture– in particular evaporation in connectionwith application of nitrogen fertilisers (in-cluding manure). Only 2% are due to traffic.

In agriculture nitrogen in different formsof fertilisers and atmospheric deposition isadded to the soil. In return, nitrogen is re-moved with crops and animal products. Thenitrogen surplus constitutes the environmen-tal problem proper. This includes the loss ofnitrogen in the form of emissions of ammo-nia to the atmosphere, now in the order of100,000 tons per year. It has been reducedby about 30% since 1985 i.a. by applicationof other foodstuffs, by sealing manure con-tainers and by using dragging tubes in thedistribution of the manure.

Further, in 2000-2001 a new ammoniaaction plan to limit the evaporation wasadopted. It is expected that Denmark will beable to reach the EU and ECE target foremissions of ammonia in 2010 (39,000 tons)as a result of i.a. the Action Plan for theAquatic Environment II.

Exceedance of critical loadsIn Denmark the total area where the criticalload is exceeded is only very modest, but itincludes agricultural land, cities etc. Of thenatural area proper, which constitutes 15-20%, still about half is loaded above the criti-cal limit of eutrophication load. In recentyears a minor reduction seems to have occurred, but more exact inventories havenot been drawn up.


Emissions of nitrogen oxides and ammoniaDanish emissions of nitrogenoxide peaked in the late1980's, and have now fallenby about 30%. According torecent inventories emissionsof ammonia have fallen byabout 30% since 1985.

(Sources: Risø and NERI)

NO2 in urban and rural airThe concentration of NO2in Danish air has also beenreduced, but not as fast asemissions.

(Source: NERI)

Total acidifying emissionsSulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and ammonia all havean acidifying effect. The emis-sions can be expressed with a common unit: acid equiva-lents. The sum has fallen in Denmark by about 40% in the recent decade, and ammonia is now dominating.This, however, does not givea direct impression of the actual load, which is stronglyinfluenced by transboundarypollution with a significantcontribution from sulphur.

(Source: NERI)

0

400

300

200

100

1970 1980 1990 2000

Emissions, 1000 t/year■ NOx ■ NH3

0

80

60

40

20

1970 1980 1990 2000

NO2, concententration, µg/m3

■ Copenhagen ■ Aalborg ■ Lille Valby

1990 1995 2000

Acid equivalents, 106 mol/year

0

5

10

15

20

25■ NH3 ■ NOx ■ SO2

39%

38%

54%

39%

7%

34%

28%

31%

30%

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:47 Side 17


Organic compounds – and photochemical smog

Volatile hydrocarbons (Volatile OrganicCompounds, VOC) are organic compoundswhich are of great significance to the im-pacts on health and the environment causedby air pollution. They can contribute to theformation of photochemical air pollution,give rise to odour nuisances or simply behazardous. Usually a distinction is made be-tween methane (CH4) and the other volatilehydrocarbons (NMVOC, non-methaneVOC). Methane is a greenhouse gas, but ischemically not particularly active. It there-fore plays a minor role as direct pollution.Non-volatile hydrocarbons can, however,also affect health, as particles or adsorbed tothe surface of particles.

Formation and emissions of hydrocarbonsVOC`s have many sources: evaporation offuels, incomplete combustion, releases in industrial processes, use of organic solventsetc. Danish emissions have been largely con-stant at well over 200,000 tons per year from1985 to 1990. It was then reduced to less

than 15,000 tons per year in 2000, mainlybecause of the introduction of 3-way catalyticconverters in petrol cars and reduced use of organic solvents. Both the EU's and theEEC's emission ceiling for 2010 is 85,000tons per year, which – in view of the devel-opment – should be possible to achieve.

OzoneOzone (O3) is a reactive form of oxygen(O2), in which the molecules have threeatoms instead of two. In relation to the envi-ronment, ozone plays two different roles: Inthe stratosphere it forms the so-called ozonelayer that shields against short wave UV-radiation. At low altitude, on the other hand,it is a contaminant that attacks respiratorysystems, certain materials and vegetation.

Due to its reactivity ozone can influencethe mucous membranes in the eye and in therespiratory system. Especially persons withrespiratory diseases are sensitive and will atelevated levels experience an aggravatedhealth condition.

As an air pollutant ozone is not a com-

1818

Ozone load measured at forest stationsOzone load on vegetation is measured as AOT (Accumulated exposure over aThreshold) which is a product of the time in which the levels exceed a criticallevel, e.g. 40 ppb, and this exceedance. The diagram shows AOT40 values meas-ured at Ulborg and Frederiksborg forest stations. It appears that Ulborg situatedto the west is generally exposed to the largest load, that it is frequently above the10,000 ppb x hours a year, which is considered a critical level. For many years thissituation has remained fairly stable. (ppb is parts per billion) (Source: NERI)

0

200

150

100

50

1985 1990 1995 2000

250

NMVOC, kton/year

■ Total ■ Contribution from road traffic ■ Contribution from solvents

0

20

15

10

5

1985 1990 1995 2000

25

AOT values, 1000 ppb x hours■ Ulborg ■ Frederiksborg

Emissions of hydrocarbonsDanish emissions of hydrocarbons have been reduced by about 25% since 1985.

(Source: NERI)

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:47 Side 18

in Copenhagen are generally lowest on week-days, when the traffic is most dense, andpollutants (especially nitrous oxide) consumeozone.

Economic evaluations of damage In Denmark no detailed calculations havebeen made of the negative economic impactof ozone on the agricultural sector in theform of reduced crop yield. But an estimateof damages on wheat, grass and productionforest is DKK 0.5 to 2 billion (Euro 65-260 million) per year. This is in agreementwith similar Swedish estimates. Such figuresmust, however, be considered with cautionin a world with overproduction and eco-nomically subsidised agriculture. It has neverbeen attempted to evaluate the economic impact on natural vegetation and health inDenmark.

pound that is emitted, but a so-called second-ary pollution – something that is formedfrom other, primary pollutants. The primarypollutants are nitrogen oxides and hydrocar-bons that under the influence of sunlight react and form of series of so-called photo-chemical oxidants. Ozone is the most impor-tant.

In Southern Europe photochemical airpollution (photochemical smog) is often anurban phenomenon generated by car traffic.In the cities in Northern Europe, however,decomposition of ozone dominates as a con-sequence of emissions of NO from cars, andthe levels are generally lower than in thecountryside. Here the highest concentrationsappear in the summer and at south easterlywind. The reason is that during high-pres-sure episodes in Eastern and Central Europehigh ozone concentrations build up and aretransported to Denmark.

Consequently, it is not possible for Denmark to control ozone levels by nationalreductions of emissions. Ironically, the levels


Volatile organic compoundscan under the influence ofsunlight react with nitrogenoxide and form ozone, themost important element ofthe so-called photochemicalair pollution. Ozone is harm-ful for the respiratory systemand for vegetation. In Danishcities the concentration isgenerally low, but in ruralareas elevated concentrationsresult in loss of crop yield.

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:48 Side 19


Other hazardous compounds

A series of organic compounds are hazardousin themselves. By measurements and calcula-tions of emissions, the permissible load ofthese compounds in the atmospheric envi-ronment is regulated when plants are ap-proved. In recent years a few compoundshave, however, attracted special interest.

DioxinsThe so-called dioxins comprise 210 closelyrelated polychlorinated dibenzodioxines(PCDD) and furanes (PCDF). Their trans-port in the environment is complicated. The main source is combustion, typically in-cineration of material containing chlorine,

but dioxin is also formed in e.g. straw andwood stoves.

Primarily, dioxin is an air pollutant, but itis not direct inhalation, that is crucial for theimpact on health. Dioxins, which are verystable, are deposited on the soil and watersurfaces. As they are fat-soluble they moveeasily from the soil and water to the foodchains and are then absorbed through thefood. This also means that it can be dis-persed in various ways.

Dioxins are some of the most toxic com-pounds known. They are carcinogenic, theymay have endocrine-disrupting effects, andinflict damages to the unborn child. Specialattention has been given to the content ofdioxin in mother's milk.

In 1998 WHO (World Health Organisa-tion) established a tolerable daily intake (in-cluding the related PCB) at between 1 and 4 pg/kg bodyweight, while at EU level thetolerable daily intake has been fixed at 2pg/kg. At the same time it is estimated thatthe load in Europe is an average of 2-6pg/kg. The Danish Veterinary and Food Administration has on the basis of data fromother countries conservatively estimated thatthe Danish intake is about 5 pg/kg. Althoughthe content of dioxin in food and mother'smilk is falling, there is every reason to con-tinue efforts to reduce the load. The Minis-ter for the Environment has in collaborationwith the Minister for Food, Agriculture andFisheries prepared a dioxin action plan to reduce dioxin emissions and provide newknowledge on sources and pollution of foodand environment.

Further, the Minister for the Environmenthas issued a statutory order under which theincineration plants must observe a limit valueof 1.1 nanogram dioxin per cubic meter fluegas by the end of 2004. So far it appearsthat this is possible at about 90% of all utili-ties. Industry is faced with similar require-ments.

2020

Many organic compounds are hazardous. Even ifthey start as air pollution, they may go a long waythrough dispersion in the atmosphere and the foodchains before the impacts appear. This may make itdifficult to trace the sources and reduce emissions.Dioxin in mother's milk is a typical example.

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:48 Side 20

zene. A closer investigation indicated thatbenzene solely arises from unburned compo-nents in petrol. The refineries were thereforeinterested in introducing quickly a new tech-nology for production of petrol with a lowcontent of benzene. The reduction of thecontent of benzene in motor fuel has beendocumented by analysis of samples fromStatoil at Kalundborg and Shell at Fredericia.In both cases the content was reduced from3.5% to 1% during the summer of 1998. Atthe same time it was shown that the contentof benzene in the air at the very busy streetJagtvej in Copenhagen has within a fewyears been reduced from about 10 µg/m3 to3.4 µg/m3. The EU limit value for 2005 is 5 µg/m3. The problem with benzene is there-fore largely under control.

The EU has further established limit val-ues for a series of animal foodstuffs in par-ticular. The objective is to reduce the totalhuman exposure to dioxin by at least 25% in2006.

Polycyclic organic materialCombustion of material – typically wood andoil products with cyclic hydrocarbons – gen-erates a series of mutagenic and carcinogeniccompounds. The polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbons (PAH) are the most important.

Environmental concern for these com-pounds dates back to the 19th century, whenmany incidences of skin cancer were ob-served in workers in the tar industry. Thefirst carcinogenic compound, benzo(a)pyrenewas identified in tar in 1933, but it was notbefore the 1970's that the relation with airpollution became evident. Volatile PAH is inthe gaseous phase, but the heavier and car-cinogenic PAH has a tendency to attach toparticles. Inhalation of such particles in theworking environment has been shown tocause lung cancer.

In Denmark measurements were carriedout at the Copenhagen Airport in 1988-89,and concentrations of about 2 ng/mg3 werefound. At the busy street H.C. AndersensBoulevard in central Copenhagen up to 10ng/m3 were measured.

As part of the report to UNECE, emissioninventories have been prepared for fourcompounds: Benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluo-ranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene and indeno-(1,2,3-cd)pyrene. Total emissions in 2000were about 11,000 kg. There are minor con-tributions from traffic and mobile sources,but nearly 3/4 come from increasing com-bustion of wood in private fireplaces.

BenzeneAs described earlier lead is now completelyremoved as an additive to petrol in Den-mark, and, thus, lead in the air has practi-cally disappeared. But it has not been with-out side-effects, because it was necessary tocontrol the octane number of the petrol buychanging its composition.

Some years ago it appeared that urban aircontained the carcinogenic hydrocarbon ben-


Emissions of PAHDanish emissions of PAH(Poly Aromatic Hydrocar-bons) have increased in recent decades, when theemissions have been measured. The main sourceis small firing units – i.a.open fireplaces and woodburning stoves.

(Source: NERI)

01995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

12

10

8

6

4

2

Benzene concentration, pbb

01980 1985 1990 1995 2000

12

10

8

6

4

2

PAH emissions, t/year ■ Total ■ Contribution from non-industrial combustion

■ Contribution from road traffic

Concentration of benzeneOn the very busy streetJagtvej in Copenhagen theconcentration of benzene hasfallen drastically since themiddle of the 1990's when areduction of the content ofbenzene in petrol was intro-duced.

(Source: NERI)

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:48 Side 21


Lead and other metals

Many metals are poisonous, and WHO hasproposed limit values for a series of them.The new EU directives for air quality will –beside lead – apply to cadmium, arsenic,nickel, and possibly mercury.

LeadFor many years lead was added to motor vehicle petrol in order to increase the octanenumber for motors with higher compression,and, thus, improve efficiency. Apart fromthe surroundings of certain industrial instal-lations, these lead additives were the ab-solutely dominating source of lead in the airin Danish cities.

Denmark has, like the other EU countries,introduced limits for the content of lead inpetrol. Measures were first taken in 1978,the rules were tightened during the 1980's,and since 1984 there has been no lead in thepetrol – and not in the EU since 2000. The

result has been almost complete disappear-ance of lead from the urban air, the presentlevel in Copenhagen is approx. 15 µg/m3 oronly 3% of the EU's planned limit value for2010 (0.5 µg per m3).

This does not mean, however, that thehuman lead load has fallen correspondingly,because lead, like other heavy metals, canalso be taken up with food. In this connec-tion it is important to note that the concen-tration of lead in Danish rural areas has al-ways been significantly lower than in the citiesand to a large extent is influenced by long-range transport. Therefore, in relative terms,the lead load is not equally reduced. Since1990 lead concentrations have fallen to aboutone third (from 25 to 8 µg/m3), and the deposition of lead has fallen correspondingly.The concentrations in the soil will, however,remain fairly constant, since the lead doesnot disappear, but remains in the soil.

2222

Lead in petrol and lead emissionsLead additives in motor vehicle petrol used to be the dominating source of air pollution with lead inDanish urban areas and along busy roads. Starting in1978 the permitted lead content has gradually beenreduced to zero. The result has been a correspondingdecrease of total lead emissions in Denmark.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

1,2

20001970 1980 1990

Lead emissions, 100 t/year Lead in petrol, g/l ■ ■

0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

20001970 1980 1990

Lead concentration, µg/m3

■ ■ Lyngby ■ Copenhagen Rural areas x 10

Lead in urban air and in rural areasIn the same period the lead concentration in urbanair has fallen to about 1/100. The concentration in rural areas (approx. 1/10 of that in urban areas) –and thus of the lead deposition – has not beenequally reduced measured in relative terms. The rea-son is a significant contribution from long-rangetransport.

(Source: NERI and City of Copenhagen)

514356_uk 04/02/03 10:30 Side 22

Other metals in the airEmission inventories for other heavy metalsthan lead – for example cadmium, mercury,nickel and zinc – show less distinct, but inmost cases significant reductions in recentyears, due to purification of emissions frompower plants, incineration plants and indus-trial plants. Also concentrations of a series ofheavy metals in urban air have fallen, but asthere appears to be many different sources itis difficult to point to one single reason.

Heavy metals in soilIn 1996 it was concluded that the presentdeposition of heavy metals is generally verysmall compared to the natural content in thesoil. It is therefore not expected to be an acuteproblem. As deposition can take place directlyon the eatable parts if the plants, there isstill reason to follow closely the developmentfor especially lead, cadmium and mercury.


Elevated levels of lead in the blood can reduce intelli-gence. Some scientists haveeven dared the hypothesisthat extensive lead poisoningcontributed to the fall of theRoman Empire. Air pollutionwith lead has largely disap-peared in Denmark, but it isnot the only source of lead inhumans.

Lead deposition in Danish rural areasDuring the last decade lead deposition in rural areas(average of measurements at Tange and Keldsnor)has been more than halved. Similar, but smaller re-ductions have been observed for i.a. zink and copper.

(Source: NERI)

0

1

2

3

4

20001990 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99

Lead deposition, mg/m2/year

514356_uk 04/02/03 10:30 Side 23


Large and small particles

Pollution with particles results in increasingillness, deterioration of general wellbeing andshorter lifetime of persons who are particu-larly exposed to respiratory diseases.

In contrast to gaseous air pollutants, par-ticles are not a well-defined compound.They occur in varying sizes, shapes andchemical composition. Often the compoundsattached to the surface of the particles areimportant – and not the particles themselves.In addition their size is determining for howlong they stay in the atmosphere, and howeasy they are deposited in e.g. human lungs.

Roughly, particles are divided into threesize groups: coarse (larger then 2.5 µm), fine(smaller than 2.5 µm) and ultrafine (smallerthan 1 µm). It appears that the fine and ultrafine particles are most hazardous.

Health impactsForeign estimates suggest that the averagelifetime is reduced by about half a year per10 µg/m3 PM10. If this estimate is applied tolarger Danish cities, the reduction of the average level by 1/3 will reduce mortality byabout 400 per year of 1 mio. inhabitants.

If the smallest particles are the most dan-gerous, it is because larger particles predomi-nantly consist of worn road surface or com-pounds from natural sources that are not especially dangerous. Further, a given weightcontains a much larger number of particles

if they are small than if they are large. Andtheir total surface is larger.

Most countries have established limit values for the mass of particles. Regulationon this basis may therefore be less efficient,because it is not the dangerous part that isdirectly regulated.

Particles in the airParticles in the form of soot was, togetherwith sulphur dioxide, the main componentin the "classical" urban air pollution, and itwas measured by blackening of filter paper.Soot has now largely disappeared fromDanish open air due to cleaner fuels andbetter combustion systems possibly equippedwith smoke filters.

Today the main part of the particles inthe air is due to traffic – especially dieselcars – and other mobile sources. The restcan be industrial emissions e.g. from cementproduction or arise from natural sources assoil, vulcanos, forest fires or sea-spray.

The total amount of dust (total suspendedparticulate matter) is measured by weightingfilters, and halving of the yearly averagessince the beginning of the 1980's has beenobserved. The amount of particles below 10 µm (PM10) has only been measured for a couple of years, and so far no trend hasbeen observed.

2424

Particles in Danish urban air Emissions of soot and larger particles have beenstrongly reduced by the use of cleaner fuels and improved combustion and purification technology,and their concentrations in urban air have fallen correspondingly. Very small particles have beenmeasured for too short a period to show any trend.Soot is measured in the very busy street Stormgadein Copenhagen, TSP (Total Suspended ParticulateMatter) is measured i.a. in the city of Aalborg. PM10(the weight of particles below 10 µm) is measured onthe busy street Jagtvej in Copenhagen.

(Sources: HLU and NERI)01960 1970 1980 1990 2000

120

100

80

60

40

20

Particles, µg/m3

■ Soot, Copenhagen ■ TSP, Aalborg ■ PM10, Copenhagen

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:48 Side 24

Danish researchDanish scientists are in the front of the development. Knowledge is still insufficient,but in recent years the basis for decisionshas been improved. In the appropriation actfunds have been allocated until 2004 to aspecial research programme on air pollution,especially on particles in the air.

The institutions under the Ministry of theEnvironment collaborate with a number ofother Danish experts. It is expected that theprogramme will give the Ministry a muchbetter understanding of the health conse-quences of particles in the air, and where theparticles come from – and thus indicate theregulatory measures with the largest reduc-tion potential.


Particulate pollution was earliersoot from heating units. It couldi.a. make it impossible to dryclothes in the open air, and it mayalso be the reason why umbrellaswere originally black. Today smallparticles especially from trafficare most important. They are in-visible to the naked eye, but theycan be inhaled. The particles mayhave serious effects on humanhealth, and may aggravate thecondition of sensitive personssuffering from respiratory andheart diseases. Compounds onthe particles can also have a number of impacts, e.g. be car-cinogenic.

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:49 Side 25


From the Geneva Convention – to the Gothenburg Protocol and the NEC directive

In 1976 the Nordic environment ministersproposed a European convention on trans-boundary air pollution, especially with sul-phur compounds. After negotiations in ECE,34 countries and the EC Commission signedthe Geneva Convention in 1979. The con-vention came into force in 1983, and hasnow been ratified by 47 countries on the European continent plus the US and Canada.

The convention is a framework conven-tion that is supplemented with more specificprotocols. So far 8 such protocols have beenworked out and signed. Five of them are inforce.

Air pollution can be transported acrossnational borders, and it is therefore not always possible for individual countries toregulate the air quality and the deposition of harmful compounds by national regula-tion. An effective abatement of air pollutionrequires international collaboration. The

Geneva Convention forms the framework ofthe only forum on the European continentwhere the common problems in relation toair pollution can be addressed.

The first protocol deals with financing ofthe technical scientific basis. Within thisframework data have been collected, air andprecipitation quality have been measured,and model calculations of the atmosphericdispersion have been carried out since 1985.By means of emission prognoses and modelcalculations it is further possible to evaluatethe future pollution and the results ofplanned regulation. This has played a keyrole in later negotiations on protocols thataim at regulating emissions of sulphur diox-ide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons, heavymetals and POP.

The culmination of this work is theGothenburg Protocol, which was signed in1999. It is both a "multi-pollutant" and a"multi-effect" protocol aiming at reducingacidification, eutrophication and damagesfrom tropospheric ozone. The strategy is acomprehensive effort against transboundarypollution with sulphur dioxide, nitrogenoxide, hydrocarbons and ammonia.

The objectives of the Gothenburg Protocol The protocol has been negotiated on the ba-sis of model calculations founded in nationalmapping of critical loads and the costs of reducing emissions. And it puts ceilings foremissions of the four mentioned compoundsfor each country in 2010.

The protocol operates with fixed targetsfor improvement of the state of the environ-ment in all the areas comprised. The emis-sion reductions, however, are carried outwhere it is most cost-effective, i.e. where thebenefits to the affected areas are largest, andwhere actions have so far been taken at leasttowards emission control and further effortstherefore will be relatively cheap.

When the protocol is fully implemented in2010 Europe's emissions of sulphur must bereduced by at least 63%, NOx emissions by41%, VOC emissions by 40% and emissionsof ammonia by 17% – all relative to emis-sions in 1990.

2626

Danish emissions and targets for the four compounds in the Gothenburg ProtocolThe diagram shows Danish emissions in the reference year 1990 and in 2000. Further are shown the emission ceilings that Denmark is committed to as signatory to the Gothenburg Protocol and the adoption of the EU directive on national emissionceilings.Both within the UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) and at EU level, work is done to control transboundary air pollution. For Denmark the results are identical.

(Source: Danish Environmental Protection Agency)

0

30

20

10

SO2 NOx VOC NH3

Emissions, 1000 t/year

■ 1990 ■ 2000 ■ 2010

67%

60%

52%

43%

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:49 Side 26

ceilings for the four compounds are identi-cal.

Consequences for DenmarkDanish emissions of SO2, NOx, VOC andNH3 are already so strictly regulated that therequired reductions will be achieved if cur-rent legislation and existing environmentalgoals are fulfilled. For nitrogen oxide, how-ever, the fulfilment will to some extent de-pend upon electricity export and Denmark'simplementation of the Kyoto Protocol.

It is also worth noting that even full com-pliance with the Gothenburg Protocol canonly be considered a preliminary goal. It willnot be sufficient to fully protect Danish nature and environment.

The protocol also sets out strict limit values for emissions from specific sources,e.g. incineration plants, power plants, chemi-cal treatment plants plus cars and lorries. Itis required that the best available technologyis used in order to keep emissions down.VOC emissions from products like paintsand aerosols must also be reduced. Finally,farmers must take specific measures in orderto control emissions of ammonia. Guidelinesdecided in connection with the protocol sug-gest a series of abatement technologies andeconomic instruments for the emission reductions in the relevant sectors, includingtransport.

It is estimated that when the protocol isimplemented, European areas suffering fromtoo high acidification levels will be reducedfrom 93 mill ha in 1990 to 15 mill ha in2010. Areas suffering from too high a degreeof acidification will have fallen from 165 millha in 1990 to 108 mill ha.

The number of days with too high ozonelevels will be halved. That means that thenumber of life years lost as a consequence ofchronic effects of ozone loads will be about2.3 mill. lower in 2010 than in 1990. Andthere will be about 47,500 fewer prematuredeaths as a result of ozone and particles inthe atmosphere. The amount of vegetationthat is exposed to too high ozone levels willbe reduced by 44% compared to 1990.

The EU directive on national emissionsIn parallel with ECE also the EU has takenaction to reduce long-range transport of airpollution. The principal objective is thesame: a cost-effective comprehensive reduc-tion of impacts of acidifying, eutrophyingand ozone forming compounds (SO2, NOx,VOC and NH3). The EU Commission hascalculated proposed emission ceilings foreach of the 15 EU countries – the so-calledNEC (National Emission Ceiling) directive,which was adopted in October 2001.

In spite of a common basis for calcula-tions the results are different, primarily be-cause no account is taken of areas that aresensitive to acidification in Norway, which isnot a member of the EU. For Denmark the


514356_uk 29/01/03 21:49 Side 27

The hole in the sky– the CFC gasses and the Montreal Protocol

necessary shield against biologically activeultraviolet radiation from the sun – the so-called UV-B radiation. The great stabilityof the CFC gasses and thus their long life-time in the atmosphere mean that they canbe mixed only poorly in the stratosphere.Here they are broken down by the ultravioletradiation and form free chlorine atoms thattransform ozone to ordinary oxygen. In achain process a single CFC molecule can decompose many ozone molecules.

Depletion of the ozone layer will result inan increase of the UV-B at ground level anda range of unwanted effects. Most feared isthe increased incidence of i.a. skin cancer. It is, thus, estimated that a 1% reduction ofthe ozone layer will increase the risk of non-melanomium by 2%. The significance for thefar more dangerous malignant melanomiumis, however, less clear.

On a larger scale i. a. plankton algae can

CFC (chloro-fluoro carbons) is a commonname for a series of industrially producedgasses. They are under normal conditionsextremely stable and completely non-toxic.They have therefore had a series of practicalapplications, e.g. as heat medium in refriger-ators, as propellant in spray cans or fire extinguishers, and in the production of insu-lating foam. For many years they were con-sidered an environmental asset.

In the beginning of the 1980's, however, it became evident that their great stabilitymight be the explanation of a newly ob-served global environmental threat: the depletion of the atmosphere's ozone layer.

Depletion of the ozone layerOzone (O3) is at low altitudes an air pollu-tant that harms both vegetation and humanhealth. In the stratosphere 15-50 km abovethe ground, however, ozone provides a


Sunlight is an essential condi-tion for higher forms of life.For humans the lack of sun-light can cause serious healthand sometimes mental problems. But direct radia-tion from the sun also con-tains ultraviolet radiation that is harmful to biologicalsystems. Normally it is partly filtered out by the ozone layerin the stratosphere. It istherefore a serious matter ifthe ozone layer is depleted.

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:49 Side 28


The global average of theCFC-11 concentrationAlthough the global meanvalue of CFC-11 concentra-tions appears to have peaked,it will take at least decadesbefore the impact on theozone layer is below the critical level.

(Source: IPCC).

The ozone column over Denmark The average ozone columnover Denmark has, sincemeasurements started in1978, fallen by about 10%.Under cloud-free conditions,when people preferably enjoythe sunlight, the harmful ultraviolet radiation increasesby nearly 15%. Nevertheless,this is still significantly lessthan possible exposure during the summer holiday in Southern Europe.

(Source: DMI).

be harmed. As they constitute the first linkin the marine food chain, it may have conse-quences that can escalate through the wholesystem.

International effortsAlready in 1985 the Vienna Convention onthe Protection of the Ozone Layer wassigned, and in 1987 the more concreteMontreal Protocol. It has later been tight-ened, in step with the provision of newknowledge on ozone depleting compoundsand the possibilities for phasing them out.The industrialised countries committedthemselves to stopping the use of the fivemost important CFC's before 1996, whereasthe developing countries must stop the usebefore 2010. There are also agreements forthree halones (similar compounds that con-tain bromine), which have been used espe-cially for fire extinguishers. Further, it hasbeen planned to phase out a series of substi-tutes with minor ozone depleting efficiency.

The development in Denmark and the WorldDenmark has rapidly outphased the use ofozone depleting compounds. For practicalreasons the effect of all the relevant com-pounds is expressed in terms of the mostimportant CFC, CFC-11. In 2001 the Danish consumption measured as CFC-11equivalents had fallen by 99%.

Also internationally phasing out has beensuccessful, although a fall in the productionof CFC has been accompanied by risingproduction of the less harmful substitutes. Inthe future the most important challenges willbe to ensure that the developing countriescan meet the requirements of the MontrealProtocol to phase out HCFC (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons) and methyl bromide, to fightillegal trade and, finally, to identify and con-trol new ozone depleting compounds.

The problem thus appears to be on itsway towards a solution. But even with fulfil-ment of the most recent international agree-ment, the ozone layer will not be fully re-stored until approx. the middle of this cen-tury.

01960 1970 1980 1990 2000

8

6

4

2

ODP emissions, 1000 t/year

01960 1970 1980 1990 2000

400

300

200

100

CFC 11 concentration, ppt

2501960 1970 1980 1990 2000

450

500

350

300

Ozone column over Copenhagen, Dobson units■ Montly average ■ Trend -0,4% year

Danish consumption ofozone depleting compounds Since international work withprotection of the ozone layerstarted in the beginning ofthe 1980's, the Danish con-sumption of ozone depletingcompounds has by and largebeen phased out. Here isshown – in amount of con-trolled ozone depleting com-pounds – the consumptionexpressed in terms of CFC-11equivalents.

(Source: Danish Environmental

Protection Agency).

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:49 Side 29


Global warming –the greenhouse gasses and the Climate Convention

The importance of the composition of theatmosphere for the energy balance of theearth and thus for the global climate hasbeen recognised since the beginning of the19th century. In the 1890's the Swedish meteorologist Arrhenius calculated that thedoubling of the concentration of CO2 couldresult in a global warming of 5-6°C. In the1930's it became evident that the tempera-ture was indeed increasing, but it did not receive much attention. Partly because it wasconsidered almost an advantage, partly be-cause such questions generally lost in thecompetition for political attention against social problems after the First World War,the economic depression in the 1930's, andthe prelude to the Second World War.

In the years after the Second World Warscientific interest in the phenomenon in-creased, but not until an international con-ference on "Green house effect, climate

change and ecosystems" in 1985, was it po-litically recognised that it could be a problemwith global impact on the environment.

The threat of climate changeThe increased greenhouse effect and thethreat of anthropogenic global warming havea time perspective reaching many centuriesahead. And it is a far more controversialphenomenon than the depletion of the ozonelayer.

Different areas on Earth will be affecteddifferently, and not all negatively. Denmark,seen in isolation, will be fairly well situated if plans for the expected climate changes aremade in time – especially within forestry andin connection with construction of large in-frastructures. A rising sea level resultingfrom global warming can, however, also inDenmark cause problems in low lyingcoastal areas.

Generally the developing countries will behit hardest, since they are both the most vulnerable and have the poorest possibilitiesfor adaptation. Necessary action to reduceemissions of greenhouse gasses affects all society's sectors for many years and will inthe developing countries conflict with a justi-fied wish for economic development.

The IPCC stabilisation scenarios Partly as a result of the Brundtland Reporton environment and development, the UNEnvironment Programme (UNEP) and theWorld Meteorological Organisation (WMO)established the so-called IntergovernmentalPanel of Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988.IPPC has i.a. investigated the goal that theatmospheric content of carbon dioxide andother climate gasses shall be stabilised at alevel twice the level before the industrialisa-tion accelerated in the beginning of the 19thcentury. In this scenario, the global impactwill be acceptable, but certainly not withoutenvironmental problems. To achieve thisgoal, however, the global emissions – afteran almost unavoidable increase for somedecades, must be halved compared to thepresent level before 2100, and then in thefollowing decades be further reduced. Andthat must be accomplished simultaneously

3030

Danish emissions of carbondioxide (CO2) and othergreenhouse gassesDanish emissions of carbondioxide increased slowly upto the middle of the 1990'sand are now slightly decreas-ing. The values in 1975, 1990(reference year) and 2000were nearly identical, about50 Mt. per year. Emissions ofother greenhouse gasses, ex-pressed in CO2 equivalents,have been almost constantsince 1990.

(Sources: NERI, Risø, Danish Energy

Agency)

6

8

10

12

4

0

2

300

400

500

600

200

0

100

2200 22502150210020502000 2300

■■

CO2 emissions, GtC/year CO2 concentration, ppm

40

60

80

100

0

20

1980 19001970196019501940 2000

CO2-equivalents, million t/year

■ Total ■ CO2 ■ CH4 ■ N2O

Stabilisation scenarioTo stabilise the content ofcarbon dioxide in the atmos-phere at twice the "natural"level (550 ppmv), it requiresthat global emissions arehalved in the next decade andthen further reduced.

(Source: IPPC).

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:49 Side 30

(HFC), perfluoro carbons (PFC) and sul-phur hexa fluoride (SF6). Freon compoundsthat are both greenhouse gasses and ozone-depleting substances, were not considered,because they are already regulated in theMontreal Protocol.

The targets of the Kyoto ProtocolWith respect to specific emission reductions,however, only modest results were obtained.The industrialised countries, including Rus-sia and Eastern Europe, must – together –reduce their total emissions of greenhousegasses – expressed as CO2 – by 5.2% in theperiod 2008-2012 compared to 1990 levels.A few countries were permitted directly to increase their emissions. These modest reductions have later been undermined, i.a.it has been permitted to set off emissionsagainst sinks for carbon dioxide, i.a. foresta-tion. Further, since some countries, includ-ing the US, are not likely to participate, it is very doubtful whether thetarget will be reached.

On the average the EU countries must reduce their emissions of greenhouse gassesby 8%. In the subsequent distribution of reduction figures, Denmark accepted to re-duce emissions by 21%. In 2002 a regulationwas issued limiting the use of the potentgreenhouse gasses HFC, PFC and SF6.However, in practice the total contribution is modest. In 2003 the Danish Governmentwill consequently present a number of con-crete proposals on tools to be used to reachthe reduction target for the most importantgreenhouse gasses – especially carbon dioxide. This will in the years to come beDenmark's greatest environmental challenge.

with a situation where the world populationprobably doubles, and the developing coun-tries will increase their material standard of living. Thus a goal that is significantlymore ambitious and farsighted than that ofthe Brundtland Commission. On a percapita basis this will require much more ex-tensive reduction of emissions in countrieslike Denmark. This may not be technicallyimpossible, but, politically, a great challenge.

The Climate ConventionAfter a series of preparatory meetings theUN organised in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro a world conference on environment and development. Here 155 parties signed aframework convention on climate change (UNFCCC). It aims at a stabilisation of theconcentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere. The ultimate objective is quotedin the margin.

The convention thus expresses a generalintention and recognises that climate changescannot be avoided completely. What willthen be considered an acceptable combina-tion of "dangerous, "sufficient" and "sustain-able" will depend upon political considera-tions.

Between politics and scienceThe convention came into force in 1994,and subsequently a series of meetings havetaken place with the signatories in the COP(Conference of the Parties). The third andso far most important conference took placeunder great public attention in Kyoto, Japan,in December 1997. It was concluded withthe adoption of a protocol, applying to car-bon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrousoxide (N2O) and hydrofluoric carbons


Only very limited Danishareas are virgin nature, andthe large fraction of this isfound along the coast. Inwarmer climate with risingsea level, low lying areas thatare comprised by the EUbirds directive will be threat-ened.

The ultimate objectiveof the UNFCCC(The United NationsFramework Conven-tion on ClimateChange) is:”a stabilisation ofgreenhouse gas con-centrations in the atmosphere at a levelthat would preventdangerous anthro-pogenic interferencewith the climate system. Such a levelshould be achievedwithin a time framesufficient to allowecosystems to adaptnaturally to climatechange, to ensure thatfood production is not threatened and toenable economic de-velopment to proceedin a sustainable manner.”

”

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:50 Side 31


Literature

(Please note that some Danish institutions have changed their name

over the years.)

Aniansson, B. (ed.), 1982: Acidification today and tomorrow. Swedish

Ministry of Agriculture, Environment’82 Committee. Stockholm.

Bach, H., Christensen, N., Kristensen, P., 2002: The State of the

Environment in Denmark, 2001. NERI Technical Report No. 409.

National Environmental Research Institute, Roskilde.

Danish Energy Agency, 1996: Denmark’s Energy Futures. Ministry of

Environment and Energy, Copenhagen.

Danish Environmental Protection Agency, 1992: Industrial Air

Pollution Control Guidelines, Vejledning fra Miljøstyrelsen Nr.9,

1992. Danish Environmental Protection Agency, Copenhagen.

Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy, 1996: Energy 21:

The Danish Government´s Action Plan for Energy 1996,

Copenhagen.

EMEP (Co-operative programme for monitoring and evaluation of

the long range transmission of air pollutants in Europe) publishes

yearly reports through the Norwegian Meteorological Institute.

European Environment Agency, 1999: Environment in the European

Union at the turn of the century. Environmental assessment report

No. 2. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen.

European Environment Agency, 2001: Environmental signals 2001.

Environmental assessment report No. 8. European Environment

Agency, Copenhagen.

Forsuringsudvalget, 1984: Environment and energy (In Danish: Miljø

og Energi) In Danish with an English summary. National Agency of

Environmental Protection, Copenhagen.

Heidam, N.Z., 2000: The Background Air Quality in Denmark

1978-1997. NERI Technical Report No. 341. National Environmental

Research Institute, Roskilde.

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has published

three Assessments in 1992, 1996 and 2001, and a series of special

reports. All publications can be downloaded from the internet at:

www.IPCC.ch

Ministry of the Environment, 1988: Environment and development:

The Danish Government´s action plan. Ministry of the Environ-

ment, Copenhagen.

Moe, M., 1995: Environmental Administration in Denmark.

Environment News No.17. Danish Environmental Protection

Agency, Copenhagen.

National Agency of Environmental Protection, 1973: Environmental

Protection Act. National Agency of Environmental Protection,

Copenhagen.

National Environmental Research Institute (DMU) publishes various

technical reports and data, in many cases in English. They can

be downloaded as PDF files at DMU´s homepage: http://faglige-

rapporter.dmu.dk

Ministry of the Environment and Energy, 2000: Climate 2012:

Status and Perspectives for Denmark´s Climate Policy. Ministry of

the Environment and Energy, Copenhagen.

United Nations, 2000: Protocol to the 1979 convention on long-range

transboundary air pollution to abate acidification, eutrophication

and ground-level ozone. A short version on the Gothenburg Proto-

col can be found at: http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/multi_h1.htm

WHO (World Health Organization), 2000: Air quality guidelines for

Europe; second edition. WHO Regional Publications, European

Series No. 91. Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen.

World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987:

Our Common Future, Oxford University Press.

Information (also often in English) can be obtained on the following

homepages:

– Danish Ministry of the Environment: www.mim.dk

– Danish Environmental Protection Agency: www.mst.dk

– National Environmental Research Institute: www.dmu.dk

– Danish Energy Agency: www.ens.dk

3232

514356_uk 29/01/03 21:50 Side 32

Publisher:

Danish Environmental Protection Agency29, StrandgadeDK-1401 Copenhagen KPhone: +45 32 66 01 00Fax: +45 32 66 04 [email protected]/homepage/

Year of publication: 2003

Title: Clean air – Danish efforts

Author: Jes Fenger, National Environmental Research Institute (NERI)

Editors: Jes Fenger, National Environmental Research Institute. Ulrik Torp and Bodil Harder, Danish Environmental Protection Agency

Edition closed: December 2002

Number of pages: 32

Format: A4

Circulation: 500, 1st issue, January 2003

ISBN: 87-7972-400-0

Layout: Rumfang

Photo editor: Mikkel Østergaard

Photos: Mikkel Østergaard, except page 6, 20 and 23: BAM

Printed by: Schultz

Paper: Galarie Silk Matt and Cyklus Print

Price: Free of charge

Available at: Frontlinien The Danish Ministry of the Environment Phone: +45 32 66 02 [email protected]

Quotation allowed provided the source is acknowledged

The leaflet is Swan-labelled.The printing house is ISO 14001 certified and registered under EMAS

514357_omsuk 04/02/03 9:39 Side 4

Clean air – Danish effortsClean air – Danish efforts

Lakes are deprived of fish, the number of flora and

fauna species is falling, harvest yields are reduced,

disease and premature deaths prevail. These are some

of a range of harmful effects caused by air pollution.

Through targeted efforts, both at EU and UN level, we

have succeeded in reducing or solving a number of

these problems. The most recent achievement was the

adoption of the Gothenburg Protocol – a huge step

forward in our efforts to reduce air pollution all over

Europe. However, a number of problems remain to be

solved. Urban transport is still a source of danger to

human health. Emissions of sulphur dioxide from inter-

national shipping are still not regulated. Dioxin and

other dangerous compounds still threaten animals and

Man. The depletion of the ozone layer has not been

definitely curbed. And perhaps the largest problem: the

risk that greenhouse gas emissions will influence the

Earth's climate, is still unsolved. This leaflet gives an

outline of air pollution control efforts made in Denmark.

The leaflet is available free of charge at

Frontlinien

The Danish Ministry of the Environment

Phone: +45 32 66 02 00

[email protected]

www.frontlinien.dk

Strandgade 29 · DK-1401 Copenhagen K · Phone (+45) 32 66 01 00 · www.mst.dk/hompage/

514357_omsuk 30/01/03 15:24 Side 2

Documents

Clean air - Miljøstyrelseneng.mst.dk/media/mst/69140/Clean air - Danish efforts 2003.pdf · Clean air – Danish efforts 3 Pure air is a human right, as are clean drink-ing water