Classical Music's History

8/12/2019 Classical Music's History

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Time of Medieval Music:Generally, the time frame applied to Medieval Music is from the fall of the RomanEmpire (486 A! to the "e#innin# of the Renaissance ($4%%!&'hat is Medieval Music:Medieval music is characteri)ed "y the si#nificant use of chant& *t +as later harmoni)ed

+ith 4ths, ths, and octaves& Many styles of music too- form durin# the Medieval .eriod:Gre#orian /hant,or#anum, motets, litur#ical dramas, and chansons&Medieval Music Manuscript:0ecause the cost of printin#, +hich involved scri"es hand copyin# each piece of musicand duplicatin# it for each mem"er, +as e1tremely hi#h, only the +ealthier institutions(churches and monasteries! +ere a"le to create and duplicate manuscripts& .opular musicat the time +as not printed, and thus, its style is relatively un-no+n& 2ince music notation+e -no+ today +as not yet invented, musical interpretation can vary drasitcally amon#music scholars&Medieval .eriod *nstruments:Many of the instruments used durin# the Medieval .eriod still e1ist today3 the panflute,

cornett (an ancestor of the trumpet!, recorder, lute, mandolin, and last "ut not least, thedulcimer&Medieval /omposers:These Medieval composers resent a fraction of the many composers durin# the Medieval.eriod:

5ilde#ard von 0in#en Guillaume de Machaut .erotin aufre Rudel 7eidhart von Reuental Maestro .iero

oren)o da 9iren)e 9rancesco andini 2ola#e acopo da 0olo#na

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Classical period

The /lassical period in 'estern musicoccurred from a"out $;ue and the Romantic periods& .ro"a"ly the"est -no+n composers from this period are 'olf#an# Amadeus Mo)art, oseph 5aydn,and ud+i# van 0eethoven, thou#h other nota"le names include Mu)io /lementi, ohannadislaus usse-, /arl .hilipp Emanuel 0ach, and /hristoph 'illi"ald Gluc-&0eethoven is also re#arded either as a Romantic composer or a composer +ho +as part ofthe transition to the Romantic3 9ran) 2chu"ert is also somethin# of a transitional fi#ure&

The period is sometimes referred to as ?iennese /lassic, since Mo)art, 5aydn,0eethoven, and 2chu"ert all +or-ed at some time in ?ienna&

Main characteristics of music in the Classical period

i#hter, clearer te1ture than 0aro>ue music, and less complicated3 mainlyhomophonic @ melody a"ove chordal accompaniment ("ut counterpoint is "y nomeans for#otten, especially later in the period!&

An emphasis on #race and "eauty of melody and form3 proportion and "alance,moderation and control3 polished and ele#ant in character +ith e1pressiveness andformal structure held in perfect "alance&

More variety and contrast +ithin a piece: of -eys, melodies, rhythms anddynamics (no+ usin# crescendo and sfor)ando!3 fre>uent chan#es of mood andtim"re&

Melodies tend to "e shorter than those of 0aro>ue, +ith clearcut phrases andclearly mar-ed cadences&

rchestra increases in si)e and ran#e3 harpsichordcontinuo falls out of use3+ood+ind"ecomes a selfcontained section&

The harpsichord is replaced "y thepiano(or fortepiano!: early piano music isthinnish in te1ture, often +ith Al"erti "ass accompaniment (5aydn and Mo)art!,"ut later "ecomes richer, more sonorous and po+erful (0eethoven!&

*mportance #iven to instrumental music @ main -inds: sonata, trio, strin# >uartet,

symphony, concerto, serenade and divertimento& 2onata form develops, and "ecomes the most important desi#n @ used to "uild up

the first movement of most lar#escale +or-s, "ut also other movements, andsin#le pieces (such as overtures!&

History of the Classical period
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The Classical style as part of a larger artistic change

*n the middle of the $8th century, Europe "e#an to move to a ne+ style in architecture,literature, and the arts #enerally, -no+n as /lassicism& 'hile still ti#htly lin-ed to thecourt culture and a"solutism, +ith its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the

ne+ style +as also a cleaner style, one that favored clearer divisions "et+een parts,"ri#hter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than comple1ity& The remar-a"ledevelopment of ideas in Bnatural philosophyB had esta"lished itself in the pu"licconsciousness, +ith 7e+tonCs physics ta-en as a paradi#m: structures should "e +ellfounded in a1ioms, and articulated and orderly& This taste for structural clarity +or-ed its+ay into the +orld of music as +ell, movin# a+ay from the layered polyphony of the0aro>ue period, and to+ards a style +here a melody over a su"ordinate harmony @ acom"ination called homophony @ +as preferred& This meant that playin# of chords, evenif they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a sin#le part, "ecame a much moreprevalent feature of music, and this in turn made the tonal structure of +or-s moreaudi"le& (2ee also counterpoint and harmony&!

The ne+ style +as also pushed for+ard "y chan#es in the economic order and in socialstructure& As the $8th century pro#ressed, the no"ility more and more "ecame theprimary patrons of instrumental music, and there +as a rise in the pu"lic taste for comicopera& This led to chan#es in the +ay music +as performed, the most crucial of +hich+as the move to standard instrumental #roups, and the reduction in the importance of theBcontinuoB, the harmonic fill "eneath the music, often played "y several instruments& ne+ay to trace this decline of the continuo and its fi#ured chords is to e1amine the declineof the term Bo""li#atoB, meanin# a mandatory instrumental part in a +or- of cham"ermusic& *n the 0aro>ue +orld, additional instruments could "e optionally added to thecontinuo3 in the /lassical +orld, all parts +ere noted specifically, thou#h not al+ays

notated, as a matter of course, so the +ord Bo""li#atoB "ecame redundant& 0y $8%%, theterm +as virtually e1tinct, as +as the practice of conductin# a +or- from the -ey"oard&

The chan#es in economic situation Dust noted also had the effect of alterin# the "alance ofavaila"ility and >uality of musicians& 'hile in the late 0aro>ue a maDor composer +ouldhave the entire musical resources of a to+n to dra+ on, the forces availa"le at a huntin#lod#e +ere smaller, and more fi1ed in their level of a"ility& This +as a spur to havin#primarily simple parts to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso #roup, a spur to+ritin# spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of theMannheim orchestra& *n addition, the appetite for a continual supply of ne+ music,carried over from the 0aro>ue, meant that +or-s had to "e performa"le +ith, at "est, one

rehearsal& *ndeed, even after $;% Mo)art +rites a"out Bthe rehearsalB, to imply that hisconcerts +ould have only one&

2ince polyphonic te1ture +as no lon#er the focus of music, "ut rather a sin#le melodicline +ith accompaniment, there +as #reater emphasis on notatin# that line for dynamicsand phrasin#& The simplification of te1ture made such instrumental detail moreimportant, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention#ettin#openin# fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet #enre, more important in


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esta"lishin# and unifyin# the tone of a sin#le movement&

This led to the /lassical styleCs #radual "rea-in# +ith the 0aro>ue ha"it of ma-in# eachmovement of music devoted to a sin#le BaffectB or emotion& *nstead, it "ecame the styleto esta"lish contrasts "et+een sections +ithin movements, #ivin# each its o+n emotional

colorin#, usin# a ran#e of techni>ues: opposition of maDor and minor3 strident rhythmicthemes in opposition to lon#er, more son#li-e themes3 and especially, ma-in# movement"et+een different harmonic areas the principal means of creatin# dramatic contrast andunity& Transitional episodes "ecame more and more important, as occasions of surpriseand deli#ht& /onse>uently composers and musicians "e#an to pay more attention to these,hi#hli#htin# their arrival, and ma-in# the si#ns that pointed to them, on one hand, moreaudi"le, and on the other hand, more the su"Dect of BplayB and su"version @ that is,composers more and more created false e1pectations, only to have the music s-itter off ina different direction&

Beginnings of the Classical style (1730-1760

At first the ne+ style too- over 0aro>ue forms @ the ternary Bda capo ariaB and theBsinfoniaB and BconcertoB @ and composed +ith simpler parts, more notatedornamentation and more emphatic division into sections& 5o+ever, over time, the ne+aesthetic caused radical chan#es in ho+ pieces +ere put to#ether, and the "asic layoutschan#ed& (2ee 5istory of sonata form&! /omposers from this period sou#ht dramaticeffects, stri-in# melodies, and clearer te1tures& The *talian composer omenico 2carlatti+as an important fi#ure in the transition from 0aro>ue to /lassical& 5is uni>uecomposition style is stron#ly related to that of the early /lassical period& 5e is "est-no+n for composin# more than five hundred onemovement -ey"oard sonatas& Anotherimportant "rea- +ith the past +as the radical overhaul of opera "y /hristoph 'illi"ald

Gluc-, +ho cut a+ay a #reat deal of the layerin# and improvisational ornament, andfocused on the points of modulation and transition& 0y ma-in# these moments +here theharmony chan#es more focal, he ena"led po+erful dramatic shifts in the emotional colorof the music& To hi#hli#ht these episodes he used chan#es in instrumentation, melody,and mode& Amon# the most successful composers of his time, Gluc- spa+ned manyemulators, one of +hom +as Antonio 2alieri& Their emphasis on accessi"ility +as hu#elysuccessful in opera, and in vocal music more +idely: son#s, oratorios, and choruses&These +ere considered the most important -inds of music for performance, and henceenDoyed #reatest success in the pu"lic estimation&

The phase "et+een the 0aro>ue and the rise of the /lassical, +ith its "road mi1ture of

competin# ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics andB+orldvie+B, #oes "y many names& *t is sometimes called BGalantB, BRococoB, or Bpre/lassicalB, or at other times, Bearly /lassicalB& *t is a period +here composers still+or-in# in the 0aro>ue style are still successful, if sometimes thou#ht of as "ein# moreof the past than the present @ 0ach, 5andel and Telemann all compose +ell "eyond thepoint at +hich the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant& Musical culture +ascau#ht at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the techni>ue, "ut the pu"lichun#ered for the ne+& This is one of the reasons /&.&E& 0ach +as held in such hi#h


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re#ard: he understood the older forms >uite +ell, and -ne+ ho+ to present them in ne+#ar", +ith an enhanced variety of form3 he +ent far in overhaulin# the older forms fromthe 0aro>ue&

The early Classical style (1760-177!

0y the late $;%s there are flourishin# centers of the ne+ style in *taly, ?ienna,Mannheim, and .aris3 do)ens of symphonies are composed, and there are B"andsB ofplayers associated +ith theatres& pera or other vocal music is the feature of mostmusical events, +ith concerti and BsymphoniesB, +hich +ould over the course of the/lassical develop and "ecome independent instrumental +or-s (see symphony!, servin#as instrumental interludes and introductions, for operas, and for even church services&The norms of a "ody of strin#s supplemented "y +inds, and of movements of particularrhythmic character, are esta"lished "y the late $;%s in ?ienna& 0ut the len#th and +ei#htof pieces is still set +ith some 0aro>ue characteristics: individual movements still focuson one affect or have only one sharply contrastin# middle section, and their len#th is not

si#nificantly #reater than 0aro>ue movements& *t should also "e noted that at this timethere is not yet a clearly enunciated theory of ho+ to compose in the ne+ style& *t +as amoment ripe for a "rea-throu#h&

Many consider this "rea-throu#h to have "een made "y /&.&E& 0ach, Gluc-, and severalothers& *ndeed, /&.&E& 0ach and Gluc- are often considered to "e founders of the/lassical style itself&

The first #reat master of the style +as the composer oseph 5aydn& *n the late $;%s he"e#an composin# symphonies, and "y $;6$ he had composed a triptych (BMornin#B,B7oonB, and BEvenin#B! solidly in the BcontemporaryB mode& As a BviceFapellmeisterB

and later BFapellmeisterB, his output e1panded: he +ould compose over forty symphoniesin the $;6%s alone& And +hile his fame #re+, as his orchestra +as e1panded and hiscompositions +ere copied and disseminated, his voice +as only one amon# many&

'hile some su##est that he +as overshado+ed "y Mo)art and 0eethoven, it +ould "edifficult to overstate 5aydnCs centrality to the ne+ style, and therefore to the future of'estern art music as a +hole& At the time, "efore the preeminence of Mo)art or0eethoven, and +ith ohann 2e"astian 0ach -no+n primarily to connoisseurs of-ey"oard music, 5aydn reached a place in music that set him a"ove all other composerse1cept perhaps Geor#e 9riedrich 5andel& 2ome have pointed out that he occupieda placee>uivalent to the 0eatles, for e1ample, in the history of Roc- and Roll& *t +as he +ho,

more than any other sin#le individual, reali)ed that the evolvin# ne+ style needed to "edirected "y ne+ ideas and principles& 5e too- e1istin# ideas, and radically altered ho+they functioned @ earnin# him the titles Bfather of the symphony,B and Bfather of thestrin# >uartet&B ne mi#ht truly say that he +as the father of the sonata form @ +hich, inits /lassical flo+erin#, relied on dramatic contrast, tension of melody a#ainst harmonyand rhythm, and re>uired the audience to follo+ a dramatic curve over a lar#er span oftime than +as previously necessary&


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2tran#ely enou#h, one of the forces that +or-ed as an impetus for his pressin# for+ard+as the first stirrin# of +hat +ould later "e called BRomanticismB @ the B2turm undran#B, or Bstorm and stressB phase in the arts, a short period +here o"viousemotionalism +as a stylistic preference: the fad of the $;;%s& 5aydn accordin#ly +antedmore dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealin# melodies, +ith sharpened

character and individuality& This period faded a+ay in music and literature: ho+ever, it+ould color +hat came after+ard, and eventually "e a component of aesthetic taste incomin# decades&

The B9are+ellB 2ymphony, 7o& 4 in 9 Minor, e1emplifies 5aydnCs inte#ration of thedifferin# demands of the ne+ style, +ith surprisin# sharp turns, and a lon# ada#io to endthe +or-& *n $;;=, 5aydn completed his pus =% set of si1 strin# >uartets, in +hich hedeploys the polyphonic techni>ues he #athered from the previous era to provide structuralcoherence capa"le of holdin# to#ether his melodic ideas& 9or some this mar-s the"e#innin# of the BmatureB /lassical style, +here the period of reaction a#ainst thecomple1ity of the late 0aro>ue "e#ins to "e replaced +ith a period of inte#ration of

elements of "oth 0aro>ue and /lassical styles&

The middle Classical style (177!-17"0

5aydn, havin# +or-ed for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far moreresources and scope for composin# than most, and also the a"ility to shape the forces that+ould play his music& This opportunity +as not +asted, as 5aydn, "e#innin# >uite earlyon his career, restlessly sou#ht to press for+ard the techni>ue of "uildin# ideas in music(see development!& 5is ne1t important "rea-throu#h +as in the pus uartets($;8$!, +here the melodic and the harmonic roles se#ue amon# the instruments: it isoften momentarily unclear +hat is melody and +hat is harmony& This chan#es the +ay

the ensem"le +or-s its +ay "et+een dramatic moments of transition and climacticsections: the music flo+s smoothly and +ithout o"vious interruption& 5e then too- thisinte#rated style and "e#an applyin# it to orchestral and vocal music&

5aydnCs #ift to music +as a +ay of composin#, a +ay of structurin# +or-s, +hich +as atthe same time in accord +ith the #overnin# aesthetic of the ne+ style& *t +ould, ho+ever,"e a youn#er contemporary, 'olf#an# Amadeus Mo)art, +ho +ould "rin# his #enius to5aydnCs ideas, and apply them to t+o of the maDor #enres of the day: opera, and thevirtuoso concerto& 'hereas 5aydn spent much of his +or-in# life as a court composer,Mo)art +anted pu"lic success in the concert life of cities& This meant opera, and it meantperformin# as a virtuoso& 5aydn +as not a virtuoso at the international tourin# level3 nor

+as he see-in# to create operatic +or-s that could play for many ni#hts in front of a lar#eaudience& Mo)art +anted "oth& Moreover, Mo)art also had a taste for more chromaticchords (and #reater contrasts in harmonic lan#ua#e #enerally!, a #reater love for creatin#a +elter of melodies in a sin#le +or-, and a more *talianate sensi"ility in music as a+hole& 5e found, in 5aydnCs music, and later in his study of the polyphony of 0ach, themeans to discipline and enrich his #ifts&

Mo)art rapidly came to the attention of 5aydn, +ho hailed the ne+ composer, studied his


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+or-s, and considered the youn#er man his only true peer in music& Their letters to eachother are filled +ith the -ind of asides that only t+o people +or-in# at a hi#her planethan their contemporaries can share& *n Mo)art, 5aydn found a #reater ran#e ofinstrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource @ the learnin# relationship movedin t+o directions&

Mo)artCs arrival in ?ienna in $;8% "rou#ht an acceleration in the development of the/lassical style& There Mo)art a"sor"ed thefusionof *talianate "rilliance and Germaniccohesiveness +hich had "een "re+in# for the previous =% years& 5is o+n taste for"rilliances, rhythmically comple1 melodies and fi#ures, lon# cantilena melodies, andvirtuoso flourishes +as mer#ed +ith an appreciation for formal coherence and internalconnectedness& 2tran#ely enou#h, it is at this point that +ar and inflation halted a trend tolar#er and lar#er orchestras and forced the dis"andin# or reduction of many theatreorchestras& This pressed the /lassical style in+ards: to+ards see-in# #reater ensem"leand technical challen#e @ for e1ample, scatterin# the melody across +ood+inds, or usin#thirds to hi#hli#ht the melody ta-en "y them& This process placed a premium on cham"er

music for more pu"lic performance, #ivin# a further "oost to the strin# >uartet and othersmall ensem"le #roupin#s&

*t +as durin# this decade that pu"lic taste "e#an, increasin#ly, to reco#ni)e that 5aydnand Mo)art had reached a hi#her standard of composition& 0y the time Mo)art arrived ata#e =, in $;8$, the dominant styles of ?ienna +ere reco#ni)a"ly connected to theemer#ence in the $;%s of the early /lassical style& 0y the end of the $;8%s, chan#es inperformance practice, the relative standin# of instrumental and vocal music, technicaldemands on musicians, and stylistic unity had "ecome esta"lished in the composers +hoimitated Mo)art and 5aydn& urin# this decade Mo)art +ould compose his most famousoperas, his si1 late symphonies +hich +ould help redefine the #enre, and a strin# ofpiano concerti +hich still stand at the pinnacle of these forms&

ne composer +ho +as influential in spreadin# the more serious style that Mo)art and5aydn had formed is Mu)io /lementi, a #ifted virtuoso pianist +ho dueled Mo)art to adra+ "efore the Emperor, +hen they e1hi"ited their compositions in performance& 5iso+n sonatas for the piano circulated +idely, and he "ecame the most successfulcomposer in ondon durin# the $;8%s& The sta#e +as set for a #eneration of composers+ho, havin# a"sor"ed the lessons of the ne+ style earlier, and havin# clear e1amples toaim at, +ould ta-e the /lassical style in ne+ directions& Also in ondon at this time +asohann adislaus usse-, +ho, li-e /lementi, encoura#ed piano ma-ers to e1tend theran#e and other features of their instruments, and then fully e1ploited the ne+ly openedpossi"ilities& The importance of ondon in the /lassical period is often overloo-ed @ "utit served as the home to the 0road+oodCs factory for piano manufacturin#, and as the"ase for composers +ho, +hile less famous than the B?ienna 2choolB, +ould have adecisive influence on +hat came later& They +ere composers of a num"er of fine +or-s,nota"le in their o+n ri#ht& ondonCs taste for virtuosity may +ell have encoura#ed thecomple1 passa#e +or- and e1tended statements on tonic and dominant&

The late Classical style (17"0-1#$!
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'hen 5aydn and Mo)art "e#an composin#, symphonies +ere played as sin#lemovements "efore, "et+een, or as interludes +ithin other +or-s, and many of them lastedonly ten or t+elve minutes3 instrumental #roups had varyin# standards of playin# and theBcontinuoB +as a central part of musicma-in#& *n the intervenin# years, the social +orldof music had seen dramatic chan#es: international pu"lication and tourin# had #ro+n

e1plosively, concert societies +ere "e#innin# to "e formed, notation had "een made morespecific, more descriptive, and schematics for +or-s had "een simplified (yet "ecamemore varied in their e1act +or-in# out!& *n $;%, Dust "efore Mo)artCs death, +ith hisreputation spreadin# rapidly, 5aydn +as poised for a series of successes, nota"ly his lateoratorios and BondonB symphonies& /omposers in .aris, Rome and all over Germanyturned to 5aydn and Mo)art for their ideas on form&

The moment +as a#ain ripe for a dramatic shift& The decade of the $;%s sa+ theemer#ence of a ne+ #eneration of composers, "orn around $;;%, +ho, +hile they had#ro+n up +ith the earlier styles, found in the recent +or-s of 5aydn and Mo)art avehicle for #reater e1pression& *n $;88 ui#i /heru"ini settled in .aris, and in $;$

composed Bodois-aB, an opera that shot him to fame& *ts style is clearly reflective of themature 5aydn and Mo)art, and its instrumentation #ave it a +ei#ht that had not yet "eenfelt in the #rand opera& 5is contemporary Htienne MIhul e1tended instrumental effects+ith his $;% opera BEuphrosine et /oradinB, from +hich follo+ed a series of successes&

f course, the most fateful of the ne+ #eneration +ould "e ud+i# van 0eethoven, +holaunched his num"ered +or-s in $;4 +ith a set of three piano trios, +hich remain in therepertoire& 2ome+hat youn#er than these, thou#h e>ually accomplished "ecause of hisyouthful study under Mo)art and his native virtuosity, +as ohann 7epomu- 5ummel&5ummel studied under 5aydn as +ell3 he +as a friend to 0eethoven and 2chu"ert, and ateacher to 9ran) is)t& 5e concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and

his time in ondon in $;$ and $;= sa+ the composition, and pu"lication in $;ues of avoidin# thee1pected cadence, and /lementiCs sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso fi#uration&Ta-en to#ether, these composers can "e seen no+ as the van#uard of a "road chan#e instyle and the center of #ravity in music& They +ould study one anotherCs +or-s, copy oneanotherCs #estures in music, and on occasion "ehave li-e >uarrelsome rivals&

The crucial differences +ith the previous +ave can "e seen in the do+n+ard shift inmelodies, increasin# durations of movements, the acceptance of Mo)art and 5aydn asparadi#matic, the #reater and #reater use of -ey"oard resources, the shift from BvocalB+ritin# to BpianisticB +ritin#, the #ro+in# pull of the minor and of modal am"i#uity, andthe increasin# importance of varyin# accompanyin# fi#ures to "rin# Bte1tureB for+ard asan element in music& *n short, the late /lassical +as see-in# a music that +as internallymore comple1& The #ro+th of concert societies and amateur orchestras, mar-in# theimportance of music as part of middleclass life, contri"uted to a "oomin# mar-et forpianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as e1amplars& 5ummel, 0eethoven, /lementi+ere all reno+ned for their improvisin#&


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ne e1planation for the shift in style has "een advanced "y 2choen"er# and others: theincreasin# centrality of the idea of theme and variations in compositional thin-in#&2choen"er# ar#ues that the /lassical style +as one of Bcontinuin# variationB, +here adevelopment +as, in effect, a theme and variations +ith #reater continuity& *n any event,theme and variations replaced the fu#ue as the standard vehicle for improvisin#, and +as

often included, directly or indirectly, as a movement in lon#er instrumental +or-s&

irect influence of the 0aro>ue continued to fade: the fi#ured "ass #re+ less prominentas a means of holdin# performance to#ether, the performance practices of the mid $8thcentury continued to die out& 5o+ever, at the same time, complete editions of 0aro>uemasters "e#an to "ecome availa"le, and the influence of 0aro>ue style, as the /lassicalperiod understood it, continued to #ro+, particularly in the ever more e1pansive use of"rass& Another feature of the period is the #ro+in# num"er of performances +here thecomposer +as not present& This led to increased detail and specificity in notation3 fore1ample, there +ere fe+er and fe+er BoptionalB parts that stood separately from the mainscore&

The force of these shifts +ould "e a"undantly apparent +ith 0eethovenCs


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instrumental forces at their disposal +ere also >uite B/lassicalB in num"er and variety,permittin# similarity +ith avo+edly /lassical +or-s&

5o+ever, the forces destined to end the hold of the /lassical style #ather stren#th in the+or-s of each of these composers& The most commonly cited one is, of course, harmonic

innovation& 5o+ever, also important is the increasin# focus on havin# a continuous andrhythmically uniform accompanyin# fi#uration& 0eethovenCs Moonli#ht 2onata +ould "ethe model for hundreds of later pieces @ +here the shiftin# movement of a rhythmicfi#ure provides much of the drama and interest of the +or-, +hile a melody drifts a"oveit& As years +ore on, #reater -no+led#e of +or-s, #reater instrumental e1pertise,increasin# variety of instruments, the #ro+th of concert societies, and the unstoppa"ledomination of the piano @ +hich created a hu#e audience for sophisticated music @ allcontri"uted to the shift to the BRomanticB style&

ra+in# the line e1actly is impossi"le: there are sections of Mo)artCs +or-s +hich, ta-enalone, are indistin#uisha"le in harmony and orchestration from music +ritten 8% years

later, and composers continue to +rite in normative /lassical styles all the +ay into the=%th century& Even "efore 0eethovenCs death, composers such as ouis 2pohr +ere selfdescri"ed Romantics, incorporatin#, for e1ample, more and more e1trava#antchromaticism in their +or-s& 5o+ever, #enerally the fall of ?ienna as the most importantmusical center for orchestral composition is felt to "e the occasion of the /lassical styleCsfinal eclipse, alon# +ith its continuous or#anic development of one composer learnin# inclose pro1imity to others& 9ran) is)t and 9rIdIric /hopin visited ?ienna +hen youn#,"ut they then moved on to other vistas& /omposers such as /arl /)erny, +hile deeplyinfluenced "y 0eethoven, also searched for ne+ ideas and ne+ forms to contain the lar#er+orld of musical e1pression and performance in +hich they lived&

Rene+ed interest in the formal "alance and restraint of $8th century classical music led inthe early =%th century to the development of socalled 7eoclassical style, +hichnum"ered 2travins-y and .ro-ofiev amon# its proponents&

http:+++&music#uide"oo-&comarticlesclassicalperiod
http://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/classical-periodhttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/classical-period


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Renaissanceor Bre"irthB, a period of si#nificant chan#es in history includin#music&

13"7 - 1%7% Guillaume ufay, -no+n as the transitional fi#ure to the Renaissance&

1%!0 - 1!!0 urin# this period composers e1perimented +ith cantus firmus& /antusfirmus +as commonly used in the Middle A#es +hich +as stron#ly "ased on theGre#orian /hant&Fno+n composers durin# this period +ereohannes c-e#hem,aco""rechtand os>uin espre)&

1!17 .rotestant Reformation spar-ed "y Martin uther& 2i#nificant chan#es occurred tochurch musicsuch as the chorale,hymnsthat +ere meant to "e sun# "y a con#re#ation&*ts earliest form +as monophonic and then evolved to four part harmony& *t +as also theperiod +hen psalms of the 0i"le +ere translated into 9rench and then set to music&

1!!0 /atholic /ounterReformation& The /ouncil of Trent met from $4 to $6< todiscuss complaints a#ainst the church includin# its music&

1!00 - 1!!0 The 9rench /hanson, a polyphonic 9rench son# that +as ori#inally for = to4 voices& urin# the Renaissance, composers +ere less restricted to the formes fi1es(fi1ed form! of chansons and e1perimented on ne+ styles that +ere similar tocontemporary motetsand litur#ical music& Fno+n composers durin# this period +ere/lIment ane>uinand /laudin de 2ermisy&

1!00 - 16$0 *talian Madri#al, polyphonic secular music that +ere performed in #roupsof 4 to 6 sin#ers +ho san# mostly love son#s& There +ere three periods of the *talian

Madri#al 1!00 - 1!%0 Fno+n composers +ere Adrian 'illaertand aco" Arcadelt&

1!%0 - 1!70 Fno+n composers +ere a#ain Adrian 'illaertand rlando assus&

1!70 - 1610 Fno+n composers +ere uca Maren)io,/arlo Gesualdoand/laudio Monteverdi&Monteverdi is also -no+n as the transitional fi#ure to the0aro>ue music era&

1!70 -160! ohn 9armer, En#lish madri#al composer&

1!$! - 1!"% Giovanni .ierlui#i da .alestrina, -no+n as the 5i#h Renaissance composerof /ounterReformation sacred music& urin# this period Renaissancepolyphonyreached its hei#ht&

1!%# - 1611 Tomas uis de ?ictoria,-no+n 2panish composer durin# the Renaissance+ho composed mainly sacred music&
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1!!% - 161$ Giovanni Ga"rielli,-no+n composer in ?enetian 5i#h Renaissance music+ho +rote instrumental and church music&

1!%3 - 16$3 'illiam 0yrd,leadin# En#lish composer of the late Renaissance +hocomposed church, secular, consort and -ey"oard music&

1!63 - 16$6 ohn o+land,-no+n for his lute music in Europe and composed "eautifulmelancholic music&

http:musiced&a"out&comodfamousmusicians$atrenaissance&htm

Humanism in Music

*n *taly durin# the Renaissance, a ne+ philosophy called BhumanismB developed& Theemphasis of humanism is on the >uality of life on earth, much different from earlier

"eliefs that life should "e vie+ed as a preparation for death&

0y this time the influence of the /hurch on the arts #re+ +ea-, composers and theirpatrons +ere ready for ne+ artistic ideas& 9lemish composers and musicians +eresummoned to teach and perform in *talian courts and the invention of printin# helpedspread these ne+ ideas&

&mitati'e Counterpoint

os>uin espre)"ecame one of the most important composers of this period& 5is music+as +idely pu"lished and appreciated in Europe& espre) +rote "oth sacred and secular

music, focusin# more on motetsof +hich he +rote over a hundred& 5e utili)ed +hat is-no+n as Bimitative counterpointC, +herein each voice part enters successively usin# thesame note patterns& *mitative counterpoint +as used "y 9rench and 0ur#undiancomposers in +ritin# chansons, or secular poems set to music for instruments and solovoices&

Madrigals

0y the $%%s the simplicity of earliermadri#als+ere replaced "y more ela"orate forms,usin# 4 to 6 voice parts& /laudio Monteverdi+as one of the leadin# *talian composers ofmadri#als&

eligion and Music

Reli#ious Reformation occurred in the early half of the $%%s& Martin )uther, a Germanpriest, +anted to reform the Roman /atholic /hurch& 5e spo-e to the .ope and thoseholdin# positions in the church a"out the need to chan#e certain /atholic practices&uther also +rote and pu"lished < "oo-s in $=%& 2ensin# that his pleas +ere leftunheard, uther sou#ht the help of princes and feudal lords +hich lead to a political
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13/48

uprisin#& uther +as one of the forerunners of .rotestantism +hich eventually led to thefoundin# of the utheran /hurch& uther -ept certain elements of the atin litur#y in hisreli#ious services&

ther .rotestant denominations +ere esta"lished as a result of the Reformation& *n 9rance

another .rotestant named ohn /alvin sou#ht to eliminate music from +orship& *n2+it)erland, 5uldreich J+in#li li-e+ise "elieved that music should "e removed from+orship as +ell as holy ima#es and statues& *n 2cotland, ohn Fno1 founded the /hurchof 2cotland&

There +ere chan#es +ithin the /atholic /hurch as +ell& A need for simpler melodies thatdid not overpo+er the te1t +ere sou#ht& Giovanni .erlu#i de .alestrina+as one of theprominent composers durin# this time&

&nstrumental Music

0y the second half of the $%%s instrumental music "e#an to ta-e shape& The instrumentalcan)one made use of "rass instruments, music for -ey"oard instruments such as theclavichord, harpsichordand or#an +ere also +ritten& The lute+as +idely used at thattime, "oth to accompany sin#in# and for instrumental music& At first only instruments ofthe same family +ere played to#ether "ut eventually mi1ed instruments +ere used&

http:musiced&a"out&comodhistoryofmusicarenaissance&htm
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14/48

B*+,.The +ord B"aro>ueB comes from the *talian +ord B"aroccoB +hich means "i)arre& This+ord +as first used to descri"e the style of architecture mainly in *taly durin# the $;thand $8th century& ater on the +ord "aro>ue +as used to descri"e the music styles of the$6%%s to the $;%%s& The 0aro>ue period +as a time +hen composers e1perimented +ithform, styles and instruments& This period sa+ the development of opera and instrumentalmusic& The violin +as also considered an important musical instrument durin# this time&

1!73 The first -no+n meetin# of the /lorentine Camerata, a #roup ofmusicians +ho came to#ether to discuss various su"Dects includin# the arts& *t issaid that the mem"ers +ere interested in revivin# the Gree- dramatic style& 0oththe monodies and the operaare "elieved to have come out from their discussionsand e1perimentation& 2ome of the -no+n mem"ers of the /lorentine Camerataare acopo .eri and /laudio Monteverdi

1!"7 The period of the early opera +hich +ill last until $6%& pera is #enerallydefined as a sta#e presentation or +or- that com"ines music, costumes, andscenery to relay a story& Most operas are sun#, +ith no spo-en lines& urin# the0aro>ue period, operas +ere derived from ancient Gree- tra#edy and there +asoften an overtureat the "e#innin#, a solo part and "oth an orchestraand chorusare present& 2ome e1amples of early operas are BEurydiceB +hich had t+osettin#s3 one "y acopo .eri and the other "y Giulio /accini& Another e1ample isBrpheusB and B/oronation of .oppeaB "y /laudio Monteverdi&

1600 2tart of monody +hich +ill last until the $;%%s& Monody refers to anaccompanied solo music& E1amples of early monody can "e found in the "oo- LeNuove Musiche"y Giulio /accini& The said "oo- is a collection of son#s for thefi#ured "ass and solo voice, it also included madri#als&Le Nuove Musicheisconsidered one of /acciniCs most important +or-&

16!0 urin# this era, musicians did a lot of improvisation& The asso continuoor fi#ured "ass is music created "y com"inin# -ey"oard music and one or more"ass instruments& The period from $6% to $;% is -no+n as the *ge of&nstrumental Music+here other forms of music developed includin# thesuiteand sonata&

1700 Kntil $;% this is -no+n as the High Baroueperiod& *talian opera"ecame more e1pressive and e1pansive& The composerviolinist Arcan#elo /orelli"ecame -no+n and music for the harpsichord+as also #iven importance& 0achand 5andelare -no+n as the fi#ures of the late 0aro>ue music& ther forms ofmusic li-e the canonsand fu#uesevolved durin# this time&

http:musiced&a"out&comodtimelinesa"aro>uetimeline&htm

2enice and the +pera
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*n $;ue opera composers& *nstruments used

+ere "rass, strin#s, especially violins(Amati and 2tradivari!, harpsichord, or#an andcello&

+ther Music /orms

Aside from the opera, composers also +rote numerous sonatas,concerto #rosso andchoral +or-s& *t is important to point out that composers at the time +ere employed "y
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16/48

the /hurch or the aristocrats and as such +ere e1pected to produce compositions in lar#evolumes, at times in a momentCs notice&

*n Germany, or#an music usin# the toccataform +as popular& Toccata is an instrumentalpiece that alternates "et+een improvisation and contrapuntal passa#es& 9rom the toccata

emer#ed +hat is -no+n as prelude and fugue, an instrumental music "e#innin# +ith ashort Bfree styleB piece (prelude! follo+ed "y a contrapuntal piece usin# imitativecounterpoint (fu#ue!&

ther music forms of the 0aro>ue period are the choraleprelude, Mass and oratorio,

otale Composers

L ean 0aptisteully 'rote *talian operaL omenico 2carlatti ver %% sonatas for the harpsichordL Antonio ?ivaldi 'rote operas and over 4%% concertos

L Geor#e 9rideric 5andel /omposed operas and oratorios, the most famous of +hichis BMessiahBL ohann 2e"astian 0ach /omposed thousands of +or-s in various forms e1cludin#the opera&

http:musiced&a"out&comodhistoryofmusica"aro>uemusic&htm
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17/48

ROMANTIC PERIOD

5istorio#raphers define the Romantic Music period to "e "et+een $8%% to $%%& *t ischaracteri)ed "y usin# music to tell a story or e1press an idea, the use of variousinstruments includin# +ind instruments and melodies are fuller and more dramatic& 5ereis a timeline of musicrelated events from $8=$ to $%% to #ive you an idea of the maDormusic events +hich occurred durin# the Romantic .eriod&

1#$1 The harmonica+as invented "y 9riedrich 0uschmann& 1#$! /arl Almenrder redesi#ned the 9rench"assoon& 1#$6 /arl Maria von 'e"er died& 1#$7 ud+i# van 0eethovendied& 1#$# 9ran) 2chu"ertdied& 1#$" 9eli1 Mendelssohnconducted the first modern performance of &2& 0achCs

B2t& Matthe+ .assionB& 1#30 ouis5ector 0erlio)completed his B2ymphonie 9antasti>ueB& 1#31 ?incen)o 0elliniCs opera,Norma, +as first performed at a 2cala in M*lan& 1#3$ 9rIdIric /hopinperformed his B.iano /oncerto in 9 MinorB and the

B?ariations, opus =B in .aris& 1#33 ohannes 0rahms+as "orn& 1#3# Geor#es 0i)et+as "orn& Also on the same year in 2cotland, music +as

pu"lished in 0raille notation& 1#%0 .yotr *lCNich Tchai-ovs-y+as "orn and 7iccolO .a#anini died& Also, the

clarinet+as redesi#ned #ivin# it its mature form& 1#%1 9eli1 Mendelssohn "ecame the director of the eip)i# /onservatory& 1#%$ 7e+ Nor- .hilharmonic rchestra +as founded& 1#%6 Adolphe 2a1patented his first sa1ophone&

1#%7 9eli1 Mendelssohn died& 1#%" 9rederic /hopin died& 1#!3 Giuseppe ?erdi+rote his Ba traviataB& 1#!6 5enry En#elhard 2tein+aycreated his first #rand piano& 1#!# The *talian composer Giacomo .uccini+as "orn& 1#!" *n 7e+ rleans, ouisiana, the first opera house +as opened& 1#6$ /laude e0ussy,one of the most influential composers of his time, +as

"orn& 1#6% The German composer, Richard 2trauss+as "orn& 1#67 Amy 0each, the first maDor American female composer, +as "orn& 1#6# Gioacchino Rossinidied&

1#6" ouis5ector 0erlio) died& n the same year, the opera B9austB "y /harlesGounod +as first performed in .aris& 1#7% The Austro5un#arian composer,Arnold 2chPn"er#, and the American

composer, /harles *ves,+ere "orn& 1#7! The opera B/armenB "y Geor#es 0i)et+as first performed in .aris& 5e

+ould also pass a+ay that year& 1#76 Edvard Grie#+rote the incidental music for *"senCs .eer Gynt&
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1#77 BRe>uiemB "y Ga"riel 9aurI+as first performed in .aris& That same year,Thomas Edisonpatented the phono#raph +hich +ill chan#e the +ay peoplelistened to music& Also, 2+an a-eB "y Tchai-ovs-y, +as first performed inMosco+&

1##1 ne of the maDor =%th century composers, 0Ila 0artQ-, +as "orn&

1##$ The Russian composer, *#or 2travins-y, +as "orn& That same year, 5u#oRiemann pu"lished hisMusiklexikon, his study on musical harmony& 1##3 The Metropolitan pera Association opened in 7e+ Nor- and Richard

'a#nerdied after completin# his final +or- B.arsifalB& 1##6 9ran) is)tdied and in ?ienna, BTe eumB "y Anton 0ruc-ner +as first

performed& 1##" The famous ca"aret, BMoulin Rou#eB, opened in .aris& 1#"1 /arne#ie 5all opened in 7e+ Nor- /ity& 1#"7 ohannes 0rahmsdied and Gustav Mahler"ecame director of the ?ienna

Art pera& 1#"" 2cott oplinpu"lished hisMaple Leaf Rag&

1"00 Giacomo .ucciniCs opera, BToscaB, premiered in Rome&

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Beetho'en and omanticism

L )ud8ig 'an Beetho'en /ontri"uted to the composerCs shift in status from merely aservant of the +ealthy to an artist& 'rote choral, cham"er musicand opera& 0rieflystudied under 5aydn, +as also influenced "y the +or-s ofMo)art&5e used dissonanceinhis music +hich intri#ued his listeners& 0eethoven "e#an to lose his hearin# at a#e =8,losin# it completely "y a#e %& ne of his most popular +or-s is the Ninth Symphony& 5e

influenced a ne+ crop of youn# composers #uided "y the ideals of Romanticism&

9hat is omanticism:

Romanticism or the Romantic movement +as a concept that encompassed different artmediums3 from music to paintin# to literature& The Romantics "elieved in allo+in# theirima#ination and passion to soar spontaneously and transcend it to their art& This +asdifferent from the /lassical "elief of lo#ical order and clarity& urin# the $th century,?ienna and .aris +ere the centers of musical activity&

Music /orms;tyles

L


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Thepiano+as still the main instrument durin# the Early Romantic period& The pianounder+ent many chan#es and composers "rou#ht the piano to ne+ hei#hts of creativee1pression&

otale Composers;Musicians

L /ran= chuert 'rote a"out 6%% lieders (German son#s!& ne of his most famouspieces is titled Unfinishednamed so "ecause it only has = movements&L Hector Berlio= 5isFantastic Symphony+as +ritten for a sta#e actress he fell inlove +ith& *ncluded the harpand En#lish horn in his symphonies&L /ran= )is=t 5isFantastic Symphony+as inspired "y one of 0erlio)C +or-s&eveloped the symphonic poem, ma-in# use of chromatic devices&L /rederic Chopin 'rote character pieces for solo piano&L oert chumann Also +rote character pieces, some of his +or-s +ere performed"y /lara, his +ife&L >iuseppe 2erdi 'rote many operas +ith patriotic themes& T+o of his most famous

+or-s are OtelloandFalstaff&

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Baroue period

0aro>ue .eriod, a time durin# the $;th century that portrayed e1emplified drama and#randeur& urin# this era architectural structures consisted of irre#ular shapes and

ela"orate desi#n& The musical #enre of this time falls "et+een the Renaissance and the/lassical era& Themusicforms a maDor portion of the classical music canon& 0aro>ueperiod is reco#ni)ed as the time +hen more ornamental and ela"orate music appeared and+as associated +ith composers such as &2& 0ach, Antonio ?ilvaldi and /laudioMonteverdi&

+'er'ie8

'hen +e spea- of music associated to the 0aro>ue era +e are #enerally spea-in# ofmusic from a +ide ran#e of styles and #eo#raphical re#ion& This music +as composeddurin# a period of $% years& The term 0aro>ue as applied to music is a more recent

development, only ac>uirin# currency in En#lish in the $4%Cs& *n the $6%Cs it +ascommonly disputed as to the result of lumpin# to#ether such diverse music&

Baroue 's4 enaissance

To distin#uish "et+een these t+o eras +e "e#in "y ta-in# a close loo- at +hat stylisticdifferences the music had& 'hile "oth shared a heavy use of polyphony and counterpointthey differed in the use of these techni>ues& Renaissance achieved harmony throu#h theconsonances incidental to the smooth flo+ of polyphony +here the 0aro>ue used theseconsonances as chords in a hierarchical, functional tonal scheme& The chord root motion

is also distinctly different in terms of ho+ these t+o eras achieved harmony& 0aro>uemusic uses lon#er lines and stron#er rhythms than does Renaissance& These differencessho+ a definite transition from the fantasias of the Renaissance to the more definin#0aro>ue form&

Baroue 's4 Classical
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The classical era follo+ed 0aro>ue diminishin# the role of counterpoint all to#ether& *t+as replaced +ith a homophonic te1ture& /lassical +or-s "e#in to reduce the need forornamentation and "ecame more articulated& /lassical era used the use of modulation toportray a dramatic Dourney throu#h a se>uence of musical -eys& *n comparison the0aro>ue modulation has less structural importance than that of the classical era& 0aro>ue

is -no+n to portray a sin#le emotion +here classical #ave "irth to the +idely varyin#emotions in music endin# in a more dramatic clima1&

Brief history

0aro>ue music "e#an to surface in *taly "et+een $6;$64

)ate Baroue music
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0et+een $68% and $;=% the dividin# "et+een middle and late 0aro>ue occurred& Thee1act date is +idely de"ated due a lac- in synchroni)ed transition& The important dividin#line seems to lay in the full a"sorption of tonality as a structurin# principle of music& Thetheoretical +or- of Rameau made this particularly evident& The sense of t+o styles ofcomposition +as created from the com"ination of modal counterpoint +ith tonal lo#ic of

cadences& These t+o styles +ere referred to as the homophonic dominated "y verticalconsiderations and the polyphonic dominated "y imitation and contrapuntalconsiderations&

2ome of the famous composers closely associated +ith this time period include Antonio?ivaldi ($6;8$;4$!, omenico 2carlatti ($68$;;! and pro"a"ly the most famouscomposer Geor#e 9rederic 5andel ($68$;!& ther leadin# fi#ures include &2& 0ach($68$;%!, Geor#e .hilipp Telemann ($68$$;6;! and ean.hilippe Rameau ($68ue music +as the "asis for peda#o#y and as a result retained a stylistic influence& *t"ecame an influence in the $th century as a para#on of academic and formal purity&Many composers set a standard to aspire to from 0achCs fu#ue style in music& *ncontemporary music there are many pieces "ein# pu"lished as rediscoveredS 0aro>uesuch as a violaconcerto +ritten "y 5enri /asadesus "ut attri"uted to 5andel& *n additionmany pieces have "een termed as neo0aro>ue for a focus on imitative polyphony&

There are many similarities "et+een the 0aro>ue style and that ofDa))as +ell& 0aro>ueis similar to a Da)) >uartet in that pieces used a variety of improvisation on the performerspart +ith the most similar aspect "ein# improvisation of the lead instrument&

http:+++&music#uide"oo-&comarticles"aro>ueperiod
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omantic period

The era of Romantic musicis defined as the period of European classical music that runs

rou#hly from the early $8%%s to the first decade of the =%th century, as +ell as music+ritten accordin# to the norms and styles of that period& The Romantic period +aspreceded "y the classical period, and +as follo+ed "y the modern period&

Romantic music is related to Romantic movements in literature, art, and philosophy,thou#h the conventional periods used in musicolo#y are no+ very different from theircounterparts in the other arts, +hich define BromanticB as runnin# from the $;8%s to the$84%s& The Romanticism movement held that not all truth could "e deduced from a1ioms,that there +ere inescapa"le realities in the +orld +hich could only "e reached throu#hemotion, feelin# and intuition& Romantic music stru##led to increase emotionale1pression and po+er to descri"e these deeper truths, +hile preservin# or even e1tendin#

the formal structures from the classical period&The vernacular use of the term romantic music applies to music +hich is thou#ht toevo-e a soft or dreamy atmosphere& This usa#e is rooted in the connotations of the +ordBromanticB that +ere esta"lished durin# the period, "ut not all BRomanticB pieces fit thisdescription& /onversely, music that is BromanticB in the modern everyday usa#e of the+ord (that is, relatin# to the emotion of love! is not necessarily lin-ed to the Romanticperiod&

Trends of the omantic period

Musical language

Music theorists of the Romantic era esta"lished the concept of tonality to descri"e theharmonic voca"ulary inherited from the 0aro>ue and /lassical periods& Romanticcomposers sou#ht to fuse the lar#e structural harmonic plannin# demonstrated "y earliermasters such as 0ach, 5aydn, Mo)art, and 0eethoven +ith further chromatic innovations,in order to achieve #reater fluidity and contrast, and to meet the needs of lon#er +or-s&/hromaticism #re+ more varied, as did dissonances and their resolution& /omposersmodulated to increasin#ly remote -eys, and their music often prepared the listener lessfor these modulations than the music of the classical era& 2ometimes, instead ofa pivotchord, a pivot note +as used& The properties of the diminished seventh and related

chords, +hich facilitate modulation to many -eys, +ere also e1tensively e1ploited&/omposers such as 0eethoven and, later, Richard 'a#ner e1panded the harmoniclan#ua#e +ith previouslyunused chords, or innovative chord pro#ressions& Much has"een +ritten, for e1ample, a"out 'a#nerCs Tristan chord, found near the openin# ofTristan und *solde, and its precise harmonic function&

2ome Romantic composers analo#i)ed music to poetry and its rhapsodic and narrativestructures, +hile creatin# a more systematic "asis for the composin# and performin# of
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concert music& Music theorists of the Romantic era codified previous practices, such asthe sonata form, +hile composers e1tended them& There +as an increasin# focus onmelodies and themes, as +ell as an e1plosion in the composition of son#s& The emphasison melody found e1pression in the increasin#ly e1tensive use of cyclic form, +hich +asan important unifyin# device for some of the lon#er pieces that "ecame common durin#

the period&The #reater harmonic elusiveness and fluidity, the lon#er melodies, poesis as the "asis ofe1pression, and the use of literary inspirations +ere all present prior to the Romanticperiod& 5o+ever, some composers of the Romantic period adopted them as the centralpursuit of music itself& Romantic composers +ere also influenced "y technolo#icaladvances, includin# an increase in the ran#e and po+er of thepianoand the improvedchromatic a"ilities and #reater proDection of the instruments of the symphony orchestra&

on-musical influences

ne of the controversies that ra#ed throu#h the Romantic period +as the relationship ofmusic to e1ternal te1ts or sources& 'hile pro#ram music +as common "efore the $thcentury, the conflict "et+een formal and e1ternal inspiration "ecame an importantaesthetic issue for some composers durin# the Romantic era&

urin# the $8ue, +hich +as presented +ith ane1tensive pro#ram te1t, caused many critics and academics to pic- up their pens&.rominent amon# the detractors +as 9ranoisoseph 9Itis, the head of the ne+lyfounded 0russels /onservatory, +ho declared that the +or- +as Bnot musicB& Ro"ert2chumann defended the +or-, "ut not the pro#ram, sayin# that "ad titles +ould not hurt#ood music, "ut #ood titles could not save a "ad +or-& 9ran) is)t +as one of the

prominent defenders of e1tramusical inspiration&

This rift #re+, +ith polemics delivered from "oth sides& 9or the supporters of Ba"soluteBmusic, formal perfection rested on musical e1pression that o"eys the schematics laiddo+n in previous +or-s, most nota"ly the sonata form then "ein# codified& To theadherents of pro#ram music, the rhapsodic e1pression of poetry or some other e1ternalte1t +as, itself, a form& They ar#ued that for the artist to "rin# his life into a +or-, theform must follo+ the narrative& 0oth sides used 0eethoven as inspiration andDustification& The rift +as e1emplified "y the conflict "et+een follo+ers of ohannes0rahms and Richard 'a#ner: 0rahmsC disciples too- him to "e a pinnacle of a"solutemusic, +hile 'a#nerites put their faith in the poetic Bsu"stanceB shapin# the harmonic

and melodic flo+ of his music&E1amples of music inspired "y literary and artistic sources include is)tCs 9aust2ymphony, ante 2ymphony, his symphonic poems and his Annees de .elerina#e,Tchai-ovs-yCs Manfred 2ymphony, MahlerCs 9irst 2ymphony ("ased on the novel Titan!,and the tone poems of Richard 2trauss& 2chu"ert included material from his ieder insome of his e1tended +or-s, and others, such as is)t, transcri"ed opera arias and son#sfor solo instrumental performance&
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omantic opera

*n opera, the forms for individual num"ers that had "een esta"lished in classical and"aro>ue opera +ere more loosely used& 0y the time 'a#nerCs operas +ere performed,arias, choruses, recitatives and ensem"le pieces often cannot easily "e distin#uished from

each other in the continuous, throu#hcomposed music&

The decline of castrati led to the heroic leadin# role in many operas "ein# ascri"ed to thetenor voice& The chorus +as often #iven a more important role&

To+ards the end of the Romantic period, verismo opera "ecame popular, particularly in*taly& *t depicted realistic, rather than historical or mytholo#ical, su"Dects& 9rancefollo+ed +ith operas such as 0i)etCs /armen&

ationalism

A num"er of Romantic composers +rote nationalist music& Mi-hail Glin-aCs operas, fore1ample, are on specifically Russian su"Dects, +hile0edUVWXUYZ[Z\UVZYU]Z[U]Z\UVWXU]ZYUV^_Ù]Z[UV^_Ù]Z\ich 2metanaand Antonn voUVWXUYZ[Z\UVZYU]Z[U]Z\UVWXU]ZYUV^_Ù]Z[UV^_Ù]Z\b-"oth used rhythms and themes from /)ech fol- dances and son#s& ate in the $thcentury, ean 2i"elius +rote music "ased on the 9innish epic, the Falevala and his pieceC9inlandiaC "ecame a sym"ol of 9innish nationalism&

&nstrumentation and scale

*nstrumentation continued to under#o technolo#ical advances durin# the romantic era&

/omposers such as 5ector 0erlio) used the ne+ capa"ilities of instruments in hithertounima#ined orchestrations& 2ome composersC +or-s called for a much lar#er symphonyorchestra, and instruments that +ere previously rarities "e#an to "e used more fre>uently&MahlerCs 2ymphony 7o& 8 is -no+n as the 2ymphony of a Thousand "ecause of themassive choral and orchestral forces re>uired to perform it&

Also much lon#er +or-s "ecame accepta"le& A typical 5aydn or Mo)art symphony lasts"et+een t+enty and t+entyfive minutes& 0eethovenCs Third 2ymphony lasts over fortyfive minutes, and the lon#est symphonies of, amon# others, Anton 0ruc-ner and Mahlerlast more than an hour&

The Romantic period also sa+ the continuin# rise of the instrumental virtuoso& Theviolinist 7iccolO .a#anini +as one of the musical stars of the early $th century& is)t, inaddition to his s-ills as a composer, +as also a very popular and influential virtuosopianist& A leadin# virtuoso +as an outstandin# attraction for audiences& /hopin +rote informs li-e the polonaise and ma)ur-a, that +ere derived from .olish fol- music& ManyRussian composers li-e 0al-irev, /ui, 0orodin, Rims-iForsa-ov, and 0al-irev sharedthe commone dream to +rite music that +as inspired "y Russian fol- music&


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Chronology

Classical roots (17#0-1#1!

*n literature, the Romantic period is often ta-en to start in $;;%s or $;8%s Germany +iththe movement -no+n as 2turm und ran# (Bstorm and stru##leB! attended "y a #reaterre#ard for 2ha-espeare and 5omer, and for fol- sa#as, +hether #enuine or ssian& *taffected +riters includin# Goethe and 2chiller, +hile in 2cotland Ro"ert 0urns "e#ansettin# do+n fol- music&citation needed This literary movement is reflected in themusic of contemporary composers, includin# Mo)artCs German operas, 5aydnCs socalled2turm und ran# symphonies, the lyrics that composers (particularly 2chu"ert! chose fortheir ieder, and a #radual increase in the violence of emotion that music e1pressed& Aslon# as most composers relied on royal or court patrona#e, their opportunity to en#a#e inBromanticism and revoltB +as limited& Mo)artCs trou"les in the "annin# of his TheMarria#e of 9i#aro as revolutionary are a case in point&

Romanticism dre+ its fundamental formal su"stance from the structures of classicalpractice& .erformin# standards improved durin# the classical era +ith the esta"lishmentof performin# #roups of professional musicians& The author E&T&A& 5offmann calledMo)art, 0eethoven and 5aydn the Bthree Romantic composersB&

The role of chromaticism and harmonic am"i#uity developed durin# the classical era& Allof the maDor classical composers used harmonic am"i#uity, and the techni>ue of movin#rapidly "et+een different -eys& ne of the most famous e1amples is the BharmonicchaosB at the openin# of 5aydnCs The /reation, in +hich the composer avoidsesta"lishin# a BhomeB -ey at all&

0y the $8$%s, the use of chromaticism and the minor -ey, and the desire to move intoremote -eys to #ive music a deeper ran#e, +ere com"ined +ith a #reater operatic reach&'hile 0eethoven +ould later "e re#arded as the central fi#ure in this movement, it +ascomposers such as /lementi and 2pohr +ho represented the contemporary taste inincorporatin# more chromatic notes into their thematic material& There +as a tension"et+een the desire for more e1pressive BcolorB and the desire for classical structure& neresponse +as in the field of opera, +here te1ts could provide structure in the a"sence offormal models& ETA 5offman is principally -no+n as a critic no+adays, "ut his operaKndine of $8$4 +as a radical musical innovation& Another response to the tension"et+een structure and emotional e1pression +as in shorter musical forms, includin#novel ones such as the nocturne&

.arly omantic (1#1!-1#!0

0y the second decade of the $th century, the shift to+ards ne+ sources of musicalinspiration, alon# +ith an increasin# chromaticism in melody and more e1pressiveharmony, "ecame a palpa"le stylistic shift& The forces underlyin# this shift +ere not onlymusical, "ut economic, political and social&citation needed A ne+ #eneration ofcomposers emer#ed in post7apoleonic Europe, amon# +hom +ere 0eethoven, ud+i#


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2pohr, ETA 5offman, /arl Maria von 'e"er and 9ran) 2chu"ert&

These composers #re+ up amidst the dramatic e1pansion of pu"lic concert life durin# thelate $8th and early $th centuries, +hich partly shaped their su"se>uent styles ande1pectations& 0eethoven +as e1tremely influential as amon# the first composers to +or-

freelance rather than "ein# employed fulltime "y a royal or ecclesiastic patron& Thechromatic melodies of Mu)io /lementi and the stirrin# operatic +or-s of Rossini,/heru"ini and MIhul, also had an influence& The settin# of fol- poetry and son#s forvoice and piano, to serve a #ro+in# mar-et of middleclass homes +here private musicma-in# +as "ecomin# an essential part of domestic life, +as also "ecomin# an importantsource of income for composers&

'or-s of this #roup of early Romantics include the son# cycles and symphonies of 9ran)2chu"ert, and the operas of 'e"er, particularly "eron, er 9reischt) and Euryanthe&2chu"ertCs +or- found limited contemporary audiences, and only #radually had a +iderimpact& *n contrast, the compositions of ohn 9ield >uic-ly "ecame +ell-no+n, partly

"ecause he had a #ift for creatin# small BcharacteristicB piano forms and dances&EarlyRomantic composers of a sli#htly later #eneration included 9ran) is)t, 9eli1Mendelssohn, 9rIdIric /hopin, and 5ector 0erlio)& All +ere "orn in the $th century,and produced +or-s of lastin# value early in their careers& Mendelssohn +as particularlyprecocious, and +rote t+o strin# >uartets, a strin# octet and orchestral music "efore evenleavin# his teens& /hopin focussed on compositions for the piano& 0erlio) "ro-e ne+#round in his orchestration, and +ith his pro#ramatic symphonies 2ymphonie 9antasti>ueand 5arold in *taly, the latter "ased on 0yronCs /hilde 5aroldCs .il#rima#e&

'hat is no+ la"elled BRomantic peraB "ecame esta"lished at around this time, +ith astron# connection "et+een .aris and northern *taly& The com"ination of 9rench orchestralvirtuosity, *talianate vocal lines and dramatic flare, alon# +ith te1ts dra+n fromincreasin#ly popular literature, esta"lished a norm of emotional e1pression +hichcontinues to dominate the operatic sta#e& The +or- of 0ellini and oni)etti +asimmensely popular at this time&

?irtuoso concerts (or BrecitalsB, as they +ere called "y 9ran) is)t! "ecame immenselypopular& This phenomenon +as pioneered "y 7iccolO .a#anini, the famous violinvirtuoso& The virtuoso piano recital "ecame particularly popular, and often includedimprovisations on popular themes, and the performance of shorter compositions as +ellas lon#er +or-s such as the sonatas of 0eethoven and Mo)art& ne of the most prominente1ponents of 0eethoven +as /lara 'iec-, +ho later married Ro"ert 2chumann& Theincrease in travel, facilitated "y rail and later "y steamship, created internationalaudiences for tourin# piano virtuosi such as is)t, /hopin and Thal"er#& /oncerts andrecitals +ere promoted as si#nificant events&

urin# the late $8


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or even the dominant, style of music ma-in# at the time& A postclassical stylee1emplified "y the .aris /onservatoire, as +ell as court music, still dominated concertpro#rams& This "e#an to chan#e +ith the rise of performin# institutions, alon# the lines ofthe .hilharmonic 2ociety of ondon founded in $8$uirements& The dramatic increase in musicaleducation "rou#ht a still +ider sophisticated audience, and many composers too-advanta#e of the #reater re#ularity of concert life, and the #reater financial and technicalresources availa"le& These chan#es "rou#ht an e1pansion in the sheer num"er ofsymphonies, concerti and Btone poemsB +hich +ere composed, and the num"er ofperformances in the opera seasons in .aris, ondon and *taly& The esta"lishment of

conservatories and universities also created centers +here musicians could for#e sta"leteachin# careers, rather than relyin# on their o+n entrepreneurship&

urin# this late Romantic period, some composers created styles and forms associated+ith their national fol- cultures& The notion that there +ere BGermanB and B*talianB styleshad lon# "een esta"lished in +ritin# on music, "ut the late $th century sa+ the rise of anationalist Russian style (Glin-a, Mussor#s-y, Rims-yForsa-ov, Tchai-ovs-y and0orodin!, and also /)ech, 9innish and 9rench nationalist styles of composition& 2ome


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composers +ere e1pressly nationalistic in their o"Dectives, see-in# to rediscover theircountryCs national identity in the face of occupation or oppression, as did for e1ample the0ohemian 0edUVWXUYZ[Z\UVZYU]Z[U]Z\UVWXU]ZYUV^_`U]Z[UV^_`U]Z\ich2metana and the 9innish ean 2i"elius&

omanticism in the $0th century

Many composers "orn in the nineteenth century continued to compose in a Romanticstyle +ell into the =%th century, includin# 2er#ei Rachmaninoff, Giacomo .uccini andRichard 2trauss& *n addition, many composers +ho +ould later "e identified as musicalmodernists composed +or-s in Romantic styles early in their career, includin# *#or2travins-y +ith his 9ire"ird "allet, Arnold 2choen"er# +ith Gurrelieder, and 0Ila 0artQ-+ith 0lue"eardCs /astle&

The voca"ulary and structure of the music of the late $th century +as no mere relics3composers includin# Ralph ?au#han 'illiams, Erich Forn#old, 0erthold Goldschmidt

and 2er#ei .ro-ofiev continued to compose +or-s in reco#ni)a"ly Romantic styles after$%& 'hile ne+ tendencies such as neoclassicism and atonal music challen#ed thepreeminence of the Romantic style, the desire to use a tonallycentered chromaticvoca"ulary remained present in maDor +or-s& 2amuel 0ar"er, 0enDamin 0ritten, Gustav5olst, mitri 2hosta-ovich, Malcolm Arnold and Arnold 0a1 dre+ fre>uently frommusical Romanticism in their +or-s, and did not consider themselves oldfashioned&

Musical romanticism reached a rhetorical and artistic nadir around $6%: it seemed as ifthe future lay +ith avant #arde styles of composition, or +ith neoclassicism of some-ind& 'hile 5indemith moved "ac- to a style more reco#ni)a"ly rooted in romanticism,most composers moved in the other direction& nly in the conservative academic

hierarchy of the K22R and /hina did it seem that musical romanticism had a place&5o+ever, "y the late $6%s a revival of music usin# the surface of musical romanticism"e#an& /omposers such as Geor#e Roch"er# s+itched from serialism to models dra+nfrom Gustav Mahler, a proDect +hich found him the company of 7icholas Ma+ andavid el Tredici& This movement is descri"ed as 7eoRomanticism, and includes +or-ssuch as ohn /ori#lianoCs 9irst 2ymphony&

Another area +here the Romantic style has survived, and even flourished, is in filmscorin#& Many of the early Imi#res escapin# from 7a)i Germany +ere e+ish composers+ho had studied, or even studied under, Gustav MahlerCs disciples in ?ienna& Ma12teinerCs lush score for Gone +ith the 'ind provides an e1ample of the use of 'a#nerian

leitmotifs and Mahlerian orchestration& The BGolden A#e of 5olly+oodB film musicrested heavily on the +or- of composers such as Forn#old and 2teiner as +ell as 9ran)'a1man and Alfred 7e+man& The ne1t #eneration of film composers, Ale1ander 7orth,ohn 'illiams, and Elmer 0ernstein dre+ on this tradition to +rite some of the mostfamiliar orchestral music of the late =%th century&

http:+++&music#uide"oo-&comarticlesromanticperiod
http://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/romantic-periodhttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/romantic-period


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Medie'al period

The term medievalmusicencompasses European music +ritten durin# the Middle A#es&

This era "e#ins +ith the fall of the Roman Empire (4;6 A! and ends in appro1imatelythe middle of the fifteenth century& Esta"lishin# the end of the medieval era and the"e#innin# of the Renaissance is admittedly ar"itrary3 $4%% is used here&

+'er'ie8

tyle and trends

The only medieval music +hich can "e studied is that +hich +as +ritten do+n andsurvived& 2ince creatin# musical manuscripts +as very e1pensive, due to the e1pense ofparchment, and the hu#e amount of time necessary for a scri"e to copy it all do+n, onlyvery rich institutions +ere a"le to create manuscripts +hich survived to the current time&These institutions #enerally included the church and church institutions, such asmonasteries, althou#h some secular music +as also preserved in these institutions& Thesemanuscript traditions do not reflect much of the popular music of the time& At the start ofthe era, the notated music is presumed to "e monophonic and homorhythmic +ith +hatappears to "e a unison sun# te1t and no notated instrumental support& *n earlier medievalnotation, rhythm cannot "e specified, althou#h neumatic notations can #ive clear phrasin#ideas, and some+hat later notations indicate rhythmic modes&

The simplicity of chant, +ith unison voice and natural declamation, is most common& Thenotation of polyphony develops, and the assumption is that formalised polyphonic

practices first arose in this period& 5armony, in consonant intervals of perfect fifths,unisons, octaves, (and later, perfect fourths! "e#ins to "e notated& Rhythmic notationallo+s for comple1 interactions "et+een multiple vocal lines in a repeata"le fashion& Theuse of multiple te1ts and the notation of instrumental accompaniment has developed "ythe end of the era&

&nstruments

The instruments used to perform medieval music lar#ely still e1ist, thou#h in differentforms& The medieval cornett differed immensely from its modern counterpart, thetrumpet, not least in traditionally "ein# made of ivory or +ood rather than metal& /ornettsin medieval times +ere >uite short& They +ere either strai#ht or some+hat curved, andconstruction "ecame standardised on a curved version "y appro1imately the middle $thcentury& *n one side, there +ould "e several holes& The flute+as once made of +oodrather than silver or other metal, and could "e made as a side"lo+n or end"lo+ninstrument& The recorder, on the other hand, has more or less retained its past form& The#emshorn is similar to the recorder in havin# fin#er holes on its front, thou#h it is really amem"er of the ocarina family& ne of the fluteCs predecessors, the pan flute, +as popular
http://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/musichttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/musichttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/musichttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/trumpethttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/flutehttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/recorderhttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/musichttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/trumpethttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/flutehttp://www.musicguidebook.com/articles/recorder


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in medieval times, and is possi"ly of 5ellenic ori#in& This instrumentCs pipes +ere madeof +ood, and +ere #raduated in len#th to produce different pitches&

Many medieval pluc-ed strin# instruments +ere similar to the modern#uitar, such as theluteand mandolin& The hammered dulcimer, similar in structure to thepsalteryand )ither,

+as not pluc-ed "ut struc-& The hurdy#urdy +as (and still is! a mechanical violinusin#a rosined +ooden +heel attached to a cran- to B"o+B its strin#s& *nstruments +ithoutsound "o1es such as the e+Cs harp+ere also popular& Early versions of the or#an,fiddle(or vielle!, and trom"one(called the sac-"ut! e1isted as +ell&

>enres

*n this era, mus

Documents

Classical Music's History