Civil Affairs Handbook French Indochina Section 1

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ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK

FRENCH INDO- CHINASECTION 1: GEOGRAPHICAL

SSOCIAL BACKGROUND

'U!

IDissemination of restricted matter. - The information con-

tained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted

material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United

States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating

in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press

except by authorized military public relations agencies. (See also par. 18b,

AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES,

-- I-- -- ~~ -p- --- -- I-- I _1 -- I

21 APRIL 1944



ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL M 56-1Civil Affairs

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK

FRENCH INDO-CHINA

SECTION 1: GEOGRAPHICAL

AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES, 21 APRIL 1944

. . * Oissemination of restricted matter. - The information con-

tained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted

material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United

States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating

in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press

except by authorized military public relations agencies. (See also par. 18b,

AR 380-5, 28 Sep 1942.)

---- ~-Y-C. - - -s --- ~ ~C~ --- - 9-

- - ----- --- I I -



- ji -

NUMBERING SYSTEM OF

ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUALS

The main subject matter of each Army Service Forces Manual is indi-

cated by consecutive numbering within the following categories;

Ml - M99

M100 - M199

M200

M300

M400

MSOO

M600

M7OO

M800

X4900

M299

M399

M499

M599

M699

M799

M899

up

Basic and Advanced Training

Army Specialized Training Program and Pre-

Induction Training

Personnel and Morale

Civilian Affairs

Supply and Transportation

Fiscal

Procurement and Production

Administration

Miscellaneous

Equipment, Materiel, Housing and Construction

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES

wiashington, D. C. April 21, 1944.

Army Service Forces Manual M 359 - 1. Civil Affairs Handbook,

Geographical and Social Background in French Indo-China., has been

prepared under the supervision of the Provost Marshal General, and is

published for the information and guidance of all concerned.

aSPX 461 (21 Sep 43),]

By command of Lieutenant General SOMERVELL:

1r.. STYER, -Ei : "iltMajor General, General Staff A

Chief of Staff.

OFFICIAL:

J. A. ULIO,

Major General,

Adjutant General.



This study on Geographical and Social Background in 1'renich Indo-China

was prepared for the

MILITARY GOVIIRNMENT DIVISION, OTFIC~r 0O'THE PROVOST' MARSHAL GENERAL

by the

1'AR EASTERN UNIT 0O' THE BUREAU OF FOREI GN AND) DOMESTIC COMMERCE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT 0O'COM ERCE

OFIICERS USING THI S MATERIAL ARE REQUESTED TO MAKE SUIGGESTI ONS AINfl

CRITICISMS INDICATING THE REVISIONS OR ADDITIONS WHICH W4OUD MAKE 11ISMATERIAL MORE USEFUL FO R THEIR PURPOSES. THE SE CRITICISMS SH OULD BE

SENT TO TH E CHIEF 01' TH E LIAI SO N AIM STUDIES BRANCH, MILITARY GOVERNMENT

DIVISION, PMGO, 2807 MUNITIONS BUILDING, WASHINGTON 25, D. 0.



- iv -

INTRODUCTION

Purposes of the Civil Affairs Handbook.

The basic purposes of civil affairs officers are (1) to assist the

Commanding General by quickly establishing those orderly conditions which

will contribute most effectively to the conduct of military operations,

(2) to reduce to a minimum the human suffering and the material damage

resulting from disorder, and (3) to create the conditions which will make

it possible for civilian agencies to function effectively.

The preparation of Civil Affairs Handbooks is a part of the effort to

carry out these responsibilities as efficiently and humanely as possible.

The Handbooks do not deal with plans or policies -(which will depend upon

changing and unpredictable developments) . It should be clearly understood

that they do not imply any iven official proram of action. They are

rather ready reference source books containing the basic factual information

needed fo r planning and policy making.



C I V ILAFFAIRS HANDBOOK S

T O P ICAL O UT LI N E

1. Geogranhicalad Social Backgrounid

2. Government and Administration

3. Legal Affairs

4. Government Finance

5. Money and Banking

6. Natural Resource

7. Agriculture

8. Industry and Commerce

9.. Labor

10. Public Works and Utilities

11. Transportation Systems

12. Communications

13. Public Health and Sanitation

14 . Public Safety

16. Public Welfare

1?. Cultural Institutions

This study on Geographical and Social Background in French Indo-Chinawas prepared fo r the MILITARY GOVERNMENT DIVISIONI, OFFICE OF THE PROVOSTMARSHAL (XITRAL by the FAR EASTERN tNI'~ OF THE BURJAU OP FORE.+IGN AND) DOMESTIC

COMMFJRCE, U. S. DEPARTMEN~T OF COMMERCE.





- vii

TABLi{ 01' CONTENTTS

Page

I. TE LANID 1

A.Boundaries and Frontier Disputes 11. Boundary Disputes 3

2. Railways, Roads and Airlines across

Boundaries 4

B. Territorial Divisions 7

1.. Natural Divisions 7

2. Economic Divisions 12

3. Ethnic and Religious Divisions 17

a. Annanese 17

b. Cambodians 20

c. Laotians and other ThMt 21

d. Minor Tribes 22

e. Chinese 22

f. Wrench 23

4. Political and Administrative Divisions 26

a. Cochinchina 27

b. Cambodia 27

c. Annam 32

d. Tonkin 32

e. Laos 32

II. THEI PEOPLE6

A. Population Statistics 36

B. Cultural Characteristics 46

1. The 1lmiy 46

2. Church and Religion 49

3. Social Stratification 50

4. Qsxasi-public and Private Organisations 57

5. Outstanding Qalities and Habits 59

6. General Living Conditions 62

7. Attitudes towards the Wiar and various

Belligerents 63

8. Languages 65

9, Racial Conflicts and Discriminations 66

III. TABLES

1. Distances by Sea from Haiphong and Saigon 6

2. Population according to Ethnic Groups 19

3. Birthplace of Europeans and "Assimilees." 24



-viii

page

4.. Number of Thiropeans and "Assimilees" byProfessions

5. European and Assimilated Population by

State and Nationality

6. Controlled Migration of Poreign Asiatics

IV . 0HRTS1. Structure of Government in Prench Indo-China

2. Local, dministration

V. ILLUSTRA'IONS1. Annam Coast

2. Village of Hongay

3. Cambodian Dancers

4. Ceremony at Annam Capital

5. Primitive Transportation

6. Small Canal7. Coronation Ceremony

8. Tribespeople from the Hills

9. Street Scene, Savannaklhek

10, Ruins of Anigkor-Vat11. Coastal Approaches below Haiphong

12. Coffee Plantation and Modern larms

13. Panoramic View near Lao Kay

VI. MAPS

1.

2.3.4.

5.6.

Southeast Asia, 1940

Rainfall and Winds

Relief and Drainage

Mineral Resources

Vegetation

Population Density: AnnamCambodiaCochinchina

Tonkin

Laos

VII. APPENDIX

1. Table of Area, Population and Density of

Population by Province, 1936

VIII. GLOSSARY

IX. BIBLIOGRAPHY!

25

44

47



H UNA IK/ANGSI? I

s

tWEY;?.G

11-/(JAPAN)

/Aoo/ANNINFOR OS

Go- I ,~ T N (~i A A

'LLAO-KA( °~L 'HCN "l Q-'ONG KONGANDAL / T N NG ° o AMCHOP (BRITISH) )

TA TS HlNOI JHAIPH~ONC (FRENCH) e

PftAANC , GULF OF.

u tR N : H [N t APAi /

SSAP

BANGNEKERLAND IND(AI',?

® A\NENED BCM-THAHAY 941

PENHAAY -0 / ( S.S

SOURCE: VIRGINIA THOMPSe"'; Ph.D., PSTMORTEM ON MALAYA, 1943(36) (23166)



A view along th e Annam coast, showing section of Mandarin road, near

Nha Trang.

The native village of Hongay, Tonking coast just north of Haiphong.

slq!

-X ~t



1I3NCH INDOCHINA

GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIAL BACKGRO'N

I. The Land,

French Indochina is literally th e southeast corner of Asia, Lying

between 80301 and 230241 north latitude, it stretches approximately 1000

miles from north to south. From the economic standpoint the two river

deltas.--that of the Red River in Tonkin, at the north, and that of the

Mekong in Cochinchina at, the south.--are outstanding. For this reason,

and because of the ilAnnamite Chain" of mountains between the two deltas,

the country has been referred to as "Two baskets of rice balanced on a

pole". That popular description, however, fails to include a large area

of northwestern Indochina, consisting of backward, mountainous and almost

trackless Laos. American Consul Roberts described the chief geographical

features as follows:

"French Indochina at first glance appears a contrast of mountains

and valleys, plateaus and alluvial plains, rivers and mountain chains,

elevations and depressions. Low alluvial plains form th e center of

Cambodia, nearly all of Cochinchina, the littoral plains of North Annamand Lower Tonkin. This area is but a small part of French Indochina but

because of its rich, easily wooded soil supports by far the larger part

of the population. The rest of Indochina presents a confused and baff-

ling aspect. The lofty Cardamon Mountains range along the Gulf of Siam

coast of Cambodia. The still higher and much longer Annamite Chain skirts

the Annam coast, Moving more to the north the relief becomes even more

complicated and develops into th e mountainous country covering all of Upper

Laos, North Ahnam, and the largest part of Tonkin. In the mountain

system cut by valleys there are several high plateaus."

A. Boundaries and frontier Districts 3

Indochina is well provided with natural boundaries. To theeast

and south th e Gilf of Tonkin, the China 3ea and the Gulf of Thailand

bound th e long seacoast . To th e west the Mekong now forms the boundary

- 1-



2-

between Indochina and its neighbors Burma and Thailand from the Ohin&-

Burma- Indochina border to a point just below Stung Treng, at 130 501 north

latitude. From that point the border, as demarcated by the March 11, 1941

treaty dictated by the Japanese to the Thai and french contestants, runs

&ue west to a point just northwest of the ruins of Angkor Wet, then turns

south, skirting the western end of the Grand Lac (sometimes, not very

accurately, called the Tonle Sap) and then proceeds southwest to the

Gulf of Thailand., Whereas the former boundary, including considerable

areas of the Cambodian plain now part of Thailand, was mostly along a water-

shed, the new boundary is definitely political, not geographic.

The northern boundary is similarly devoid of a clear geographic

basis, The various peoples of Indo-China were themselves immigrants from

China, and the boundary between Tonkin and the Chinese provindes of Kwang.-

tung and Annam was fixed in 240 A.D. 11 This boundary line starts near

Moncay, on th e Gulf of Tonkin, and crosses rice plains and rolling hills

as far as Lao Ky, on the Red River and the Haiphongs.bKunming railway, It

separates Tonkin from Kwangtung Province p China, for a few miles , and then

for over half the distance to Lao Kay it touches Kwangsi Province, after

which Yunnan is Indochina3. neighbor. Before reaching Lao Kay the border

skirts high mountains, and in this sense the boundary is a natural one,

After Lao Kay higher elevations are encountered, as the border continues

to cross rivers and mountain ranges. The point which marks the common

boundaries of Indochina, Burma and China is on the Mekong, at about 210

35, N, 1010 101 B.

/ A. H. Brodrick, "Little China,. 1941, p. 193.

,I I

r'"



-3-

I. Boundary Dfisutes The only boundry dispute of importance in

the past century has been that with Thailand,, Cambodia, occuping the

southwestern part of Indochina, is inhabited by a race which is distinct

from the Thai and also from the Ann'amese--.-.the leading race of Indochina,

There being no clear geographical barrier between the Mekong and the Menam,

in their lower reaches, the boundary has shifted back and forth, both

because of wars and because of Far Eastern "power politics". The Khmer

or Cambodian empire which built Angkor Wat in its heyday had fallen upon

evil times, and was tributary now to the Annamese and now to the Thai,

When the French occupied Cochinchina in the past centurey th e Thai were

left temporarily without rivals in dealing with th e weak emperor of Cam-.

bodia, but in 1863 Admiral de la Grandiere visited ling Norodom with the

Vicar Apostolic as interpreter and adviser. The following year, as Siam

was about to crown the king, Le ree,_ the Admiral's representative, occupied

the capital with marines and hoisted the tricolor. Siam protested and

reserved rights to Battambang and Angkor, and in 1867 the Thai renounced

tribute and recognized the French protectorate in exchan , or Battembang,

Angkor and the Laos territory, fart the north, which ie; west of the

Mekong. In 1907 further French pressure forced the Thai to retrocede

Battambang, Siemreap (Angkor) and the neighboring district of Sisiphon.

The preoccupation of the French in Indochina with Japanese invasion was

the signal for a Thai invasion, and a minor war in 1940-.41, ending with

Japanese mediation and the fixing of th e present boundary , So far as

Laos was concerned this resulted in the restoration of the 1907 boundary,

but in Cambodia it left the French, who had distinguished themselves as





sidde Finally, the segment of Indochina railroad between Pnom Penh and

Mongkolborey was connected with the Thai railway system at Aranya Pradet

at hbout th e time of the Jaanese occupation of Thailand , thus providing

through rail connections to Singapore, and, beginning presumably about

January, 1944, with Rangoon as well. The Japanese have announced plans

for a railway from Hanoi to Bangkok via Thakhek,

Although numerous padk trails cross the mountainous northern

boundary and the Mekong River, few important motor roads touch Indo.

chinatsfrontiers, The chief of these

isthe route which

liesbeside the

new Mongkolborey.Arsnya Pradet railway, in Cambodia, It was completed

all the way to Bangkok, according to reports, in time to be used by

the Japanese invaders. Farther north along th e Mekong, roads to Bangkok

from Indochina cross the river near Pakse, near Savannakhet, near Thaikhek

and near Vientiane~ In the north there is a highway to Lao Kay on the

border, but nothing but the now dismantled railway on the Chinese side.

The only two highways of importance which roose the border are those to

Monosy, at th e northeastern corner of Indochina, and at Dong Dang, near

Lang son and Necham.

Peacetime air routes consisted primarily of the Air France connection

with Europe, via Bangkokc, presumably crossing th e border near a line

drawn between Saigon and Bangkok, and the British Overseas Airways connect-

ion, which followed much the same route. Each service continued from

Hanoi to Hongkong, crossing the Indochinese border near Haiphong, as th e

route to Hongkong was all over water, except for the crossing of the Luichow

peninsula, on which Kw nchowwan Concession is located, The .urasia

Company had a service from Kunming to Hnoi. The Chinese service between



cia :mp-6-

Hanoi and Canton was routed via Kwangchowwan.

A British submarine able skirted part of the Indochinese coast

on its way from Hongkong to Singapore, and branches led to Cap St. Jacques,

near Saigon, an d to Haiphong.

The only ports of importance are Saigon, Haiphong, and Honga;, with

approximately 50 percent, 25 percent and 20 percent respectively (.by weight)

of th e country's foreign pre-war trade. Hougay's traffic consisted almost

ezclusively of anthracite coa l exports , leaving Saigon and Haiphong as

th e ohly significant ports dealing with general merchandise. The map at

th e beginning of this study shows th e relationship of Saigon and Haiphong

to other ports in Southeast Asia. Distances by sea are indicated in the

following table:

Table No. 1

Distances by Sea from Hai hon and Saigon

(in nautical miles)

To From

Saigon Haiphong

Hongkong 91? 4??

Shanghai 1,679 1,285

Kobe 1,833

Yokahama 2,419

Manila 936 90?

Tourane 30?

Saigon 802

Brnei (Borneo) 635

Bangkok 640

Hoihow (Hainan) 824



'~~~m ( ta

Both the map and the foregoing table indicate that lndochinae s

position is strategic, and suggest that a. ]Far East in which. relatively

free trade is permitted may see Saigon develop greatly as an entrepot port,

B. Territorial Divisions

1. Natur%.' divisions, The highlands of Indochina., as shown by the

map on page 8, over more than half the total area. The lowlands coneiet

chiefly of the rice-growing deltas of the N~ekong and Red Rivers, the ir'including the Cambodian plain,, around the Great Lake or Tonle Sap.

This lake is a remarkable natural phenomenon, receiving large quantities

of flood waters from the Mekong when that great river is in flood, ad

discharging into the Mekong when the latter subsides. It thus regulates

the floods which might otherwise do considerable dam~age in the lower deli~a

The lake greatly eicpands in area, reaching noarly 80) sqar mles on

occasio±n, with a depth of nearly 50 fret. Many ..1 sreams anld. canals

facilitate navigation, irrigation and fishi4ng throughut Cambodia, the

Mekong Delta proper and the Re, River iielta.

The Highlands consist partly of a continuation of. h Himalayan foot-

hills of China and Burma, with no regular alignment, and then chiefly of

the Annamite Chain or Annamite Cordillera which provide the watershed between

the Mvekong and the South China Sea almost as far south as Camranh Bay.

The Cordillera have a steep epstern slope, and their foothills touch the

sea in many places, the Saigon-Hanoi railway line thus being forced to

skirt the picturesque and mountainous coast, Their weste r" c e is much

A t o g h e m G a d L c n T n e S p r s d i t r

changeably, it is thought best to confine the latter term to the river which

connects the "Petit Lac" with the Mekong,





- 9 -

more gradual, a series of plateaus prividing th e drop to th e level of

th e Mekong. Like all th e other mountains, these areas are heavily forested,

t ropical predominating, and reported. Japanese plans to build logging

roads across additional plateaus to facilitate timber extraction appear

to have a solid foundation in geographic fact, The previously most .iised

pass was the Ailao pass, between Quang Tr, on the east coast, and Savan.

nakhet on the Mekong.: There has been considerable increase recently in

traffic from Vinh to Thakhek, however, and rnmors of a Japanese railroad

project fo r l inking Bangkok with Haiphong via Takhek Cambodian. highlands,

with an elevat ion of 1500 to 2000 feet, occupy a smal l area south of th e

Great Lake.

The map on page 8 shows th e distribution of th e country's rainfall,

The southwest monsoon, from Apr i l on May to October, affects practical ly

th e whole country, and brings about 50 inches, or most of th e year' s

rainfall, to the southern and western parts of the country. The northeast

monsoon or "crachin" blows during most o f the. emainder of th e year, and

brings the coast of Annam most of its annual rain, Hue, for instance,

receiving 1844 millimeters of its 2850 annual averee (1907-1936) during

th e months October to January inclueive. Certain mountain areas in

central and southern Annam, and the Cambodian coast receive over. 3500

m ill im eters o f rain annually. Most of th e country receives as much as 60

inches o f rain, a great many sect ions receiv ing over 100 inches. In

general, the precipitation is greatest in the mountain areas, but western-

most Laos contains mountain pockets with relatively low rainfall.



-10-

1060 1060 1100

RELIEFAND

DRAINAGE

N OF

INDO -CHINA

'S 8000 '--- CONTOURS IN FEET 150

00 1500Q

500



® so

INdDO-CHIN 'S MINERA SOCE

'YjnPan Fou \ ling iFou -

1>''' U2N4A W A N G S I

Mog KaiHoo TchenNgangou

Yenion Tcheou

BahiU - T G

Pakse /$an on Lie n g N

U~obn M C$' ?

e~~~h Thong+Hoon

k°un ®

®Mercj

I~Tin

SZinc

SGold

13 Iron

®J Chrn

® Ttorn

® Lead

® Antir

Arger

25*

LEGE ND ,AO} h Tie

y Tungsten GU, -/ tAGN~Jhf~i

3)Sulphur nmAnthracite $ I AdSMolybdenit

om JLgnite i°

urn IH Graphi te adi1u1

QJet

moray (Z)Phosphate - Scale - Miles 15ntiferous EJBlacksminth 0 50 100 Qa coal 5

IlL

0120

Page 55, Albany, New York.Source: Engineering and Mining Journl, Januarys, 1941,(290



-12

Temperatures of 100 degrees Yahrenheit are fairly common, maximum tem-

peratures fo r most weather stations in a given year being around 100-104,

against minima of 60-70 for lowland cities. It is th e consistently hot an d

very humid weather which constitutes a drain on th e health of most Huhropeans.

Average relative humidity fo r th e period 1930-1936 was 90 percent at

Lao m y and Hue, 85 percent or over at Hanoi, Yinh, Dong Hoi and Chieng

Kbuang, and 80-84 percent at Langson, Moncay, Tourane, Qainhon, Nhatrang,

Dalat, Phan Thiet, Pleiku., Saigon, Cap St. Jacques, Battambang an d Vientiane.

Only at Pnom Penh and at Pakae on th e Mekong was relative humidity recor P.

as below 80 percent.

2. Economic Divisions. Since agriculture occupies th e attention

of th e great majority of th e people of Indochina, th e economic divisions

of the country are conditioned chiefly by th e geographic or natural

divisions. Rice occupies approximately 86 percent of th e cultivated

area, an d is almost the only crop in the best alluvial land of th e deltas

and much of the Cambodian plain. It is grown, however, in th e mountainous

areas fo r domestic consumption, so it is doubtful if there are many

districts in which it is not th e chief crop. Tubber plantat ions are

chiefly in Cochinchina, with a few in Cambodia and a very small acreage

in Annam an d Laos. In addition to rice and some rubber, Cambodia also

produces more maize an d cotton than any other section of Indochina. There

are restricted areas along th e Mekong and Tonle Sap, near Pnom Penh,

which specialize in tobacco, as do some sections south of Haiphong, in Tonkin.



The forests of Onbodbia O chni na are more accessible to water

transport than many of the dense Lastim ad. Ar ese forests, and have a

correspondingly high share of the country' s forest inftstry, There are vast-

possibilities for expanding this industry if transport facilities become

available, since th e distribution of hardwood forests is very extensive.

A ll five major sections of th e country, however, have a fairly large forest

output at present.

The greater part of th e country's mineral production is concentrated

in Tonkin, as shown by th e sgmbols on th e map of the country's mineral

resources shown on page 11 * The area between th e Red River and the

China border is particularly productive of coal, tin, tungsten, zinc, iron,

phosphates an d a number of other metals. Since this same area has a very

dense population, the labor problem is much less troublesome than in th e

areas in Burma where the two chief mines, Bawdwin and Mawch±, are uituated,

for in those areas the native population is very sparse, and labor has

bad to be imported from a distance, The accompanying map should be read

with the warning that very few of the deposits outside Tonkin

have been exploited on a commercial scale, Por available statistical

data as to actual production of minerals see th e aoompanying Handbook

on "Natural Resources".

The rice culture of Indochina is chiefly in th e bands of Annamese

and other indigenous races. In overpoplated Tonkcin there is considerable

fragmentation of land holdings, but 98% of the owners of agricultural

land are cultivators, In Aanam 89% of the landowners are cultivators,



102°_ _____ 1040 log_103 1100

- ll LEGEND

~Conifers

C IN "Tropical hardwoods, chiefly of

\\ Dipterocarp and Leguminous

families; along the coasts,

mostly mangrove forests.

OFn

S IA



-15-

but in the more recently-settled Cochinchina there are many large

estates, and in 1931 it was estimated that 6,330 of 6,690 big Annamite

landowners lived in that province~

European (almost synonymous with French) estates before the out.

break of the present war had an area of a million hectares (about 2,500,000

acres) over half of which was in Cochinchina, but only 40 percent of which

was reportedly under cultivation in 1937, Rice was the chief crop of French

planters with rubber, coffee and tea as minor crops. In 1931 the European

rice plantations were estimated to cover 300,000 hectares (750,000 acres),

but a considerable portion of this area was not under cultivation at that

time. Annamese with French citizenship owned part of this area. Some

French landlords introduced improved agricultural practice, but most appear

to have lived in Saigon, hiring bailiffs to secure the meximum yield from

their estates, and occesionirg compl ints from humanitarian observers,

The red soils of Cochinchinaand.

Annam,formed from volcanic ash,

proved very rich, and were sparsely peopled with primitive Mol tribesmen,

Social and political problems resulted as M4oi lands were taken for large

European land grants, and Annamese imported to operate the plantations

In 1928 a decree attempted to safeguard the tribesmen against exploitation

by holders of land grants. The south Annam red lands proved particularly

attractive, all seven of the tea plantations being situated there.

The following extracts from a forthcoming book / set forth

the relationships between French rubber planters and their employees:

~j Ch. Robequain, "The Economic Evolution of French Indochina", Institute

of Pacific Relations, 1944,

II11



- 16

"These advantages were' ound to attract small colonists and local

companies with comparatively little capital--most of it invested by

3uropeans residing in Oo cehnhi.na. As a result a large number of

plantations of less than 100 hectares are found within a radius of

about 50 kilometers northwest, north and east of Saigon. Many of

these were set up by Saigon government officials and merchants.

Listed among plantation proprietors in the first Planters' Directory

were pharmacists, clerks, architects, magistrates, registry officers

and professors. A native overseer, called qj j or caporl was put in

charge of cultivation. The necessary labor supply was obtained in

neighboring villages. he landowner himself supervised the condition

of his rubber trees and gave his orders once or twice a week, At

the outset automobiles were uncommon; the tram or railway was used as

far as the nearest station, and the plantation was then reached by

bicycle or the small cart called 'miatch box.'

......... "By 1921, in the gray lands east and north of Saigon there

were some rubber plantatins more than 500 hectares in size (one, at

Tay Ninh, covered 1380 hectares) whieh were often owned by joint

stock companies....,

"The first large plantation in the red lands was established in 1905

at Suzannah along the railroad being constructed from Saigon to

Nhatran ;, by one of the company engineers, In 1910 a Belgian capi.-

taliet named Halle t , who had had plantation eperience in British

Malaya and Sumatra, prospected by ox cart in the basaltic hills of

Hon Quan whose lofty, gently sloping peaks afforded choice though

remote plantation sites; a ten kilometer square was marked off in

the forest........

"There were 1005 plantations at the end of 1936, Amng them 304

comprised. more than 40 hectares each and. represented 94 percent of

the total area under rubber; they included 154 with 100 hectares or

more, 123 between 100 and 1000 hectares, 2? between 1000 and 5000

hectares, and four exceeding 5000 hectares. Sixty-eight percent

of the planted area was owned by 2? companies. Only six percent

of the total area remained for small plantations---those of less

than 40 hectares, the average size of these small farms was about

11 hectares.

"The large plantations of 200 hectares and more produce almost all

of Indochina's latex. The distribution of land described above does

not, however, adequately indicate the extent of the concentrat ion

of capital which characterizes rubber cultivation. Often the big

joint stock companies own many plantations; moreover the companies

themselves are either financially interrelated or dominated by hod1 ,.

in g companies, Some also operate other types of plantations, such

as tea or coffee, at wel l as non-agricultural enterprises in Indo-

china or in neighboring coup ies,



1l7-

"This monopolistic tendency is certainly not peculiar to Indochina,

but it seems to have; eveloped.further there than say in th e two

largest rubber producing countries, British Malaya and the Neter..

lands India, where th e natives participate more fully in ribber

production, c/' The Indochinese system seems conducive to improved

methods and increased yields.,

"The most powerful of these groups is th e Societe Financiere des

Caotou., the capital of which is principally French and Belgian,

This com-,any also controls plantations near Medan in Sumatra, in

British Malaya and in tropical Africa,.

"Up to about 1918, the labor supply for .' opean colonial agricul -

ture was a fairly simple problem. The Tonkin and North Annam plant.

ations usually located on th e delta's-edge, found a ready supply at

hand. Moreover, it was easy for the small estates in the gray lands

of Ooohiaoina to find in nearby villages the coolies needed for

the maintenance and cultivation of a few thousand rubber trees.....,"

3._Ethnic and religous divisions, The ethnic comiposition of Indo..

china is set forth in Table 2 , compiled from the 1936 census estimate.

a. Annamese, Annamese or Annamites comrpised 4,835,000 of Annama s

5,656,000 population, 3,979,000 of the 4,616,000 of Cochinchina and 7,647,000

of Tonkin's 8,700,000, They made up 72,4 percent of the total population

of th e country, and were overwhelmingly in the majori ty in the fertile

plains and deltas, with the exception of Cambodia, the other indigenous

races, except th e Cambodians, being confined chiefly to the central and

northern mountains. The more vigourous and prolific Annamese have over-

flowed into the lowland agricultural areas of Tonkin, Cochinchina and

Cambodia for several decades, and there is every prospect of continued

migrat ion to the latter two states,

The following description of the Atnnamites is taken from an un

published report of American Consul ;incy P. Roberts.

1 In 3ritish Malaya plantations of Les-, than 40 hectares represent. 39

percent of the total and plantations belonging to Asiatics,..reprcsent

54 percent.



1

"The Annamites constitute about three fourthsocf the Indochinese

population. They are considered to be a separate race because of

their language and their customs which arc supposed to have been

developed in Tonkin by the mingling of the ethuaic elements that

went into the creation of n. new ethnic group. They occupy the

plains of Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina.. They now constitute animportant minority group in c bodia and are spreading into the

valleys of Laos and even going into the mountain regions as laborers

necessary in the development of mines and plantations.

"They are small with an average height of 5 feet 2 inches and have

light yellow skin, black straight hair, prominent cheek bones an d

sl.nt eyes of the Mongoloid type.

"The Annamite vocabulary originally composed of Mon-Khmer words,

later on enriched by a good h21f of Chinese, is a branch of the

Thai language family possessing the following characteristics;

use of six tones, invariable monosyllabic words, and the placing ofthe complement after the word it modifies, verb or noun, Without

any written language, so far as is known, the Annamites had forced

on them the Chinese system of characters which could not be easily

read in Annamite, About the thirteenth century a transcription

called Chu-nom was made in which the characters were formed from

two Chinese characters, one giving the meaning, the other having

a phonetic value. However, this system has yielded to quoc-ngu

a phonetic transcription made up from the Latin alpha te and special

accents by missionaries in the seventeenth century.

"The religious life of the Anuamite is based upon a universal belief

in spirits to which altars are erected and which are worshipped to

appease divine anger and to secure benefact ions. This worship consists

of offerings and invocations, either by individuals, or by the chiefs

of the interested groups, Their religion is a mixture of the spirits

of the earth and the sky to which the King of Annam takes an offering

every three years, village spirits to which th& communal houses are

dedicated, shades of ancestors, the worship of which is the base of

the family organizations and is carried out by the head of the family

and innumerable spirits living in the air, water, stones, and trees

are worshipped by all, While the normal worship is carried on with-

out the aid of priests, this does not hold true for magic rites and

in particular for the Taoist- who believe in a.control over the

spirits and respeetto sorcerers , diviners and geomarncers.



Ethnic groups

Europeans ~

Annazites

luong

Thai. .(Laotians(Others

Nab or Yao

/ leo

Indonesians

Cambodians

Sino-Annamites

Malaya and Chas

Other ethnic groups

Foreign Asiatics;

ChineseIndians and othE

Total

Table 2

French Indochina

Population according to ethnic groups and by countries,

Annam Cambodia Cochinchina Laos

(000) (90) (00)(00

5 2 16 1.

4,$35 191 3,979 27

99 .,..-

0.4 20 0.1 56517 -100

S1.4

664

er a

110.2

5,656

54

2,597

73

106

3,046

)47)

247

2

.52

326

1712

4, 16

3

1,012

1936

Tonkin

19

7,647

112

6695

89

77

All Indochinaper

43 2

16,679 72 4

211 9

599 26

786 .34

( )( 214 9)

( )

1,017

- .2,925

11 73

4- 104

37 57

35

8,700

326

23,030

44

127

3

53

140

1,000

European1. Persons with status, comprising French, Eurasians, naturalized Indochinese,

11,000 in he armed forces.

Japanese, Filipinos and

Soiurce: Annuaire Statistiqule de Indochine, 1936-37.



"Foreign contributions have been added to this mixture of beliefs

and customs as old as the race but they have been juxtaposed. and

not substituted for the older religion, Confucianism discardingthe moral teachings of, the true doctrine is b-ot the worship ofthe philosopher's spirit. As' or BudGhhism with its sacred ngung ei:L Pa.Kt, it has many temples where ,ficcs are -er±'crrnca1 by m.oxksor bonzes, but hrec'fou:the of the people know- nothL"-g abouit thisreligion and the other quarter only frc cent the templet to obtainaaditional insurance ag~inst a dismna2. fate.

"Thc social life of the Annamites is basoa upon a truly original

commune in which arc administor"d by the chiefs for the benefit ofthe commonalty. Above the communes is a heirarchy formed as in

China of mandarins recruited by competition and who administerthe country, exception being made of the powers that today have

been entrusted to the French officials,"

b. Cambodians, Cambodians were in the majority in their own

province, comiprising 2,597,000 of the privincial total. of 3,046,000,

Only 328,000 (.ambodians lived in other parts of the union, They are

related at least linguistically to the Nons or Talaings of southern

Burma, and built up a great kingdom in medieval times, whose great

gift to archaeologists was the ruins of Angkor, near the northwest end

of the Great Lake, The Ihmers are culturally: elated to Indiate Hindu.s.

They are'short headed and of medium height. They are described as a

gentle race, and are rather devout followers of southern or Hinayana.

Buddhism, along with the dilte Burmese and the Singhalese. The

Thai claimed in 1940-.41 that they had long since intermarried with the

Cambodians to such an extent that the two races were almost identical,

but it is difficult to substantiate this claim.

Thailand secured the northwestern part of Cambodia in 1941, with a 19C36

population c 5',O000 most of whom were alinost certainly classified ~e

Cambodians. This rmist mean a consi~ierable reduction in the Cambodian



-21 -

neutral sources. Thailand secured the northwestern part of Cambodia

in 1941, with a 1936 population of 520,000, most of whom were almost

certainly classified as Cambodians, This must mean a considerable re-

duction in th e Cambodian population of Indochina, end a corresponding

increase in the Annamite proportion of th e total population. It is

likely that the latter now constitute at least 80 percent of Indochina's

populat ion. Hence, th e Thai have, while increasing their own min-

ority problem, made a real contribution to th e solution of that problem

by their eastern neighbor.

c. Laotians and other Thai, Some writers prefer to use th e term

nTai instead of "Thai" for th e broad racial group which, in addition

to th e principal inhabitants of Thailand includes th e Shans of China

an d Burma, the Laot ians of Indo-China an d several related groups, A

'British writer b elieves that th e change of name from Siam to Thai-

land was for th e purpose of laying, claim to all territory inhabi ted by

this group. Certainly in 1941 th e Thai d id la y claim to practically

a ll of Laos, on racial as well as historical grounds.

The Laot ians live in the valleys of th e M-ekong and its principal

tributaries, practice th e same type of Buddhism as th e Thai and th e

Cambodians, and have a much higher level of civilization than the

t r ibesm en who inhabit th e higher plateaus and mountain slopes. They

have built up great kingdoms in t imes past, and still have a king at

LFaang Prabang, under French protection, but his nominal jurisdiction

2]H. uatrich Wales in "Years of Blindness", 1943.



22

does not cover th e whole of Laos, The other Thai groups inILaos

include th e "White Thai" (so-called because of their dress) along the

Tonkin border, They have a feudal organization, and live in villages

of fifty houses or less in th e upper valleys. The Black Thai of

western Tonkin live in still smaller villages, also at a considerable

altitude, while the Thai Mvula live south of the Black Thai in villages

up to 300 houses each, and cultivate permanent rice fields at eleva-

tions under 3000 fee.

d. Minor Tribes, Space does not permit description of the many

tribes such as Muong, Mans, Meos, Lobos, Mois, Sedangs, Jarais and

others, Most of these t r ibesmen inhabit the highlands of Laos, Annam

and Tonkin, carry on shifting hillside cultivation of rice, and secure

a fair proportion of their diet from hunting. Since th e 1936 census est im ate

was made only on the basis of reports from var ious administrative

officers, while political organization in the h ighlands of Laos was

necessarily sketchy, it is likely that the number of t r ibesmen was con-

siderably greater than indicated by Table 2.

e, Chinese. The Chinese numbered 326,000 according to the 1936

estimate, but this figure does not by any means give a true picture of

their importance.. In th e first place, there have been alternate invasions

by Chinese and peaceful immigration from China for many centuries past,

so that the Chinese element in the Aninamese popula t ion is considerable.

Moreover, th e census estimates may have been in error in omitting many

Chinese, since census coverage was clearly no t complete, and heads of

families may have had reasons for concealing the presence of some rela-

tives, Chinese literature, philosophy and social customs have clearly

been predominant among outside influences on t1Y

Annamese. Chinese



23-

immigrants have almost always gone into commerce, industry or market

gardening, only the eaka immigrants having taken up rice farming

particularly along the northeastern border of Tonkin, They carry on

all sorts of handicraft industries, besideso of th e rice mills

of th e country. The city of Cholon (twin city of Saigon) is at leas t

half Chinese. In this city there were 70 Chinese unions in 1926--.-

an evidence of the Chinese proclivity for organization and mutual aid.

Practically all observers say that the Chinese are more industrious, and

ordinarily more prosperous than the Annamese, but Bobequain States that:

"While he is better informed, more industrious and more methodical than

the native, there is no essential difference between the Chinese and th e

Indochinese; they are very similar in temperament and. attitude of mind."

The Chinese are often found as middlemen between the Government or

large European firms and the Annamese. For instance, they contracted

for many fisheries in the Great Lake, then sub-let their licenses. The

worldwide depression from 1930 on caused many Chinese to return, at' least

temporarily, to their homes, with a consequent decrease in Chinese

population, ana when more prosperous times returned nnamese and Cambod-

ians had a foothold in the rice trade and rice milling, as well as other

former Chinese monopolies.

f. Frenc. Among Europeans the only group of any numerical impor-

tance $e the French. Over 80 percent of the 43,000 "Europeans" according

to Table 2 were French by birth, while about 7 percent were French by nat-

uralization, the latter group consisting of naturalized Annamese and others.

Japanese numbered but 231, against 138 British citizens and 94 Americans.

Of the 36,134 who were French by birth, 14,865 lived in Tonkin and 13,931

in Cochinchina. However, not all of the 36,134 were actually born in



- 24 - igii~P~

France, the following table, which is Table 3 in, Robequain 's forthcoming

book showing the appropriate breakdown:

Table 3

Birthplace of Europeans an d 1 assimilees" according

to sex, 1937

Birtplace Male Female Total

France 13,229 5,816 19,045

French Indochina 7,552 7,886 15,438 J/French India 674 324 998

Other French colonies 1,752 593 2,345

Japan 108 99 207,

Other foreign countries2,796 699 .3,495~Tot known 441 376 817

Totals 26,552 15,793 42,345

Some Annamese women legally married to Frenchmen took steps to secure

French citizenship. This accounts fo r the slight excess of females

over males among French citizens born in French Indochina. Many

others in this group were Eurasians, although the larger part of this

group appears to have been without French citizenship, and frequently,

was absorbed by the native population. Adding the 19,045 who were

born in France to the 1995 children of parents both of whom were born

in France, it appears that 21,040 were definitely French in race, in

addition to a few who were born in French India, Japan, etc., of en-

tirely French parentage. Bobeauain estimates total white population

as 30,000, of whom 10,000 were in the armed forces and 20,000 civilians.

In other words, there was one civilian of French race and national-

ity fo r every thousand of the population, compared with one civilian

born in the British Isles for an estimated 8,000.of the population of

1 In 1995 cases both parents were born in France; in 9,131 cases, themother was born in Indochina; and in 4,638 cases, both parentswere born

in Indochina.



India in 1943. The 10,000 :French soldiers and sailors were a much larger

part of the total populat ion than were the 40,000 British soldiers and.

sailors estimated to live in India in normal times. The occupational

breakdown of the entire group was as follows:

Table 4

Niuber of 'Taropeans and Assimilees" byprofessions, 1937

Professions Number Percent

Forestry and agriculture 705 3.4

Mining and industry 1,172 5.7

Transportation 419 2.0

Trade 1,517 7.4

Banking and Insurance 249 1.2

Liberal professions 1,795 8.8

Army and navy 10,779 52.9

Government officials 3 873 18.6

Total 20,509 100.0

Without profession 21,836

Grand total 42,345

Many observers have commented on th e employment of Frenchmen in

minor posts, some of almost a menial character, for which natives would

be employed in India. However, consideration of th e statistics in Table

4 suggests that the total number of Europeans outside th e armed forces,

and exclusive of Euras ians , was not sufficient to provide a very large

share of the lower civil servents an d clerks in commercial f irms. Robe-

auain reports that there were 4,836 French government officials in 1929,

the worldwide depression being responsible for th e reduction to 3,873

by 1937. The trend was definitely to substitute Annamese for Frenchmen

in th e subordina te posts.

The foregoing description of the Annamese by Consul Rober ts indicates

that their religion is a mixture of Confucianism, and Animism. The Cam-

bodians nearly all professed Buddhism, but also had many animistic be-



26-

liefa and practices, in common with almost all other Buddhists of South.-

east Asia. Catholics numbered about one million, according to rough

estimates, and were formerly th e poores t of th e Annamese. However,

mission education, ' and at t imes special favors in the government and in

th e extensive church-owned estates and plantations, has tended to raise

their social and economic status considerably . Protestant .ssionaries

were reportedly kept out far a t ime, but an American Protestant mission

was established for a number of years prior to the Japanese conquest ,

and had a few thousand converts .

4. Political and administrative divisions. Indochina is divided

into four protectorates (Anniam, Tonkin, Cambodia ard Laos) and one colony

(Cochinchina). The leased territory of Kwangchow ',an was under th e Juris-

diction of th e Governor General of Indochina, but as it is geographically

and otherwise distinct, it is not included in this survey.

The Constitution of French Indochina dates from 1887, just prior to the

entrance of Laos, and places the cou ntry under th e Ministry of Colonies,

whose authority is wielded by th e Governor General, who is this th e only

authorized representative of France. Customs, excise duties, stamp duties

and registry duties are chief among th e revenues which support th e federr-

tion government, while th e departments of public works, agriculture, posts

and telegraphs and mines and industry are leading examples of agencies with

country-wide scope. The defense budget also was handled from Hanoi.

The five "countrie&1t j or states maintained separate administrative

and police organizations, with local budgets f inanced largely from land

revenue and head taxes, plus contributions from the "provinces" or districts

into which each was divided.

~J The French use the term s"pays" of each of the five subdivisions of.Indo-

China.Ry6~rlb



The chart on page 28 outlines the political framework of Indo-China,

while the chart on page 29 shows the typical organizations of the individual

subdivisions of the five "countries" or states. Severa l changes have been

made since 1939, and are not now shown in either chart,

a. Cochinchina. Cochinchina was subdivided into 21 "provinces" or

districts in 1936, plus the cities of' Cholon an d Saigon and th e Ile de Pau1o-

Condore, th e last-named being used as prison colony. The 21 districts were

further subdivided into 212 cantons an d 1,286 village "icomues". In 1931

there had been 23 2 cantons an d 1630 communes, so it is evident that con-

siderable consolidation went on in the meantime, there having been no change

in total area, Saigon is the capital of Cochinchina, and in addition some

of the functions of th e central government were carried on their under the

French, while recent informat ion suggests that th e Japanese are making about

as much use of it as of Hanoi, for purposes of' ontrolling. Indochina as a

whole, The map on page 22c shows th e 21 districts of Cochinchina.

b. Cambodia. The second oldest of the five Indochinese states, Cam-

bodiae was divided into 14 provinces in 1936 plus the city" of Pnom Penh. In

1941. all of Battambang and parts of Siem-reap, Stung-treng and Kompong Thoma

were returned to Thailand, which had lost them 34 years earlier. The map on

page 22d shows Cambodia prior to _1941. Th e provinces o r districts were then

sub-divided into 73 rsroks' and 1,232 "khums". Pnom Penh, the capital, was

separately administered.

c,. Annam. Annam, th e one state in which th e native ruler and civil

service retain some temporal power, had 17 districts in 1936, each with its

French resident. The city of Tourane was separately organized, It was

divided into 638 cantons and 11,187 communes in 1936, against 559 an d 10,751

respectively, in 1931, The map on page 23 a shows th e location of the die-



f2rS 2G -

STRuCriE F GOVERMENP~T IN FRENC INDCHINA6

Grand Counci l ofEconomic and Fin-

ancial Interests

GENERAL OR CENTRALIUNION GOVERNMENT

FRENCH

Governor of

Cochinchina

French

Privy Council ,

Counci l Econ. & Finan.

Interests

1L AND PROVINCIAL ADMINIST

Deense Council

Technical Councils

RATIONS

French Adminis t ra t ive Control Agencies, Bureaus, etc.

Native Administrations of Annam, Cambodia andLuang Prabang; rulers, councils, ministers, etc.

Native Local Administrations---Cantons and Villages

Central and Technical Services

1, Inspect ion General of Public Works

2. Inspect ion General of Sanitation and

Medical Services

3. Inspection General of Mines and Industry

4. Inspection General of Agriculture and

Forests

5. Direction of Judicial Administration, etc.

Resident Sueriors of:

Annam Tonkin Cambodia Laos

Protectorate French Consultative

Council Counci l , Assembly

etc.

r Native Provincial Administrations under Residents

I - - - - - - - -

a j.



LOCAL ADMINISTRATION IN IN1DOCHINA

Advisory Councl Jd Resident de France

ocal officials va vina from place to place

Province

Prefecture

Canton

Commune

orVillage

Cochinchina

Tinli, admnin-istered byan adxinis.-trator.

Delegation, ad-ministered by a

Phu

Tong, by a

Caitong

Xa, by aHuong-Xa

ORGANIZATION OF A "?ROVINCW"

Tonkinand Annam Cambodia

Tinh, administered by het, adminis-a Tuan--phu or Tong-.doc tered by a Cbau-

faikhe t

Huyen or Phu, by aTri-Huyen or Ti..

Phu

Tong, by a Chauh-tong

Xa, by a Council ofNotables, presidentbeing a Lytru'o'ng orChauh hu'o'ng hons

Srok, by a Cbau-

faai sok

Khand, by aChaufa ilchand

Knum, by aMekhum

Lma

Province, by a Res-

ident de France

Muong, by a Chaumuong

Canton, by a Phoban

Ban, by a Taseng

id Cochinchina and Annam only.



RESTRICTED - 30 -

ANNAM

DENSITY OF POPULATION

LEGEND

0- 25

26- 50

51 -100

101-200

201-400

401-800

OVER 800

D.D.43-757-A





-32- -tricts. Hue, once capital of a large part of what is now Indochina, re-

mains th e capital of Annem.

d. Tonkin. Previous to 1886 Tonkin was part of the realm of Annam.

Since 1886 it has come more and more under direct French rule, but not as

completely so as Cochinchina. The map on page 34 shows the 27 districts

of Tonkin, plus th e two separately adminis te red cities of Hanoi and Haiphong.

The former is both capital of Tonkin and of Indochina. The three frontier

districts of Lai-chau, Laokay and Son-la were administered directly by

French military officers, and th e xpumber of communes and cantons is not

known. The remainder of Tonkin had 1,233 cantons an d 8,835 communes in

1936, a slight increase over 1931.

e. Laos. The largest, most sparsely populated and most backward

state in Laos, some of its mountain areas, inhabited by prt itv0 tribes,

never having been brought under constant and effective French rule. Luang

Prabang, far up th e Mekong, has its own king, whose status within his own

district appears to be similar to that of th e King of Cambodia within that

stated Laos entered the French empire by negotiation and conquest (mostly

th e forer) in 1893 and 1904, the French officials gradually acquiring

practically all governmental power. The capital is Vient iane, with. a

1936 populat ion of about 9,000. The map on page 35 shows the location of

the ten districts, which were divided into 63 timuongsn and lkongs", there

being 8,547 village communities enumerated by th e census, and an unknown

but nossibly large number not enumerated.



DENSITY OF POPULATIONLEGEND

LiiD.0. 43 -755-A

0- 25

26 - 50

51 -100

101- 200

201-400&

40 1-800

OVER 800

COCHINCHINA ...

"ka"

. d.

J,



~..."""""""""", iYii ...

r r r . ..~~f = r)' '~ ~ ~ ~ rI.......................... r r' r r ............ ,,.

f 1 y~ ic 1~ . ......

t r + ...............2~~ """''''"""'''' '~~~~~~

""'""''''''""'"'~ ~~~~~"' "' ' ' ' ' ' ' ""' ' ' ""' "'""""""""""~

r ~~~~~ ~~ ~~.. ......

~We

p.F/4

Eli7A51 -100 40 1-800 OVER 800 D. D. 43-756-A

5~-1~~



4 - 35-

LAOS

DENSITY OF POPULATIONLEGEND

® ~0-

5- 9

LII 10-14

~Y OVER 20

D.0. 43-758-A



-36-

Ii. THE, PEOPLE~

A. Po';)ula.tion Statistics,

Th e nearest aproach to a census ever made fo r the whole of French

Indo.china was that of 1931, and officials admit ted that they made errors

as great as 50 percent in estimating th e Chinese population of some of

the cities. Concerning this subject Gourou, who presumably assisted in

census work, writes as follows: /

'tThe 1931 census was made in th e same manner as that of 1926, th e

first census ever made in Tonkin. Before that time we were con-

tent with a mere est imate.

"\e wished to learn in 1931 th e real demography of the area, an d we

asked each village to fill out printed forms where, opposite each

fam ily name, th e village authorities were reauired to write, in

successive columns, th e number of old .persons over fifty years of

age, th e number of married adults between 15 and 50, the number of

bachelors between 15 and 50, th e number of children under 15 years

of age.....,Such forms display a worthy improvement over those

in use in th e past.

"However, they are not free of criticism for blunders made in setting

them up. We asked the village authorities to write in th e first

column th e name of the head of the family; but we did no t define what

was meant by the phrase , and in fact in Annam this expression may

have several meanings. The result is that, from one village to an -

other, we may find the average number of persons to a family vary

from four to ten, according to a narrow or broad interpretation given

to th e term "head of a family".......In th e second column th e villager

was asked to state 'the place of origin or race3

of th e heads of

families---a confusing quest ion on two distinct an d separate subjects.

In the thi rd.colum n we were asked to give the lethnic classification';

is this not th e same thing as race, and how can we ask th e simple

peasant to answer truthfully such poorly-formulaited questions? The

1habi tua l profession of the fami ly ' was to be shown, following columns

reserved to th e general composition of the family. Another confus-

in g quest ion, one that should not have been asked, or which should

have been asked differently......was whether the family cultivated

lands they owned, or leased or rented, and fur thermo re

SiRul translationfom "Les Paysans du Delta Tonkinois", op. cit.



37 -a

whether they exercised. a non-agricultural profession, and

whether some member of the familyr were away from the

village for a large hart of the year. The form ends with

a. pleasantry---the vi11age authorities were requestedI to

specify whether the famlly could provide for its own needs

or if it required assistance---a very delicate Guestion, much

too subtle to be asked in a census, The village authorities

replied to this question with th e freest f intasy, One must

praise the moderation of th e villagers who merely replied that

no assistance was required for the m ajori ty of families."

The census figures for 1936, as shown in Appendix A, were taken from

th e Annuaire Statistique de 'lndochine, an d represent an est imate.

It must be noted that the completeness of a census procedure in Indo-

china depends on th e intelligence, thoroughness an d cooperat ion of all

th e local village heads, many of whom must have been barely literate,

and ouite unaware of the importance of complete an d accurate returns.

There is no available evidence that officials who thoroughly understood

th e census supervised closely th e entries made by th e village officials.

On general. considerations it may be supposed that th e census was very

complete for Europeans, fairly complete for Annamese (who were better

educated than the other races) and quite incom rlete for the ±ill tribes.

Regarding th e latter there is a definite official statement that hill

tracts in parts of Cambodia (i. e. Stung-treng) were not included in the

es t im ate . The much more efficient Burma census made no pretence of cover-

in g the least accessible 11 percent of the country's area, and probably

more than 11 percent of Indochina was equally inaccessible in 1936.

The Chinese were the subject of special laws and regulations and

tended to group together by families, often being organized into secret

societies, It is thought by former residents of Indochina that th e head

of a housebld, in answering th e census enumerator, world fail to mention

some of his temporary guests, particularly if th e latter were on secret



missions of one kind or another , or were afraid of legal regulation or

taxation.

Gourou points out the esseatially . uatl2 of th e Tonkin. elta,

even though its populat ion averages 43 0 per square ki lometer , rising in

some places to over 1000 per square ki lometer . The landscape remains

rural, and th e inhabitants remain peasants, even though as many as 10,000

of them may be found in one large village or continuous group of villages,

On the other hand, he states that there are some cities (villes) with a

population of only 2,000, but without the distinctly rural orientation of

life. He measured one area of 37,000 square meters, being a °smal l Tonkin

village, ard found that 13 percent of the total area was covered by houses.

he also calculated that villages covered about 10 percent of th e total*

area of th e Delta. Aerial photographs show villages at very short inter-

vals, and confirm the-reasonableness of h is estimate.

Maps on th e five pages immediately following this show the population

density of each of the five states in 1936. It should be noted that a

different scale is used for Laos, since that state is so much more sparsely

populated than the others. It will also be noted what a large proportion

of total population is concentrated in the two chief deltas.

The age distribution of liuropeans shows 8,037 of 26,552 males in the

age group. The same ag e groups contained a somewhat smal ler proportion

of women, since a larger proportion of women. consis ted of Annamese who

had secured rrench citizenship by naturalization, and would normally

spend their entire lives in Indochina.

too=8



- 39

Present-day Cambodian dancers assume posltions of ancient

carvings.

The royal elephant in ceremony outside the palace wall, at Hue,

capital of A di





-41-

w 1Ceremonyt the enthronement of His Majesty Bao Dai. The great

Thai Hoa Palace at Rue, capital ,of Annam.

mandarins in court costume prostrate themselves before the



Tribespeople brought in from the hills. Meo-Blanca at left front,Man-Coos at right front, and Man-Tiens behind. Nguyen Binh,Tongking, 1932.

Illustration No. 12.

Street scene at Savannakhek, on the Mekong, Laos, 1932.



An aerial view of' he fA.mous Ancient ruins at Angjkor-Vat, north-

western tip of Camnbodia.



44-

Table 2 on page 19 above indicates the racial distribution by states.

Further breakdowns are not available, except for Europeans. Table ,5 hows the

distribution between different nationalities of the "European" population in 1936.

Table 5

European and Assimilated Poylation

by State and by Nationality

ationality

MALES

Frenh

By birth

By naturalization

Total

Foreigners:

Japanese

British

Americans (U.S.A.)

Others

Total

Nationality not known

FEMALES

_Frenc ::

By birth

By naturalization

Total

Foreigners:

Japanese

British

Americans (U.S.A.)

Others

Total

Nationality not known

MALES PLUS FEMALES

French:

By birth

By naturalization

Total

Foreigners:

Japanese

British

Americans

Others

Total

Najpnaity not known

Cam-

Annam . bodia

3,084

111

3,195

1,336

55

1,391

3

2

6

27

38

Cochin-

chi rqa

8,582

60?

9,189

60

43

23

173

299

22 3? 65

1,464

135

1,599

937

97

1,034

3

913

25

5,349

86?

6,216

42

23

11

111

187

9 128

4,548

246

4,794

29

10

29

55

123

2,273

152

2,425

6

2

15

63

13,931

18,474

15,405

102

66

34

284

486

Indo-

Laosq Tonkin china

313 9,427

11 377

324 9,804

48

45

12

1,852

1,957

22,742

1.161

23,903

127

94

56

2,087

2,364

160

204 -5,438

458

232 5,896

1

6

7

285

13,392

1585

14,977'

46

14

3

65

128

104

44

38

324

410

40626

51? 14,865

39 835

556 15,700

1

1

17

65 46 193

94

59

15

1,917

2,085

1 386

36,134

2,,746

38,880

231

138

94

2,311

2,774

691

SOIRCE: Annuaire Statistique de l'Indochine 1936-1937, page 23.

k ~



DoS

othcaaproaebowHap

Swsfomao

ooh

bacan

Tanaow td

Via

bdthbhampanvfshnviage oDoHal in

lefbk

(1938)



The only imnmigrant group which is numerically important is th e Chi-

nese , and they are much less numerous in Indochina than in Thailand or

Malaya, and are both less numerous and, less economically important than

th e Indians in Burma prior to the present war. Table 6 on page 26a shows

the "controlled" or iown immigration an d emigration of foreigners in

1938, It is doubted if the figures fo r Chinese are complete, in view of

the long common border with China, and the still longer coastline open

to visits from Chinese Junks.

No detailed statistics fo r occupations are available, fo r one author-

ity estimates the number engaged in handicrafts such as basket-making,

carpentry, pottery, etc. as 1,400,000. Those engaged in modern indus-

try, mining and transport are estimated at 200,000. Most of the remain-

der of the gainfully-employed population was engaged in agriculture,

except for the mercantile community, and most of the latter consisted

of small shopkeepers. The Chinese are outstanding in commerce, small

industry and mining.

Of the estimated 200,000 engaged in industry, mining, etc., 49,200

were employed in mining in 1937, according to official figures, and

13,000 in railway and other transportation. Thus the pattern of employ-

ment was very similar to that of neighboring countries.

B. Cultural characteristics.

1. amil, The culture of the Annamese is distinctly Chinese, and

hence the authority of the. father is very great, while the family is the

center of Annamese life and society, The village has been called "an

enlargement of the family, just as the state is nothing more than an ex-

panded village." Although the father's authority is in theory absolute,

in practice it is now consiaerably less than absolute, Polygary



Table 6

Controlled IMi.ration of~Foreig Asiatics byStates

Immigt

Cownr

CHINESE

Annam

Cochinchina

Tonkin

Indochina total

3II IN DINSAnnam

Cochinchina

Tonkin

Indochina total

OTHER ASIATICSAnnam

Cochinchina

Tonkin

Men

26,027

Women Children Total

1,822

14,694

299

43$

2

21

203

9, 66$1,061

35,727

12,704 53,425

525

4

5

46328

106

3$ 480

Men

619

8,233

19,885

Women Children

7,129

9,952

303

404

2

16

5

22$

5,206

Total

1,060

20, 56$

7,734 37,571

8 35

Indochina Total

SOURCE: Statistics fuirnished by local administration

Annuxaire Statistique de l'Indochine, 1936-37, p. 33.

24 32

35 444



-48-

(concubinage) is permitted, but is practiced by few except for th e richest

.Pnnamese, such as high officials. Annamese law gives the mother considers,-

ble influence in actual family management, although she is not an impor-

tant part of the scheme of religious workship, as is th e father. ObseZre'se

believe the Annamese woman to have a higher status than her Chinese sister,

Parents ordinarily arrange marriages, as in most other countries of Asia.

Divorce is a matter of mutual consent , also as in most neighboring countries

of Asia, (except that China has in t roduced legal formalities for divorce

since th e accession to power of th e Kuomintang). There is a strong sense

o f moral responsibility, however, which prevents divorce from being par-

ticularly common.

Gourou writes that:

"The peasants are desirous of an aoundant posteri ty, as a guar-

antee that the ancestor cult will be mainta ined. When a husband

cannot obtain. a male heir from his wife he takes a second spouse;

an d only an extraordinary reason will prevent him from so doing.

Moreover, th e taking of a. second wife does not always compel the

head of the family to pay compensation. Certain peasants es-

tablish a second household a distance from their customary dom-

icile, at th e other end of the village,, where th e second wife

formerly earned her living in a minor enterprise or in housemaid

work. W ell-to-do-.men , on th e other hand, who have sufficient

offspring, nevertheless take one or two concubines. Polygamy,

whether of religious or sensual origin, places beforeus in-

teresting problems which unfortunately we cannot solve with the

material placed at our disposal. T'hat is the ratio of poly-

gamy? We have been unable to ascertain a definite percentage,

bu t in a poor village of 500 inhabitants we found four concu-

bines, Moreover there are no bachelors. . . ."

It is assumed that in richer yjllSegs there would be more than

four concubines fo r 500 inhabitants. Presumably th e absence of many

Tonkinese men in Cochinchina, on special contract work for a per iod of

years makes it possible for each remaining man to have at least one wife,

while a fe w have two or three.

Prostitution is uncommon in the rural villages which house the



49 -

great majority of th e population, but is ful~y as prevalent in Saigon

and the other large towns as in Oriental cities generally, there being

both licnsed houses and clandestine establ isbments . Venereal disease

is a common cause of sterility, even in rural areas.

Concerning the general social relations of a Tonkin village,

Gourou writes:

"An important characterist ic in th e social life of the Tonkinese

village is th e absolute control of public opinion in the private

life of everyone. The village is a coxrmninity of which moral

bygiene requires that everyone perform exactly his civil and re -

ligious duties, The lack of filial piety carries an intervention

from th e authorit ies who inflict a fine on th e guailty person.

There is 'also th e publicity of household scenes, th e discontented

wife calling to all neighbors and friends to help carry her com-

plaints before the notables. One frequently notices, when passing

through a village, a magistrate-like scene being conducted, where-

in a wife with a grievance against her husband or against her

husbands s second wife or a neighboring female, casts the sharp-

est insults possible. The actress, for that is undoubtedly th e

most suitable word for the heroine of th e scene, exhausts all

the resources of her vocal cords and of her imagination to be-

little her v ic t im , However, she herself is often th e victim of

her own theatrical display, and it is thus that th e grand drama

of th e "na va1

, the wife, after unrnly and ludicrous gesticu-

lations,rolls on the ground and finally lies half conscious in

a cataleptic fit."

2. Church and Religion, Religion an d politics have never been com-

pletely separated in th e Annamese lands. The rperor of Annam has been

shorn of most of his temporal power, an d exists now more as pope than as

wulew, Marndarins have had Impott spiritual as well as temporal respon-

sibilities, On the other hand, th e majority of French scholars give great

prominence to the work of French Catholic missions in paving th e way for

French rule in Indochina, an d in securing th e cooperation of th e natives

in French administration, Vhen Freemasons have been in responsible po-

sitions, Cathol ic inf luence has been greatly curtailed, however.

The Buddhist areas of Cambodia and Laos have a religion similar to

that of Thailand, Burma and Ceylon, th e numerous bonzes or monks exerting



50

great influence, The Conf cian-like ancestor worship of the Annamese

has few oriests, th e family elders ordinarily performing all religious

r i tes. Throughout Indochina, however, animism is very important in ac-

tual worship, being mingled with Confuacianism, Taoism and. Buddhism in a

manner which does no t strike worshippers as at all inconsistent ,

Religious freedom is th e nile, and fanaticism seldom encountered,

although religion is woven ,more intimately into the fabric of life of

all races of present-day Indochina than is th e case with most countries

of t]rope or North America. In particular, the underlying animism or

spirit worship endows with religious significance a great variety of

acts which have no religious significance at all to western peoples .

3. Social Stratification. A hierarc1 of mandarins .iled the

Annamese prior to th e introduction of French administration. Even yet

th e mandarin system is of some importance, particularly in Annam. In

prestige, education and weal th they ordinarily exo most if not all

other classes except th e royal families of Annam and Cambodia. As in

China, it is possible for the particularly ambit ious, intelligent and

fortunate members of lower classes to aspire to the mandarinate, which

is in itself divided into nine classes, each of tw o degrees . The in-

troduction of French rule, with different qualifications for admission

to the higher official posts, has changed the mandarinate drastically,

and western-educated officials have come to be the rule.

The introduction of French control, br inging with it a western type

of commerce and industry further changed the social condition by per-

itting some individuals to acquire prominence as industrialists and

merchants on a scale hitherto 'unknown. The large landowners were in the

best position to furnish the necessary capital to exploit the new po-ssi-



- 51-

bilities of economic gain.

Basically, Indochinese society has been, until recently at least,

built around th e village or commune. Part of the members of th e commune

owned land , an d part d id not . There was fairly clear social demarcation

between the two groups within th e commune, and it was from the former that

the village "notables" who comprised th e village counci l were elected.

The commune was strongest in Annam, somewhat weaker in Tonkin, and had

become little more than. an ordinary oriental village in Cochinchina. The

commuune was responsible for all aspects of local government, including

the suppression of crime an d collection of taxes. rrench administration

has tended to centralize control, leaving few functions for th e village

notables.

The impact of fluropeans, and of Chinese immigrants , upon Annamnese

social . life has been such that "Ancient hierarchies have seen

their power lessen; new social classes have been created; the de-

velopment of capitalist enterprise has gradual ly increased the num-

ber of wage earners; a new elite has been formed, particularly

among th e Annamese, based on new activities in t roduced by the

Elaropeans. Encouraged by the increased wealth and education which

it has been given, and exposed to Western ideas, science and tech-

niues, this class also hopes for a more important place in th e

government of their country.0 i/

1 Oh. Robeauain "The Economic Evalution of rench Indochina," American

edition due in April, 1944.



- 52 -

Pierre Gourou ~J who lived in Tonkin fo r a number of years, has

given a remarkably intimate picture of the political and social struc-

ture of a Tonkin village. The excellence of his report seem to justify an

extensive Quotation which, in rough translation, is as follows:

"It-is impossible to write of the Tonkinese peasant without mentioning

the life of a village. We do not possess nor have the ability to do a

sociological study of a village, but we cannot entirely ignore the

moral and social world of the peasant. Life in a' illage, although

dull and miserable in apearance, is facinating and rich in emotions---it provides interest and excitement to the peasant. The numerous events

of the political, religious and social life of the peasant provide

him with the opportunity to have the satisfaction of leadership, an

abundance of festivities, the rancor of defeat, the bitterness of a

subjugated. humiliation, the pleasures of intrigue, the pomp of a beau-

tiful feast in which all villagers participate with unanimous entli--

siasm. Al things help to make him forget his humble condition, and

compensate his nitiful resources, forgetting the indebtedness that

oppresses him and the repayment of which will absorb the greater part

of his meager revenues.

1 Op. cit.

I,

~e~Jrrm



"'Phe village is an autonomous, self-administered community. It settles

the differences which arise between its inhabitants, and collects the

taxes required Y$ ie state. The state has no dealings with th e ipdividual

'citizens, but deals with the communes, which, after fulfilling their

obligations to the government , govern themselves.

"This village independence is no sham. It is mnifested. in the following

-o)roverb: the king' s la gives way to village customs, the mandarin is in

a hurry but the people are not; if the mandarin is in a hurry, let him

swim and go on his ay. It is also manifested b7% the following exar-ole:

One day it was noticed, that tie ly tru.'o'ng of a village in Thai Binh Pro-

vince, who, theoreical'T had held that position for thirty years, was

sligitly over thirty years of age! After verifyin:' these facts it was as-

certained that this pjarticuiar village, in order to avoid administrative

difficulties and the ayr ient of miscellaneous expenses required by officials

at election time, had agreed to keep the same v trut o'r in powe r theo-

retically, granting to his son or nephew the ..powers of the retired ly trutol

ng. The newly-consti tuted iy tr u ' o'ng would keep th e name of his -re-decessor. when presenting himself before the authorities. In several cases in-

dividua.ls not kownto the administration had carried the village managerial

fuhctions effectively. quite often villages are given fictitious names

instead of th e legal ones. In rare instances more registered persons than

actually exist are, listed in a village and th e forms which the ly truo'ng

receives in excess are the object of a profitable trade. The ly tru.'o'ng

sells them to strangers who wish to change their identity, each form being

sold in accordance with the seriousness of the cr ime of the murchaser. As

a wi-ole the village shows no inclination to m ke 1kom its real position

to th e authorities.

"This village independence is temmered by understandings with nearbyvillages an d sometimes with distant ones. These have as origin the set-

ting up; of a new village as a colony of a.n old one, th e new village re-

maining closely attached to th e o ld one. Another reason for such under-

standings is security. There e::iste today in the Sikia.ng Delta of China,

police associations formed by villages, whereby a. village which is

threatened by bandits receives aid from neighboring villages. In Tonkin

also such villages were spontaneously organized to -provide for mutual

assistance, to provide for collective security and to settle internal con-

flicts without the assistance of the authorities. These unions are called

'dao hao' or 'gia.o hieu'. wrhenever there is a festival in one of the

united villages, the others send envoys made u-a of notables carrying ban-

ners representing the village spirits. The invited nota:blrl<s participate

in tha; ritual festivities, after having aresented their gifts. Allied

villages assist one another and above all do not take recourse to legal

proceedings. In case of epidemic disease, fire or typhoon affecting one

of th e villages, th e other members of th e association must render assis-

t-nce an d bring money, grain, animals and. other i tems. =Plus - re the

villages of...........united, and morever they are imown under th e common

name of 2Niian Muc or Ka I~oc.

~i,~~i~;:.. ..~* I..L P~' ~i~,~-B ~i14 i



- 54

"This all iance is of religious nature; th e titular heads of villages

being brothers. Tbus villages celebrate on th e same day the, feast of

their patrons.... Periodical ly, however, th e villages organize a feast

in common, each having its turn. These occasions provide for th e

meetings of th e village heads. These villages have built a school and

support it, jointly......

"The chief problem which really dominates th e political life of thevillage and which preoccupies th e attention of th e peasant .above all

is that of his classification in precedence regulations. This order

of precedence varies from village to village. Prior to his becoming

a notable th e peasant jealously requires those whose names are listed

after his on th e roster to respect his rank. The principle of rank ac-

cording to age is followed. Ordinarily the notables are made up of th e

following= th e elders (cac cu, bo); civilianaz d military mandarins;

the retired performers 6f the village spiritual cu"lt (ca± dam); the

educated; the retired administrators of th e village or canton (which

properly speaking' comprise the 1kr muc); and those who have purchased

in th e village a title of nhieu. Wie note from th e fore-going that

rigid convention prevails .and that its practice is extremely diversified

as between villages. But of greatest importance is the ardent desire of

th e peasant to be a notable. He m-ray achieve his ambition in certain

cases with the aid of the leaders, or he may be elected through intrigue,

or become a notable because of seniority. , Once a notable, he will expect

to receive th e honors due him, above all, one must not forget to hand him,

at large communal festivals, th e portion of the gifts to which he is en

titled. The head of the hog, which is the prise portion, is reserved,

according to th e customs of each village, to either the tien chi or to

certain notables. To deprive a notable of the pigs head is to offend

him deeply, and the notable will leave no stone unturned and may even

squander all his belongings to ascertain from the mandarin the cause of

the inslta ("a mouthyu of meat which is rights lly due at the village

feast is worth more than a basket of purchased meat") Social status

among the Annemites has lost none of its meaning and the foregoing quo-

tation gives a clear idea of the keen rivalry which may be occasioned

in matters concerning procedure.

"3esides this hierarchic classification th e villgers are placed in sumb

divisions which bear names difficult to defines The 'thonis is a hemlet

which may have its dinh, its cshu, and its cr1 al customs, The , m:

is a geographical division of a village or of the the; for le,

houses bordering on the same street form a mom Thetgiap is mostly a

religious grouiping to which one belongs by birth and whih has as its centera @pesial temple. Contrary to the practice in China, the elan, or groupof persons having the Same name, has no political significance, and, witg

cut doubt, that is one of the most distinctive AnnAmite institutions,

"low is the cc § governed? According to the regime established, in 11T,

the administration of the cc e fictions regularly in conformity withthe following plan; A cc mal council is comjos ed of persons (toe b s)elected by the familis; at the head of the council oishe oh@ '®ng hol,

president of the cc mal council, the most important person of the village,

This council has under its 3urisdiction deputies who Eatry out instructions,



a secretary and treasurer, both of whom are members of the council, and

above all a ly tnto' g, charged with th e application of the measures

decreed by th e council , and with representing the village before the su -

perior authorities, All decisions of th e communal council are subject

to th e veto of the' council of notables. This body does not pass orders

on complicated matters, and we would not consider it adapted to th e per-

formance of duties undertaken by th e communal. authorities,-, and to th eQuibbling spiritof the Annemite,

"Hppily, in actual practice, matters simpir themselves and very often

authority is placed in th e hands of a. man who owes his influence to his

prestige as mandarin, or his scholarship, or to his ability, or his powers

of intrigxe, Generally, th e master of th e village is the notable-.in-chief,th e tien chi, chief of th e association of l i teracy (tu' van).

"It s th e logical and normal situation which gives to public affairs a

peacefu l solution when th e tien chi condescends to be chanh huloing hoi.

Th e chief not ;tble cannot be impeached and no one can ever take away his

title nor do without his approval. However there are villages where theinfluential 'person is no t th e chief notable, but the ly tni'oing, or la

certain o ld man who advanced himself , while yelling continuously, injuring

everyone, making the mayor (maire) the m, yor' s aide, and the chief elders

tremble,,,..his authority is due to th e politeness which eve yone shows him.,

"It is with the 1master of the village' whom one must deal in settling any

matter whatever in the village, For example, in order to purchase a piece

of land., the approval of the master of the village must be obtained, orotherwise the recording will not be made, Opposition by this influential

person is certain if the proper procedures are not followed, $seasoned1

with appropriate 'spices',

"The ly tru' o -nng has much to . do with the administration of th e village. He

collects taxes, places requests before the authorities, and supervises pub-lic works, A mere representative agent with no authority whatever, he, intimes past, held himself responsible before th e mandarin for ,every act or

deed of the village although he had no power to prevent those deeds, It

was said jokingly that to be the ly trm to'ng one must possess buttocks

armor-plated with two stalks of dried arecanuts, or else they must be asWard as blocks of wood, because the ly tru oing was often on the receiving

end of cane stokes for the errors committed by the village,

"The communal administration has a program which is much wider in scope than

that of the municipal counci l for a commune in France, It does riot satisfy

itself merely with regulating minor affairs, but it also collects state

taxes and above all considers religious matters, and particularly those con-

cerned with the organization of festivities. The feasts which the village

must organize are very numerous . , , ,These feasts provide an interest not

merely religious, but also definitely gastronomic,.......,he notables dhe-

liberate on var ious matters, ordinarily while eating, and when the meal is

paid for by th e commune they meet on every available occasion, Besides

public entertainrluents the notables are invited to numerous private or semi-

private feasts..,.In large cities they are almost assured of free meals

556



- 56 -

practically every day. 14 have been able to state that 'The communal ad-

m inistration consists primarily in eating and to explain how th e gentry

supply meals and how they must provide mealst and that th e chief activity,

of th e notables consists.... in eating on ever- occasion and to see that all

those whose turn has come to supply him with a meal feed him well. '

"In coformity with the bustoms of th e country th e notables do not govern

without bribery, and devote most of their attention to squeezing money from

the citizens. This condition is equally in vogue among the influential

notables. Th e notables are ever ready to increase tax'es by a certain per-

cent; th e greater portion of th e increase flowing into their pockets. They

mae unnecessary trips to the headquarters o f th e huyen or th e phu to ob-

tain sundry fees, ancd to claim of their co-citizens exceptional contribu.-

tions..... A distinguished mandarin told us that one day a group of not, _es

of a village came to his residence to offer him a gift of two hundred pias-

tres so that an embankment scheduled to be constructed within th e confines

of thevillage would not be

undertaken.It was a ridiculous

demand,because

th e embaniknent was really useful . However, th e notables had convinced their

co-citizens of the harmfulness of th e undertaking, and had obtained from them

an exceptionally large contribution of four bmndred piastres, half of which

was being offered as a bribe. This case dbviously showed e;:tortion. In such

a case, however, public interest would be the loser if the mandarin became

angered, punishing the notables and denouncing them to the inhabitants, for

none would comprehend this severity. It is necessary to arrange these matters

with delicacy, so that no one loses face, The peasants are not disturbed by

these intrigues, but propose to imitate them should they prove helpful. One

is really astonished at th e cunning, craftiness and intrigue of which a

s imple peasant is capable, when his shabby appearance would make one believe

that he sees no farther than the nose of his ox.

"Whether the activity of th e notables is disinterested or the result of bri-

bery it removes th e discontent of a larger or'smaller number of the villagers,

thus helping to create a political party for support of the notables. Ri-

valries are unfolded because of various petty causes, wherein each is intent

of making h is opponent lose face. Matters go so far at times that a portion

of th e village refuses to take part in ritual festivities and to pay taxes.

The protesting group organizes a 'giap' and gives a special feast to th e

group. Party rivalry gives th e authorities information concerning th e doings

of th e villagers, an d from accusat ions made against the party in power one

uncovers hidden activities, such as th e illicit manufacture of alcohol."



- 57 -

The social structure of Cambodia was somewhat similar to tha't

of Annam, except that Sanscrit and.Pall were th e languages in which

th e officials had to excell, whilethere was a fairly distinct

class----

loosely called "Brahmans" from which officials were formerly recruited,

The French impact upon the Cambodian social structure has apparent ly

been th e same as that in Annam and Tonkin.

4, Qiiasi- public and private organizations, Secret societies have

flourieh d among the Annamese fo r centuries, being both rural and urban

in composit ion. In recent decades some of these societies have had a

political and nationalist character, but information on the subject is

almost completely unavailable, . The Cao Dai movement, starting in Tay linh,

Cochinchina, spread northward rather rapidly after the first World War. It

was ostensibly an Iectic religious 'movement, bu t its interest in politics

soon made it the object of suspicion and opposi t ion on the part of th e

French. Numerous revolutionary movements were founded in Tonkin, bu t as

they are essentially political parties, they will not be discussed at this

point.

Since th e coming to power of Admiral Decoux in 1940 the Vic1r French

have attempted to counter Japanese propaganda among Annamese nationalists

by a youth movement, consisting of strong athletic emphasis , with trans-

country bicycle races, parades, camps, uniforms and various types of ath-

letic contests. They. have reportedly been fairly successful in appealing

to the sporting instinct as well as th e vanity of Annamese youth.



-,58 -

Chambers of Commerce and of Abricaltuire, etc. are not very

numerous, but they are of consideraible economic an d political

importance.The former are described as

foliowaby. French

author: j

"The Chambers of Commerce are composed of officials whose number may

not be less than 11 nor more than 21, Alternate officials are made up of

Wrench and. Native merchants in equal proportion.

"Similarly as in M etropolitan Prance, th e Wrench members are elected

by Wrench merchantmen and merchantwomen, while those of th eNatives

are

designated by an electoral body made up of merchants of both sexes.

"Each official serves. a term of four years. Half of th e officials are

subject to th e re-election every two years; there is no limit to the number

of re-elections,

"Chambers.of Commerce supply the public with information of interest

to th e economic life of th e Colony, give counsel and propose improvements.

They publish market reports, official reports of their meetings and of mis-

cellaneous economic information. They are charged with the building and,

supervision or management of ports, and of certain useful commercial and

industrial establishments.

"They have personnel budgets and receive financial grants,

"There are, truly stated, only three Chambers of. Commerce in Indochina:

One at Saigon; one at Haiphong; and th e third at Hanoi."

SEste Grandel, Le Development economique de. 1'Indo chine Pranciase,

1936, p. 169, roughly translated.



5. Out etaadi alities and. labi<a ppearance a great many

Annamese could pass for Chinese, With. a basicaly Cahinese culture, there

is great similarity in other respects. Most observers credit them with

considerable intelligence, but some state that centuries of oppression,

domestic and foreign, have caused them to regard cleverness an d deception

more highly than trixthfuJness and courage. The enervating climate, with

annual typhoons may be responsible for making the Annamese more fatalist

and less energetic than the Chinese. The following summary of characteri-

tics of the leading races is quoted from a French study: 21"The Annamite is generally of small stature, th e female even more

so , and is rather thin because of uerouria wet. The cranium is

braclycephalic, th e hair is thick and. black, and is worn long, th e

forehead rounded, the cheek.-bones projectin g, the eyes repressed,

narrow anr. impassive, The nose is very broad and crushed-like, th e

mouth large and the teeth regular but not agreeable to look at because

of their being blackened. with la.c varnish; the lips are thick and the

beard light and scanty0

r On the whole, doubt less because of the sustained oppression of the

people for centuries, th e Roby siognomy of th e Annamite remains impassive,does not generally show any exterior sign of pleasure or of suffering.

As for the body, th e l imbs are fairly well developed and strong enough

on the peasant, while they are thin an d scrawny on the city dtweller.

As for th e color of the skin, it passes from yellowish-white or waxey

on th e former to dark brown and even leathery on th e latter, ./ The

characteristic trait of the race is designated by the Chinese under

th e name Gio-chi (bifurcated feet) that is to say, the large toe,

very pronounced, spreads markedly from the other toes of th e feet.

"Exceedingly prolific by nature and religion, attached to the land on

th e one hand, because they are rice growers above all, and to th e fam-

ily and community on th e other hand, by their practice of ancestor wor-

ship, the Annamites live in very compact groups in th e deltas of Co-

chinchina, of Annam and especially in that of Tonkin, where the culti-

21 Auguste Mandel, 'La developement economique de lXndochine

Francaise, Saigon, 1936, pp. 8-11 a rough translation.

~/ The translation is literal, but it is surmised that th e author inad-

vertently t ransposed "formert

and "latter".



vated area of each family property is reduced by the density of the

population which at times exceeds 600 per square kilometer. Moreover,they must scheme and work, almost without let-up, to obtain their

food from the bid of land which they exhaust by repeated plantings. Te

provide more easily for their needs they frequently carry on a small

traditional, primitive, family industry. But this industry always

remains, in principle, subordinate to agriculture.

.-Shrewd, endowed with a good memory, they appear td adapt themselveseasily to occidental customs. However, their assimilation is almost

always factitious, for, as soon as they find themselves in their own

midst they return, most frequently, to their ancestral customs without

any modification. Skillful, they create works of art, but of a grim-

acing type not agreeable to the European taste.

"Intelligent, they have the taste fo r learning and cherish philosophic

studies. Inversely, they are seldom attracted to the material and prac

t ical studies of commerce and industry.

"But if the Annamites are shrewd, skillful, intelligent, industrious,

if their activities correspond rightfully to their physical consti-

tution, which resists the debilitating influence of the tropical cli-mate, if they are servile, they lack, nevertheless, an enterprising

spirit. Moreover, especially in the cities, they are often tricksters,and at times deceitful and insolent. Finally their great exterior dis-

play of politeness is not always a sincere expression of good will and

respect.

"The Cambodian or Khmer is fairly tall and well proportioned. His slen-

der appearance is without the slouchiness which one notices in the An-namite. By the shape of his head he resembles the European. His eyesare well opened and expressive, so is his entire physiognomy. His hair

is fine and usually cut 'brush fashion.' Very gay, he prefers to dis-

tract himself while playing or while working. For his amusements everyoccasion is favorable to him and recreation is obtained from numerous

village festivals, family reunions and particularly from religious cere-monies. In Cambodia, theatrical performances always attract large

audiences.

"The Cambodian school is the pagoda, where the bonze (Buddhist priest)while teaching the child to read and write, expounds the ascetic and

contemplative life of Buddhism. Later, and fo r the remainder of his

life, the child---now grown to manhood---remembers this teaching, andin gratitude to his teachers he practices

without let-upaBuddhismwhich is not always without superstition and animism.

"As intelligent as the Annamite, the Cambodian is anxious to listen to

the bonze as the latter tells him of the history of Buddhism and of the

great Khmer race----impressive as well as naive history, full of lyric

poetry which fills the hearer with enthusiasm.

"As artist, he reproduces in agreeable style, truly charming, everytabloid which the natural luxuriance of the -country unfolds profuselybefore his eyes.



61 -

"Endowed with a natural honesty and loyalty, and also with a hospitable

disposition, his life flows through a gentle tranquillity of soirit and

custom. However, if he has the misfor tune to become adicted to liquor,

he may, after excessive drinking, become brutal and dangerous.

"In general, he is devoid of ambit ion and. is contented with little solong as nature supplies him with food without to o much effort, while

festivities along with religious duties toward the bonzes account for

th e greater part of his life. Aside from th e work that he is obliged

to do for food, for housing and to dress himself modestly, he passes the

remainder of his time dreaming of pleasant idleness.

"From every point of view th e Laotian resembles th e Cambodian. How-

ever he is more gay and. much more docile than th e latter, Perhaps a

little less religious, he is more apathetic because he is more favored

by nature, The color of his skin is relatively white. It is remarkable

that th e numerous Laotian festivities are never marred with any sort of

incidents.

"A loyal and agreeable companion, the Laotian is happy to see th e 1hjar-

opeans share his pleasures and interest. themselves in his ceremonies,

even partaking of his mosl sand tastizig with b±s, with the aid of 1oDng

bamboo reeds, rice alcohol from beautiful jars placed at the disposal

of invited guests on every occasion .

" The Laotians are both musical an d poetic. Their'love of pleasure is

satisfied by th e numeroustboun

twhich are feasts under th e protective

chaperoning of the bonzes, and of the tacit encouragement of parents

and grandparents. The youths are highly stimulated by melodious and

erotic music from the 'ichen' (wind insturments, each made of te n bam-

boos, arranged in double rows close to one another , emitt ing sounds

similar to those of an organ, but more harmonious and more soothing) and

the clamor of the tom-toms, which -provide stimulating tunes an d are

accompanied by chanits and all sorts of gestures. The whole seance

is quite natural to these folk who are so profoundly at tached to nature,

whereas it appears quite licentious to th e occidental not familiar with

these peaceful and joyful. habits. While the young gentry boast to the

young ladies, in no uncertain ,term s, the joys der ived therefrom, plus

those of natural happiness and of love, they obtain from th e young

ladies responses no less effective, but also filled with much irony.

These 'boun' greatly delight the entire assembly.

"Living in a country traversed by numerous rivers and the great Mekong,

the Laotians thrive in or on the water . Nothing is more imressive

than to see them, so habitually apathetic, paddle over the most rapid

and dangerous currents in their frail canoes."



- 62

6. General LI2 ing Conuditions, L ving conditions in Indochina, as in

all other countries of continental Asia , a unbel ievably bad, from the

standpoint of the American seeing them for th e first t ime. Particularly in

Ponkin there are millions of people who have barely enough food to keep them

alive in normal t imes, and. who experience 'acute undernourishment or actual

famine when flood, crop failure or war intervene. Reports in 1942 and 1943

of large-scie attempts to settle Tonkinese in Cochinchina are but an indica-

tion of unusual poverty in Tonkin, whence emigrants have been going to Co-.

chinchina for decades. Undernourishment is much more common than actual star-

vation, since the family and commune, arry out a. fairly equal distribution of

food available. Rice is th e universal standard food, other cereals being

eaten only when rice is unobtainable. Pork is a more popular dish than in

Thailand or Burma, and fish (including a malodorous fish paste) are a stan-

dard item of diet . Concerning type of dress, an American consul reported:

WBoth sexes wear wide trousers and a long robe closely fitting about

th e shoulders and brestloose at th e waist, with narrow cuffs, and drop-

ping to the knee wnien worn by men and half way to th e ankles for women.

Th e men wear a turban of creron upon which they sometimes place a conical

hat when going out in the sun.

"The women of Tonkin roll their hair on a piece of crepon. In Annam

and Cochinchina the women roll their hair in a. knot at th e back of the

head and tie over it a kerchief. The women north of Port of AnnarI sub-

stitute a petticoat for the trousers, and the tunic is open showing a

white or pink underjacket....

"iThe headdress of men an d women is a conical hat made aocording to the

social status of th e wearer, of palm leaves, bamboo fibers of bird fea-

thers. The Tonkinese women wear a large cylindrical hat of fine basket

weaving in the shape of a millstone tied.with a silken cord ending in

tassels.

"Ordinarily the Annamites go barefooted except in the city where they

wear sandals of leather or clogs of native woods. They are beginning to

use EuXropean shoes and as a result are losing some of the dexterity of

their feet."

f Consul (incy Roberts of Saigon, 1937.



- 63 -

In addition to cotton garments, the Annamnese wear silk to an extent

which would surprise a Westerner, considering th e poverty of the people

as a whole. In fact, sericulture is a side-line in many households through-

out-Indochina. However, there were considerable silk imports in pre-war

years. At th e end of 1943 it was reported that silk garments were actually

cheaper than cotton garments , du e to unusual war conditions. Both were so

high in price, however, that they were almost beyond the reach of th e great

major i ty of the population.

Housing is not a major problem in tropical countries like Indochina.

T.he ubiouitous bamboo is used in foundations, floors, walls and rafters,

with grasses and leaves fo r th e roof. More prosperous villagers use hard-

wood for supports and f loors, with teak for th e walls and rafter supports,

while others, particularly in th e lowland regions of Indochina, prefer

the formalized. mud houses which have been in use for centuries. Bamboo

walls covered with a thin layer of mud are the rule in th e Tonkin delta.

7. Attitudes toward the war and. various belligerents, It is doubt-

ful if there exists, even in Indochina itself, a public opinion pollster

"iho could accurately state the attitudes of all impor tant groups in Indo-

china toward th e war. From th e many opinions vouchsafed by refugees and

others, the impression is one of bitter disillusionment with Japanese rule,

coupled with a propaganda war between French and Japanese for th e affections

(o r at least the cooperat ion) of the.Indochinese. . French refugees ordi-

narily picture th e Annamese as longing for th e return of French rule, while

non-French Europeans paint a very different picture. 'The French also em-

phasize the fear of both French and Annamese of Chinese aggression, and

express a desire that British an d American, rather than Chinese t roops will

be used in the re-conquest of Indochina.

Ilk'8



In view of the prevailing illiteracy, and the lack of experience with

modern political forms of thought, it is perh ps most like3 that th e great

m ajori ty of the people theorize very little about the war, and are almost

wholly occupied with ways and means of keeping themselves and families alive

in spite of adverse condi t ions, The Yenbay Rebellion of 1930-31 and numer--

ou s other revolts and plots suggest that th e small educated minority con-

tains a high proportion of nationalists, eager to secure the maximum of

self-rule, and suspicious of French, Japanese, Chinese, British, Americans

or any other group which might interfere with nationalist aspirations. It

is significant, however, that th e so-celled "communist" group---themost

persistent and well-organized group of nationalists, was proved to have

close contacts with Canton. It is no t impossible, therefore, that the

more radical of nationalists would prefer to secure Chinese aid, in pref-

erence to an y other, should some cont inuing outside aid be necessary . It

seems obvious, however, that large. landowners , industrialists, and other

'conservative elements of the population would agree with the French in de-

siring to keep Chinese influence at a minimum.

Allur ing pictures have been dr aw n of Annamese faith in America, of

American popularity in Indochina, and of Annamese desire to have their

country taken over by this country. It seems wisest to accept such

opinions with great reserve. 7ev Annamese have had sufficient contacts

with Americans to form.a. first-hand opinion as to our qualifications for

imperialism, and literature on America has probably made little impact

even on the intellectual classes. There is no great likelihood that a

people who dislike French rule, and are reportedly seething with incipient

revolt against Japanese rule would rejoice over th e pleasure of being

ruled by an y other nation, including America.



The French community, partic.laxly in Cochinchina, is largely anti-

Vichy, and is reportedly divided into two groups-- those who are pro-de

Gaulle. and those who are supporters of the Q,,NaNtioas1 Oomittee, W±r-

out particular attachment to de Gulrle. There is little doubt that Decoux

and others of the ruling French group are opposing Japanese encroachment

as effectively as they can, so the actual invasion of Indochina will find

many of them eager to collaborate with the United Nations. Most French-

men with opin ions on the subject appear to be eager to preserve French

sovereignty in Indochina.

8. EEa ue Annamne se is spoken by all members of that race, and by

many traders and professional people in the other racial groups. It seems

safe to est im ate that 80 percent of. the total populat ion unders tands this

language. Chinese characters are used in the written Annamese, but have

been partially displaced by a Romanized script called "Quoc Ngu" introduced

by the French. The spoken language is rather different from the classical

language, bu t duoc Ngu is popular ized through the schools, and is more in

touch with th e language of everyday use.

The Annamese vocabulary contains a great many Chinese words, but was

originally a branch of the Thai language group, with Mon-Kmer words. Six

tones make it very difficult fo r th e westerner. The words are monosyllsb.es,

while the complement follows th e verb or noun which it modif ies. The Chu-

nom reform, having one set of characters for th e meaning and another fo r

phonetic value, took place in the thirteenth century.

Cambodian is the language of two or three million,, concentrated in the

state of Cambodia. Many Cambodians of th e professional and merchant classes

can speak Annamese and /or French, so a knowledge of their language is less

essential than a knowledge of the two official languages of the country.

Cambodian has added a great many Sanscr i and Pji words to th e basic



Mon-Kbmer structure, because of th e long-continued Hindu and Buddhist

religious and cultural influenced

There is no other language of importance in Indochina, as a great

many languages and dialects are spoken by the people of Laos. Cantonese

would doubtless prove useful , because of the ubiqui tous Chinese immigrant .

English is spoken by very few.

9 Racial Conflicts and Discriminations0 Racial conflict is less in

evdence in Indochina than in most other Oriental areas. The Arnamese

majority inhabits a solie block of territory, and there is a limited area in

Cochinchina and Cambodia where it mingles with the Cambodians. The Annamite

Cordillera rather sharply separates Annamese territory from the mountains

*inhabited by Laot ians and the numerous hill-tribes. In any case, the Anna.

mese normally occupy the lowlands, leaving the hills, even in Annam, to the

Hois, Mecs, Hans , Muongs, etc.

The Cambodians are a gentle race, unusually patient in the face of

Anncime e ->:m smen and there is little evidence of racial conflict be-

tween t tGe- oiupas te past half-century.

L ak of con ic .ou nd relative stability of populations prevents

the polyglot population of Laos from presenting examples of race conflict.

?robably the outstanding racial problems are those pertaining to im-

m igrants . The Chinese, in particular, have migrated to Indochina to the

extent of three to five hundred, thousand, They have secured an enviable

position in commerce, industry and transport, arousing the resentment of

Annamese competitors. However, the Annamese have sho Vm considerable ability

in meeting Chinese competition--much more so than the Malays, Thai or Bur-

A L1izy t jhich causes the Annamese to respect the

rat a , ±c :4 au] =Ca,2 .. .e l to migate the potential racil conflict.



67

Intermarriage is common, and after a few generations the Chinese strain is

overlooked, th e U±Di buof or slnom eBO oonsidei'ing himself just hzirmese. On the whole, th e Chinese do not appear to constitute an important

racial problem, and since th e Sino-French treaty of 1935, at any rate,

there has been little if an y legal discrimination against them,

The small Chettyar community of money lenders from South India has

made itself unpopular in Indochina, as in Bunrma and other lands to whi°'i

members of the community have migrated. Restrictive laws have preventedY

it from having an economic importance similar to that which it has in Bur. .

ma. Other Indians, particularly from th e French colonies in India, have

entered various professions, including the government service, but do not

appear to occasion much friction.

The French and Japanese communities have always been small, and any

racial, friction which arises is likely to be oversha-dowed by larger politi-

cal and imperial considerations.



View of limestone massifs rising southwest of' the delta in a Nam

province Tongking, south of Hanoi. A off'ee plantation and modern

famsa

shwoethesdeoherve



4o wb

" p

is

0

0

'10



-70 -APDIXArea, population and density of population by province in 1936,

Total

of 1931

Sq. miles

(ooo)

2,3

2.68,2

2.3

3.3

1.?

6,8

6.2

1.4

1.7

3.6

3.1

4.7

1.6

1.8

3.91.8

57,0

57,0

Population(ooo)

557

111106

400

60

121

302

74686

251

137

223

767

439172

844

302

5,656

5,122

Inhabi antsper

Sq. mile

241

4413

171

18

7244

122

65

153

39

72

163

272

96218

166

98.4

90,6

~a.

Niumber of adminis-trative subdivisiofls

Cantons:. Commune s

26

18

30

45

25

1637

70

8

19

2].

29

53

40

35

134

31

638

695204

576548

559254

836923

144

310656

378

1,077963

577

2,005463

11,187

559 10,751

(Sroks) / (Khums)

tambang

t

speu

2~/

rieng2/

de Pnompenh

Lao

Total in 1936

of 1931

7.8

6®8

1,5

3,0

2.2

2,7

9.3

11.0

1.8

4.7

6,7

1,18.9

1.4

0,0

1.069 .9

69,9

264219419

460

163

173

168

66

28583

161

14843

291

103

3,046

2 ,806

34

31

285

155

75

62

18

6

158

18

23

1355

215

44 83

10363

171178

61

75

10127

138

3978

6648

84

1,232

83 1,309

Subdivision named ebnd

Hill. tribes not counted

the case of the 1936-.37

in 1931,

in 1921 census.

census 0'Itis believed that this was also



as 71.

Area, population and density of the population by province in 1936,

Inhabitants Number of adminis-

per trative subdivisionsSq. miles Population Sq. mile Cantons Commrunes

Cochinchiia. (000) (ooo)

Bac-'li en 2.8 244 88 7 37Baria 0.8 63 75 7 53

Ben-tre 0.6 302 492 19 94

Bien-hoa 4.4 162 36 10 78Cantho 0.9 36? 409 10 72Cap-St. Jacques . 8 i

Chaudoc 1.1 254 228 14 78

Cholon 0.5 23 2 476 12 66Gia-dinh 0.7 298 420 1? 132

Go-cong 0.3 109 427 5 40

Hatien 0.4 26 62 4 15Long-xuyen 1.0 253 243 8 48

Mytho 0.9 389 435 13 11 4Rach-gia 2.6 350 135 10 73

Sadec 0.6 231 396 iC) 61

Soctrang 0.9 198 215 12 57

Tan-an 1.4 135 98 10 62

Tay-.ninh. 1.6 122 75 10 50Thu-dau-mot 2.2 173 80 7 49

Tra-vini 0.8 251 326 14 62

Vinh--long 0.5 190 407 13 64le dePouloCondore 0.0 3 98*

Ville de Cholon 0.0 145 .

Ville de Saigon 09111Total in 1936 25.0 4,616 184 212 1,286

Census of 1931 25.0 4,484 179 232 1,630

Muongsand kongs Villages

LAO,

Bassac 10.2 158 16 10 765

Cammon 10.2 105 10 4 839

Haut-Mekong 5.0 31 5 6 504

Hona-phans 6.3 57 8 6 856Luang- prabang 21.4 197 10 11 2,363Phong-saly 6.1 35 5 4 476Saravane 6.2 94 16 6 475Savannakhet 8.4 164 21 8 710

Tran-ninh 7.5 61 8 4 864

Vientiane 8.0 110 4 695

Total in 1936 89.3 1,012 10 63 8,54?

Census of 1931 89.3 944 10 74 8,537

FL



L72 -

Area, population and density of population by province in 1936.

Tonkin Sq. miles

(000)Bac-giang 2.0

Bac-kan 2.0

Bac-ninh 0.4

Cao-bang 2.6

Ha-dong 0.6

Hagiang 3.2

Haiduong 0.9

Hai-ninh 1.3

Ha-nam 0.5

Hoa-binh 1.8

Hung-yen 0.3

Kienan 0.3

Lai-chau 7.8

Langson 2.4

Lao-kay 2.3Nam-dinh 0.6

N nh-bninh 0.6Phuc-yen 0.3Phu-tho 1.4Quang-yen 1.3Son-la 4.2

Son -tay 0.4Thai-binh 0.6

Thai-nguyen 1.3Tuyen-quang 2,3V nh-yen 0.4

Yen-bay 2.9Ville de Haiphong

Ville de Hanoi

Total in 1936 44®7Census of 1931 44®7

Peopulat ion

(000)273

54486171

904

7875292

458

54479418

67

150

581, 056387167296147103

2,81,027

100

65

244

8770

8,700 1~8,096

Inhabitants

per sq.mile

13528

1,17667

1,37$23

855

72

1,023

311,4431,171

8

62

261,823

642627210

111

23

7301,751

75289

565

31

194

181

Number of administra-

t ive subdivisions

Cantons Communes

63 455

20 101

78 59533 236

105 815

16 63117 1,008

12 644 397

14 85

63 505-63 430

54 233

85 67948 386

34 21866 464

14 92

45 28695 '81751 234

39 19546 302

28 188

1,233 4,35 9/1,2'12 8,705

All of Indochina

in 1936 285.9 239030 80

in 1931 285.9 21,452 75

1. Includes 20,000 military personnel,--a breakdown by province not being given.

2. Does not include the provinces of Laichau, Laokay and Sonla, the administrative

organizations of which are different from the rest of Tonkin.



4

Ban

Bonze

Buon

cBc. cu or bo

Cal or caporal

cal dam

Cao Dai

Chann hu'o'.ng Hoi

Crachin

dao hao or giao

hieu

giap

Glo-chi

Khnd

Khet

Knum

Ly tru'o'ng

Minh-huong

huong

nhieu

Phoban

Phu

Quoc nug

- 73 m

GIOSSARY

= Laotian equivalent of Xa, administered by a Taseng.

Cambodian Buddhist monk,

Erotic Laotian'feasts 0

Village elders,

native overseer,

A special type of Cohfucien priest.

Religious end national movement in Cochinchina, Annam and

Tonkin since World War I.

President of a Council in a commune or village.

Heavy mists or light drizzles, occuring duringFebruary and

March in coastal regions of Tonkin and, northern Annam.

Union of neighboring villages for security or other purposes.

Religious grouping within the village, with its,own temple.

Chinese term for bifurcated feet, original name of the

Anname se.

Cambodian equivalent of Tong, administered by a chaufaikhand.

Cambodian equivalent of tinli, administered by a chaufaikhet.

Cambodian equivalent o f Xa, administered by a Mekhum.

Executive secretary of village council of Notables in

Tonkin and Annam,

Sino-Annamese.

Laotian equivalent of phu, administered by a chaumuong

Sometimes referred to as "kong".

Village title.

Administ rator of a canton, or subdivision of a prefecture,

in Laos,

Prefecture or ruler thereof in Cochinchina, Tonkin and Annam.

Romanized Annamese alphabet and writing, in t roduced by

missionaries in the seventeenth century.

Pw..a%

be~paaa~



- 74 -

Srok

thon

tien chi

Tinhi

too bieu.

Tong

Xa

Xom

-Cambodian equivalent of phu, administered by a Chaufaisrok.

-Subdivision of or another name for Za.

-Highly honored village official.

0 Province in Cochinchina,Tonkin and Armam, somewhat largerthan most American counties.

=communal council.

" Subdivision of prefecture in Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina,

administered by a Chaultong in Tonkin and Annam, and by a

Cai tong in Cochinchina.

-Commune or village in Cochinchina, Tonkin and Annam,

administered by a Huong.-Xa in Cochinchina, and by a Council

of Notables, presided over by a Ly Trulo'ng in Tonkin and

Annam.

-Subdivision of thon.

11 -



75

BIBLIOGAPHY

wnuire Statistique de 1'Indochine, 1936-37.

Broderick, A.H. "Little China" 1941, p. 193.Bulletin Economiaue d~e 1' Indochine, (bimonthly.)Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce: Piles of the Par Eastern Unit;

Preliminary Survey of the Economy ofPrench Indochina; Problems of Reliefand Rehabilitation in Indochina.

nnis, T. E., "L'ndochine" 1931.

Par Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine: Indochine Prancaise; Recuieil de

notices redigees a l'ocasion dui dixieneOongres de la Par Eastern Association

of Tropical Medicine, Hanoi, 1938.Gourdon, Henuri, "L' ndo chine" 1931,

Gourou, Pierre, Lee Pay axis d~ u Delta Tonkinois, 1936.

Grandel, Auguste, Le developpement economique de 1l'ndo chine Prancais, 1936.

Robequain, Oh., The Economic Evolution of Prench Indochine, Institute of Pacific

Relations, 1944.

Poberts, Consul gaincy,: Unpublished manuscript on Prench Indochina, in the files

of the Par Eastern Unit.

Thompson, Virginia: French Indochina, 1937.

Wles, H. (Qatrich,Years of Blindness, 1943,

NOTE: Additional official sources were used in the preparation of thisHandbook.

Documents

Civil Affairs Handbook French Indochina Section 1