CIMA (P1) Management Accounting - OpenTuition...Chapter 3 TRADITIONAL COSTING METHODS 1. Introduction The collective term traditional costing methods refers to: ๏ Absorption Costing

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Management Accounting (P1)

CIM

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CIMA P1 Management Accounting1. Accounting for Management 32. Cost Classification and Behaviour 73. Traditional Costing Methods 114. Activity Based Costing 155. Limiting Factor Analysis and throughput accounting 196. Joint Product Costing 237. Other Costing Issues 278. Linear Programming 319. Standard Costing and Basic Variance Analysis 3310. Advanced Variances 3911. Budgeting 4312. Forecasting Techniques 5113. Risk and Uncertainty 5914. Relevant Costing 6515. Cost Volume Profit Analysis 71

Answers to Examples 77

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Chapter 1

ACCOUNTING FOR MANAGEMENT

1. Introduction

The purpose of management accounting is to assist management in running the business in ways that will improve the performance of the business.

2. The definition of management accounting

CIMA defines management accounting as “the application of the principles of accounting and financial management to create, protect, preserve and increase value for the stakeholders of for-profit and not-for-profit enterprises in the public and private sectors”.

3. Data and information

One way of assisting management is to provide them with good information to help them with their decisions.

The information can be provided to them in different ways, but is usually in the form of reports. For example, a report analysing costs of producing each of several products may assist management in deciding which products to produce.

It is the management accountant who will be expected to provide the information, and in order to do so he/she needs to collect data.

Data consists of the facts that are gathered and stored. Data has no clear meaning until it is processed – analysed and sorted – into information.

4. What makes good information?

Good quality information should:๏ be Accurate

๏ be Complete (but not excessive)

๏ be Cost effective (should cost less than the savings to be made)

๏ be Understandable (to whoever is using it)

๏ be Relevant (to the decision being made)

๏ be Authoritative (be able to be trusted by the users)

๏ be Timely

๏ be Easy to use





5. The main managerial processes

The main areas of management accounting are:

๏ Costing

Cost accounting is identifying the cost of producing an item (or providing a service) in order to, for example, assist in deciding on a selling price.

๏ Planning

e.g. plan how many staff will be required in the factory next year

๏ Decision making

e.g. decide on what selling price to charge for a new product

๏ Control

e.g. check month-by-month whether the company is over or under spending on wages

๏ Performance evaluation

Comparing the performance of mangers or departments against budgets or targets

6. The different levels of planning

๏ strategic planning

long-term plans (e.g. 5 to 10 years) for the business

e.g. what new offices to open? / what new products to launch?

๏ tactical planning

medium-term, more detailed, plans – usually involving producing budgets for the next year

e.g. how many staff to employ next year?

๏ operational planning

short-term planning and decisions

e.g. which supplier to choose for a purchase next week





7. Comparison of Management Accounting with Financial Accounting

Financial accounting Management accounting

Prepare reports, generally based on past performance; in line with reporting requirements

Collate information such as revenue, cashflow and outstanding debts to produce timely trend reports and statistics to inform important, day-to-day management and business decisions

Produce the required financial information for use by other functions within the business, for example department managers.

Combine financial information with non financial information data to paint a complete picture of the business. They use this to drive business success.









Chapter 2

COST CLASSIFICATION AND BEHAVIOUR

1. Cost classification

Cost classification is the arrangement of cost items into logical groups. For example: by their nature (materials, wages etc.); or function (administration, production etc.).

The eventual aim of costing is to determine the cost of producing a product/service; for profitability analysis, selling price determination and stock valuation purposes.

Cost unit

A cost unit is a unit of product or service in relation to which costs may be ascertained.

The cost unit should be appropriate to the type of business, for example:

Example 1

Suggest appropriate cost units for the following businesses

Solution

Business Appropriate cost unit

Car manufacturer

Cigarette manufacturer

Builder

Audit company





Types of expenses

$Production/manufacturing costs X

Administration costs X

Selling and distribution costs X

TOTAL EXPENSES X

Only the production costs will be relevant in costing.

Direct costs

Direct costs are those costs which can be identified with and allocated to a particular cost unit.

TOTAL DIRECT COSTS = PRIME COST

Example 2

Direct costs

Indirect production costs (overheads)

Indirect production costs (known as production overheads) are those costs which are incurred in the course of making a product/service but which cannot be identified with a particular cost unit.

Example 3

Indirect production costs

TOTAL PRODUCTION COST = PRIME COST + PRODUCTION OVERHEADS

Non-production costs

Other costs required to run the business.

Example 4

Non-manufacturing/production costs

TOTAL COSTS = PRODUCTION COSTS + NON-PRODUCTION COSTS





2. Cost behaviour

It is expected that costs will increase as production increases (i.e. as output increases) but the exact way in which costs behave with output may differ.

Example 5

Types of behaviour

Variable cost

Fixed cost

Stepped fixed cost

Semi variable/fixed cost

Linear assumption

For this examination we will assume that total variable costs vary linearly with the level of production (or that the variable cost per unit remains constant). In practice this may not be the case, but we will not consider the effect of this until later examinations.

Behaviour of manufacturing costs

With the linear assumption all costs can be categorised as either fixed or variable. This fits together with previous definitions:

Direct costs

By their nature direct costs will be variable costs.

Indirect costs/overheads

Overheads can be fixed or variable

Fixed Variable

Direct costs X √ Production overheads √ √ Non-manufacturing costs √ √





Semi-variable costs

It is necessary to determine the fixed and variable elements of semi-variable costs. A method known as ‘High-Low’ can be used to establish the fixed and variable elements. This technique is best illustrated by the use of an example.

Example 6

The total costs of a business for differing levels of output are as follows:

Output Total Costs(units) ($’000)

200 301,000 110

(a) What are the fixed and variable elements of the total cost using the High-Low method?(b) Describe the relationship between the output and costs in the form of a linear equation.

A better approximation of the fixed and variable elements can be obtained using Regression Analysis. This will be considered in the next chapter of these notes.

Typical cost card for a cost unit

$/unitDirect costs:- Direct materials (2kg @ $1.50/kg) 3.00- Direct labour (3 hrs @ $4/hr) 12.00Prime cost 15.00Indirect costs- Variable overheads 2.00- Fixed overheads 3.00Full product cost 20.00





Chapter 3

TRADITIONAL COSTING METHODS

1. Introduction

The collective term traditional costing methods refers to:

๏ Absorption Costing

๏ Marginal costing

These costing methods will be familiar to you from previous studies.

You will need to understand traditional costing methods in order to compare and contrast their differences. From here you will be able to consider their strengths or weaknesses against modern alternatives such as ABC costing.

Important to this section is the concept of marginal costing contribution which links to many other parts of CIMA P1 syllabus for example, limited factor analysis, variance reconciliations and cost volume profit (CVP) techniques. (see later chapters)

2. The purpose of calculating a cost per unit.

Example 1

Why do we need to obtain a cost per unit?





3. Features of Absorption costing

Includes a share of production overheads in the product cost.

Acceptable method of inventory valuation as per IAS 2.

Results in a FULL product cost per unit.

Overheads are allocated apportioned then absorbed across all units using a single cost driver (usually machine or labour hours).

Suitable costing system for mass produced, homogeneous products - where overheads are largely volume driven.

4. Strengths and weaknesses of Absorption Costing

5. Features of Marginal Costing

Useful for internal, short term decision making.

Only variable costs are included in product cost.

Overheads are classed as period costs.

Focus is on CONTRIBUTION earned (which is not distorted by overhead costs) and can be used to evaluate decisions relating to incremental units.

Contribution = Selling Price less Variable cost.





6. Strengths and weaknesses of Marginal costing

7. Reconciliation of profits, Absorption Vs Marginal Costing

Absorption and Marginal costing result in different reported profits in the short term. This is because inventory includes or does not include a charge for fixed overheads.

When production in the period is not equal to sales (inventory decreases or increases) there will be a different profit figure reported under each costing system.

The reconciliation required is below:

๏ ABSORPTION PROFIT $ X

Change in inventory levels in period x OAR (X / (X))

๏ Marginal Costing Profit $X

To determine the direction of the adjustment - a useful mnemonic is SIAMWhen Stocks Increase Absorption (profit) is More





Example 2

Sales in period 12000 units.

Production volume 13500 units

Selling price $150

Variable costs $65 per unit

Fixed production costs per unit $30

The company above uses a marginal costing system.

Calculate the difference in reported profit under absorption costing?





Chapter 4

ACTIVITY BASED COSTING

1. Introduction

Traditional absorption costing systems share overheads across all products based on a single cost driver (usually machine or labour hours).

It is argued that a modern manufacturing environment requires a more sophisticated and intelligent costing system.

Under ABC costing, overhead costs are given greater attention and visibility because they are assigned to different products based on the extent to which each product ‘drives’ or causes that cost.

This costing system can be relatively time-consuming and costly to implement but can be useful, if manufacturing overhead expenditure is significant and a diverse product range exists. ABC can also be applied to costing within service industries.

2. The steps to be followed are as follows:๏ Identify the major ‘activities’ that give rise to overheads (e.g. quality testing, ordering costs

etc)

๏ Determine what causes the cost of each activity – the cost driver (e.g. number of inspections, number of orders)

๏ Calculate the total costs for each activity – the cost pools.

๏ Calculate a cost per cost driver.

๏ Allocate the overhead costs to products based on their usage of cost driving activities.

๏ Calculate the overhead cost per unit for each item of output.

NOTE on CIMA new objective test exams.It is unlikely that objective tests questions will require you to complete all steps from beginning to end. However, it is important to be familiar with the entire process before you can answer questions on isolated areas of the sequence.





Example 1

Una manufactures three products: A, B, and C.

Data for the period just ended is as follows:

A B CProduction (units) 20,000 25,000 2,000Sales price ( per unit) $20 $20 $20Material cost (per unit) $5 $10 $10Labour hours (per unit) 2 hours 1 hour 1 hour

(Labour is paid at the rate of $5 per hour)

Overheads for the period were as follows:

Set-up costs 90,000Receiving 30,000Despatch 15,000Machining 55,000

$190,000

Cost driver data:

A B CMachine hours per unit 2 2 2Number of set-ups 10 13 2Number of deliveries received 10 10 2Number of orders despatched 20 20 20

(a) Calculate the cost (and hence profit) per unit, absorbing all the overheads on the basis of labour hours.

(b) Calculate the cost (and hence profit) per unit absorbing the overheads using an Activity Based Costing approach.





3. ABC Cost Hierarchy

ABC costing classifies costs into the following categories.

๏ Unit level cost – are incurred with each unit of output -e.g. power is used by factory machines each time a unit is produced.

๏ Batch level costs –increase with each ‘batch’ of output -e.g. equipment set-up costs are incurred each time a new batch is processed.

๏ Product Sustaining costs – this type of cost does not increase in relation to batches or units produced but are necessary costs to support particular product types – e.g. design costs.

๏ Facility level costs – General manufacturing overheads these can not easily be traced to production activity e.g. admin staff salaries.

4. Strengths / Weaknesses of ABC Costing

Example 2

Explain the benefits, which can be gained from changing to a more effective costing system?









Chapter 5

LIMITING FACTOR ANALYSIS AND THROUGHPUT ACCOUNTING

1. Introduction

Limited Factor analysis can be used to determine optimum production levels when faced with scarcity of a single resource (a limiting factor).

The limiting factors, in exam questions will often take the form of a shortage of a particular raw material or an insufficient number of labour hours being available.

Management are faced with a decision of what quantities and mix of products to manufacture in order to maximise profits given this constraint.

In a marginal costing environment, the concept of contribution can be used to plan production in a manner which will maximise profits.

Following this, we find solutions to limiting factor scenarios in a throughput costing environment.

2. Traditional Limiting Factor Analysis

When faced with a shortage in production resources, management can use a contribution-focussed approach to help them identify an optimum production plan.

The marginal costing model provides information on the contribution level of all products. In the short term, fixed costs do not change – so profits can be maximised through following a production plan that maximises contribution.

In a situation where there is a scarcity of a particular resource, the products competing for use of that resource can be ranked in terms of their contribution earned per unit of limited resource. For example, a shortage of labour hours will require products to be prioritised based on those which earn the most contribution per each scarce labour hour used.





Example 1

Pi plc manufactures 2 products, A and B.

The cost cards are as follows:

A BSelling price 25 28

Materials 8 20Labour 5 2Other variable costs 7 2Fixed costs 3 2

23 26

Profit $2 $2Machine hours p.u. 2 hrs 1 hrMaximum demand 20,000 units 10,000 units

The total hours available are 48,000.

Calculate the optimum production plan and the maximum profit using conventional limiting factor analysis.

3. Theory of Constraints and Throughput

Goldratt’s Theory of Constraints is an important management methodology which can be applied to systems that are unable to meet their goals (usually maximising profit) due to a constraint. Management should ensure that efforts are focussed on making the best possible use of this limitation. Ideally the constraint will need to be eliminated in the longer term, meanwhile Goldratt recommended reorganising all other system activities around the constraint to ensure its use is optimised. The constraint in manufacturing is referred to as a bottleneck.

Goldratt refers to Throughput as a key performance measure. The main concepts of throughput accounting are given below.

๏ Throughput is the rate at which the system generates money. It is measured in monetary terms and links directly to profitability therefore the objective is to maximise throughput values or throughput flow.

Throughput ($) = Sales Revenue less Direct Material Costs

๏ In the short run, ALL costs (except direct materials) are viewed as being fixed. This includes LABOUR as Fixed cost. The sum of all these production costs including labour is called TOTAL FACTORY COSTS.

๏ The constraint on production is referred to a Bottleneck.

๏ Throughput accounting can be used in a Just-in-time environment.





4. Key formulae:

Throughput ($) = Sales revenue – Direct Material costs

Total factory costs = ALL production costs (except materials)

1 Return per factory hour =Throughput per Unit $

1 Return per factory hour =Time per unit in bottleneck resource (hrs)

2 Cost per factory hour = Total factory cost (inc labour +overheads)

2 Cost per factory hour =Total time available in Bottleneck (ALL hrs)

3 Throughput accounting ratio (TPAR)= Return per factory hour (1)

3 Throughput accounting ratio (TPAR)=Cost per factory hour (2)

4.1. Interpretation of TPAR ratios:

The TPAR ratio should be greater than 1 for the product to be classed as financially viable. Priority should be given to the products which generate the highest TA ratios.

Products with a TPAR ratio less than one should be discontinued.





Example 2

Pi plc manufactures 2 products, A and B.

The cost cards are as follows:

A BSelling price 25 28Materials 8 20Labour 5 2Other variable costs 7 2Fixed costs 3 2

23 26Profit $2 $2Machine hours p.u. 2 hrs 1 hrMaximum demand 20,000 units 10,000 units

The total hours available are 48,000.

(a) Calculate the optimum production plan and the maximum profit, on the assumption that in the short-term only material costs are variable i.e. using a throughput accounting approach

(b) Calculate and Interpret the Throughput Accounting ratios (TPAR ratios)(c) Suggest some business strategic reasons why management might decide NOT to

withdraw an unprofitable product from sale.





Chapter 6

JOINT PRODUCT COSTING

1. Introduction

Sometimes, one process may produce several products. In this case we need to decide on a cost per unit for each of the products. These products, produced in the same process, are known as joint products.

Joint products refer to our main products with full sales value. However, there may be an additional product (or products) which is produced incidentally and has a relatively low sales value (effectively a waste product). This is known as a by-product.

2. Accounting treatment

๏ Any sale proceeds of a by-product are subtracted from the joint costs of the process.

๏ The net total cost of the process is then split between the joint products.

๏ For the examination, there are two ways of splitting the joint costs:

‣ The physical units basis

‣ The market value at the point of separation basis.





3. Physical units basis

Under this method, the same cost per unit is applied to all the joint products

Example 1

During August, the following costs were incurred in a process:

Materials (3,500 kg) $5,000Labour and overheads $2,300

The production from the process was as follows:

kgProduct A 1,000 selling price $5 per kgProduct B 2,000 selling price $2 per kgby-product X 500 scrap value $0.20 per kg

Calculate a cost per kg and profit per kg for A and B using the physical units basis.

4. Market value basis

Under this method the costs per unit are calculated so as to be in the same proportions as the market values of each product

Example 2

During August, the following costs were incurred in a process:



kgProduct A 1,000 selling price $5 per kgProduct B 2,000 selling price $2 per kgby-product X 500 scrap value $0.20 per kg

Sales during the period were 800 kg of A and 1,500 kg of B.

Calculate a cost per kg and profit per kg for A and B using the market value basis





5. Net-realisable value approach

The market value approach is not always possible. This is because the products will often require further work (and therefore costs) after leaving the process. We have to use the net realisable value at a point of separation as an approximation to the market value.

The net realisable value is the final market value less costs incurred after leaving the joint process.

Example 3

During September the following costs were incurred in a process:



kgProduct A 1,000 selling price $8.40 per kgProduct B 2,000 selling price $4.50 per kgby-product X 500 scrap value $0.20 per kg

All the output of A and B incurred further processing at a cost of $4.80 per kg for A and $2.20 per kg for B.

Calculate a cost per kg for A and B using the net realisable value approach.









Chapter 7

OTHER COSTING ISSUES

1. Introduction

In this chapter we will look at three separate issues: the costing of digital products, the CGMA Cost Transformation Model, and digital costing systems.

2. Digital products

Examples include:

๏ Online courses

๏ Apps

๏ eBooks

๏ Software

๏ Graphics

๏ Downloadable music

3. Costing of digital productsStandard costing for digital products is often inappropriate because:

๏ Marginal costs such as materials are likely to be zero for digital products

๏ Lifespan of products can be uncertain – sometime as short as one day – sometimes much longer due to the updates and changes which can be added

๏ Overheads and their drivers are difficult to identify

๏ Rapid changes in technology can affect costs and selling prices with little warning

๏ Digital products can evolve over different accounting periods. There are likely to have large upfront design costs and incur later costs for royalties, testing and marketing

Example 1

Suggest some costs which might be involved in creating a digital audio book – can you suggest any costs which might be saved in comparison to manufacture of physical books?





4. CGMA’s Cost Transformation Model

Engendering a cost-conscious

culture

Managing the risks inherent in

driving cost-competitiveness

Understanding cost drivers: Cost

accounting systems and

processes

Connecting Products with

Profitability

Incorporating sustainability to optimise profits

Generating maximum value

through new products

The CGMA cost transformation model suggests six changes which are designed to to help businesses achieve and retain cost competitiveness.

๏ Creating a cost conscious culture

‣ Organisations need to strive for cost-leadership (costs should be lower competitors – benchmarks should be used here)

‣ Commitment to cost reduction needs to be throughout the organisation -all levels- all employees

‣ Ability to use technology to control costs

๏ Understanding cost drivers

‣ Investigation of cause of costs & impact of different variables on these costs. ‣ Plans should look to reduce the drivers of costs AND costs themselves.‣ ABC costing is a tool to use here.

๏ Managing the risks that come from a cost conscious culture

‣ Risks that impact quality & customer satisfaction‣ Risk management process needs to identify these risks and mitigate

๏ Connecting products with profitability

‣ Ensuring products and services are profitable & make positive contribution‣ Allocation of shared costs and accurate individual product costs are important here





๏ Maximising value from new products

‣ Profitability of new products must be assessed before production begins.‣ New products / services should aim to be adaptable/ flexible so can be changed to

satisfy as many customer segments as possible

๏ Incorporate Sustainability : Consider the environmental impact of products

‣ Negative impacts (such as creating unnecessary waste) can add costs as well as damaging reputation and sales.

5. Digital Costing Systems

As products have become more complex, costing systems have evolved alongside.

Many products have hundreds of components and specifications can change for different customers.

For example – consider the number of different parts which are involved in producing a car or an aeroplane.

The number of components/ multiple suppliers/ cost prices arriving in different currencies etc here would be very difficult to keep track of without digital costing systems.

๏ Digital Costing Systems

These are intelligent costing systems able to collect and input hundreds of real time price changes/ supplier lead times and can even forecast the businesses upcoming resource needs.

They work in real time situations to calculate current product costs of complex production scenarios – but also these systems have the ability to use the data collected over time to analyse differences in costs/ supplier flexibility and flag any changes to the nature of costs.

More advanced systems can advise on buying behaviour, recommend changes to product design and work to help improve efficiency of business operations

Digital costing systems are expensive to implement but once established bring immense cost-savings

They are designed to be easy to use – the complex system provides an understandable interface that can be used by management for decision making providing detailed reports on costs, break downs overheads, cost drivers and cost behaviour.

๏ Target Costing

Some digital costing systems are programmed to operate a ‘Target costing’ approach. This involves determining the most appropriate selling price in a competitive market, then working backwards to ensure that the products cost and any required profit will be covered by the selling price.

You will learn more about Target Costing further on in your CIMA studies.









Chapter 8

LINEAR PROGRAMMING

1. Introduction

Previously we dealt with scenarios, which had ONE scarce resource –we approached these using either limiting factor analysis or throughput accounting.

Linear programming is the method for use when there are TWO or more limiting factors.

2. Linear Programming

2.1. The steps are as follows:

(1) Define the variables

(2) Formulate an equation for the objective function

(3) Formulate equations for the constraints

(4) Graph the constraints, shade the feasible region and label its vertices

(5) Plot the iso contribution line and use it to find the optimum solution.

(6) Confirm solution with simultaneous equations.

CIMA – EXAM FOCUSIt is unlikely that you will be required to follow the whole process in an objective test question.However, any part of the process could be examined and this method is best understood in its entirety before you can attempt questions based on isolated parts.

Example 1

Peter makes two types of chair – the ‘Executive’ and the ‘Standard’.

The data relating to each as follows:

Standard ExecutiveMaterials 2 kg 4 kgLabour 5 hours 6 hoursContribution $6 $9

There is a maximum of 80 kg of material available each week and 180 labour hours per week. Demand for ‘Standard’ chairs is unlimited, but maximum weekly demand for ‘Executive’ chairs is 10.

Find the optimal production plan, which will maximise contribution and state the contribution value that will be generated.





3. Spare capacity: Slack

Linear programming scenarios are likely to involve various resource shortages.

Despite this, you may find that the optimum solution does not fully utilise all of the resources available.

If the optimum solution results in using less than the maximum available of a particular resource, then we have spare capacity of that resource known as slack.

Example 2

Using the information from example 1, calculate the slack for each of the constraints i.e. for materials, for labour, and for demand for ‘Executive’ chairs.

4. Shadow prices

In business, resource shortages can often be overcome through paying a premium to obtain additional units of scarce resource.

For example – a shortage of labour hours can usually be resolved if overtime payments are offered.

The shadow price (also known as the dual price) of a limited resource is the additional that we would be prepared to pay, over-and-above the current resource price per unit.

This value is equal to the extra profit that would result if one extra unit of the limited resource was available.

NB) If there is slack in the resource, then shadow price is Nil – we would not pay any additional amount for an extra unit – because we have spare capacity already.

Example 3

Using the information from example 1, calculate the shadow price of each of the constraints i.e. for materials, for labour, and for demand for ‘Executive’ chairs.





Chapter 9

STANDARD COSTING AND BASIC VARIANCE ANALYSIS

1. Introduction

In an earlier chapter we identified that budgeting as a means of controlling the organisation. Through comparison of budgeted figures and actuals areas can be identified that may need corrective action. Problems can be addressed in an attempt to control future outcomes.

In this chapter we will look at the setting of standard costs, which form the basis of budget figures. This section also requires basic variance calculations and interpretations.

Please Note: All basic variances (calculations and interpretations) are examinable under CIMA P1 syllabus. The formulae relating to these are not included in this chapter but you should be familiar with these from previous studies.Advanced variances are an extension of this topic and are dealt with in the next chapter.

2. Standard costs

A Standard cost is an estimated unit cost.

The standard cost for a product (or service) is determined in advance based on expected resource usage using expected resource prices.

Standard costing systems use these predetermined values to estimate income and expenditure under standard conditions.

It was developed primarily for manufacturing (but can be applied to services), and was designed for environments where there is mass production of homogenous products

The standard costs form the basis of budget totals, which can then be compared to actuals as part of the performance management process.





The standard cost card below shows the standard costs/ prices and usage / efficiency rates that are expected to produce one unit of product X. Any deviations from these expected rates will result in variances (adverse or favourable)

Illustration 1Standard cost card for Product X

$ per unit$ per unit

Sales price 100

Materials (2 kg @ $20/kg ) 40Labour (1.5 hrs @ $2/hr ) 3Variable o/h (1.5 hrs @ $6/hr) 9Fixed o/h (1.5 hrs @ $10/hr) 15

Standard cost of productionStandard cost of production 67

Standard profit per unitStandard profit per unit 33

2.1. Uses of standard costing

๏ Inventory valuation (for internal and/or external use)

๏ As a basis for pricing decisions

๏ For budget preparation

๏ For budgetary control

๏ For performance measurement

๏ For motivating staff using standards as targets

2.2. Limitations of standard costing

๏ Obtaining appropriate standards can be difficult

๏ Standards may be different depending on their purpose (see next section)

๏ Less useful when environment does not involve mass production of homogenous items.

๏ Standard costing can lead to an over-emphasis on quantitative measures of performance at the expense of qualitative measures (e.g. customer satisfaction; quality and employee morale)

๏ Traditional standards are based on company’s own costs – a more modern approach is benchmarking, which considers best practice of other organisations.

๏ Please also see chapter on Modern manufacturing environment with regard to the relevance of standard costing





2.3. McDonaldisation

McDonaldisation is a term to describe the increasing level of standardisation in society. It is based on the fast food giant’s approach to mass delivery of standardised products.

Through use of predetermined products and methods on a global scale - the restaurant chain is described as achieving efficiency, calculability, predictability and control.

However, critics argue this occurs at the expense of individuality and that cost reduction takes priority over other important factors such as employee motivation and consumer choice

2.4. Types of standards

๏ Ideal standard

100% efficient 100% of the time.

Calculated assuming perfect operating conditions.

Could form the basis for long-term aims, but not useful for variance analysis or budgeting because unrealistic.

๏ Basic standard

This is a long-term standards which remain unchanged over many years. Often they are determined at the inception of a product.

It is only really of use to show trends or improvements over time.

They are not useful measures of current performance.

๏ Expected / Attainable standard

This is a standard expected to apply to a specific budget period and is based on normal efficient operating conditions. It can incorporate allowance for wastage and idle time.

This is usually the basis for variance analysis. However, standards may be too ‘easy’ to be used as targets.

๏ Current standard

This is the current attainable standard which reflects conditions actually applying in the period under review.

They are useful when operating under abnormal conditions – eg a period of hyper inflation.

They may reduce the drive for improvement because the standards reflect up-to-date cost environment.





3. Variance analysis

In the chapter on budgeting, we looked at the comparison between the actual results for a period and the flexed budget. The differences between the two are referred to as variances.

* Basic variance formulae should be knowledge brought forward from previous studies.

In this section we will repeat the exercise, and then analyse them into their different components. If we are to investigate variances properly and use them for control, then it is important that we are able to consider the reasons for their occurrence.

3.1. Total variances

Example 1

A company has prepared the following standard cost card:

$ per unit

Materials (4 kg at $4.50 per kg) 18

Labour (5 hrs at $5 per hr) 25

Variable overheads (5 hrs at $2 per hr) 10

$53

Budgeted selling price $75 per unit, and the budgeted fixed overheads are $130,500

Budgeted production 8,700 unitsBudgeted sales 8,000 unitsThere is no opening inventory

The actual results are as follows:

Sales: 8,400 units for $613,200Production: 8,900 units with the following costs:

Materials (35,464 kg) 163,455Labour (45,400 hrs paid, 44,100 hrs worked) 224,515Variable overheads 87,348Fixed overheads 134,074

Prepare a flexed budget and calculate the total variances Note: the company currently uses marginal costing





3.2. Analysis of variances

The total variance that we have calculated for materials indicates that the actual expenditure on materials was not $18 per unit. However, this could be either because we used the wrong amount of materials (which should have been 4 kg per unit) or that we paid the wrong price (which should have been $4.50 per kg). More likely of course, it would be a combination of the two.

We will therefore analyse this and the other variances in as much detail as possible.

Example 2

Using the data from example 1, analyse the variances and use them to produce on Operating Statement reconciling the budgeted profit with the actual profit.

3.3. Absorption costing

In the previous example, the company had been using absorption costing. They could alternatively have used marginal costing. The variances will be calculated in very much the same way, but when using marginal costing the focus is on contribution (rather than profit) and the fact that we will not be absorbing fixed overheads means that any fixed overhead volume variance is not relevant.

Example 3

Using data from example 1(a) prepare the original fixed budgets using absorption costing(b) prepare an Operating Statement using a absorption costing approach

3.4. Interpretation of variances

Example 4

In the previous example there was a materials price variance.Suggest possible reasons for its occurrence.









Chapter 10

ADVANCED VARIANCES

1. Introduction

In this chapter we will look at variances in further detail. This builds on the techniques and principles of basic variances (previous chapter).

Planning and Operational variances allow management to concentrate on controllable issues only by removing the effect of an incorrect or outdated standard, which is beyond the entity’s control.

Sales Mix variances look at the effect of altering proportions of a standard mix of sales.

We will also look at ABC variances.

2. Planning and Operational variances

Variance analysis assists management in exercising control by identifying areas where there may be operational problems.

Amongst the possible reasons for a variance – it may be that the factor driving it is uncontrollable and/or external to the organisation.

For example, adverse material price variances would usually be seen as the responsibility of the procurement department.

However, imagine that the increase in material costs, in this case, had been caused by a global price rise due to scarcity. This factor is not in the control of the procurement manager.

With hindsight the original budget should’ve allowed for a higher material cost. As it stands, the original budget is based on an incorrect/ outdated material standard cost.

By calculating planning variances, we are able to remove the effect of this incorrect standard so we can focus on operational performance only.

It makes more sense to compare actual results with a revised budget, when the original budget value is not valid.

The first step in these situations is to create a revised budget (sometimes called Ex post) which will be based on the ‘revised or updated’ prices or efficiency rates.





2.1. Planning variance

Calculated by comparing the:

Original budget (or ex ante)

to

Revised budget – (ex post)

2.2. Operational variance

Calculated by comparing the:

Revised budget – (ex post)

To

Actual results.

Operational variances are of interest to management because they represent performance of the business and factors influencing them should be controllable.

Example 1

Original budget:

Standard labour cost per unit of product is $7.

Each unit takes 0.5hours to produce at a labour rate of $14 per hour.

Budgeted production for January was 20,000 units

Actual results:

Production: 22,000 units

Actual labour worked were 11,400 hours at $15.50 per hour.

Since preparation of the budget the prevailing external labour rate has increased to $17.50

Calculate the labour rate planning variance and the labour rate operational variance.





Example 2

Original budget:

Budget production: 21,000 units

Standard Material cost per unit 3kg @$4 per kg

Actual results:

Production: 10,000 units

Materials: 33,000 kg for $4.20

A global shortage meant that the external price for this material was higher than budgeted and should have been $5.20

Calculate the planning and operational material price variances.e yield variance.

3. Sales mix variances

Suppose a company sold two types of desk which although similar had different profit margins. Clearly the company would hope for higher sales, but they would also be interested in the mix of sales – it would be better if customers bought more of the desks giving higher profit per unit even if it were to mean selling fewer of the desks that gave lower profit per unit..

Example 3

Olga plc sells three products – A, B and C.

The following table shows the budget and actual results for these products:

A B CBudget:Sales (units) 200 100 100Price (p.u.) $20 $25 $30Cost (p.u.) $17 $21 $24

Actual:Sales (units) 180 150 170Price (p.u.) $22 $22 $26Cost (p.u.) $16 $18 $25

Calculate the total sales margin variance, and analyse into the sales price variance; the sales mix variance; and the sales quantity variance.





4. Activity Based Costing Variances

You will remember from an earlier chapter that ABC is a way of allocating overheads to products using cost drivers.

The main reason for doing this was not just to encourage cutting the total cost of the overhead, but also to encourage more efficient use of the overhead.

For example, we may have had an overhead cost for despatch of $100,000 and a total of 5,000 despatches. This would mean that it was costing $20 per despatch. We could reduce the cost per despatch by either cutting the total cost (an expenditure variance) or by increasing the number of despatches (an efficiency variance).

Example 4

The following information is available for a period:

Budget ActualProduction 48,000 units 50,400 unitsActivity level 2,000 dispatches 2,200 dispatchesTotal overhead cost of dispatching $120,000 $126,720

Calculate the total overhead variance for despatching, and analyse into the expenditure and efficiency variances.





Chapter 11

BUDGETING

1. Introduction

Budgeting is core to management accountancy and represents a method with which to plan, control and evaluate performance of an organisation. This syllabus area links to standard costing, variance analysis and forecasting.

Students need to be able to explain the purposes of budgeting and discuss the different budgeting methods and their suitability to a particular scenario. Calculations of key budget figures are expected- as is knowledge of the usefulness of budgets as a control mechanism.

2. Budgeting Objectives๏ Planning

๏ Communication

๏ Coordination

๏ Motivation

๏ Authorisation / Delegation

๏ Control

๏ Evaluation of performance

Example 1

Consider budgets you may have experienced in your workplace or elsewhere. How successful were they at fulfilling the objectives above?

(a) Suggest how a budget might be used as a motivational tool.(b) To what extend does a budget enable the communication of business objectives and

future plans to others in the company?





3. Principal budget factor

The principal budget factor is the factor that limits the activity for the budget period. Normally this is the level of sales demand and therefore the sales budget is usually the first budget to be prepared and this leads to the others.

However, it could be (for example) a limit on the availability of raw materials that limits activity. In this case Raw Materials would be the principal budget factor, and this would the first budget to be prepared.

4. The preparation of budgets

Production Budget

Cost of goods sold budget

Cash Budget

Budgeted Statement of Financial Position

Budgeted Income Statement

Selling and distribution expenses

General and administrative expenses

Capital expenditure budget

Sales Budget

Raw materials Labour Factory overheads





Example 2

The XYZ company produces three products, X, Y, and Z. For the coming accounting period budgets are to be prepared using the following information:

Budgeted sales

Product X 2000 units at $100 each

Product Y 4000 units at $130 each

Product Z 3000 units at $150 each

Standard usage of raw material

Wood(kg per unit)

Varnish (litres per unit)

Product X 5 2Product Y 3 2Product Z 2 1Standard cost of raw materialStandard cost of raw material $8 $4

Inventories of finished goods

X Y ZOpening 500u 800u 700uClosing 600u 1000u 800u

Inventories of raw materials

Wood VarnishOpening 21,000 10,000Closing 18,000 9,000

Labour

X Y ZStandard hours per unit 4 6 8Labour is paid at the rate of $3 per hourLabour is paid at the rate of $3 per hourLabour is paid at the rate of $3 per hourLabour is paid at the rate of $3 per hourLabour is paid at the rate of $3 per hour

Using the information provided above- Prepare the following budgets:(a) Sales budget (quantity and value)(b) Production budget (units)(c) Material usage budget (quantities)(d) Material purchases budget (quantities and value)(e) Labour budget (hours and value)





5. Key Terms (Revision)

The terms below should be familiar to you from earlier studies.

๏ Fixed Budget

๏ Flexed Budget

๏ Rolling Budget

๏ Feed forward Control

๏ Feedback Control

Explain how the above could be used in the planning, control and performance evaluation of an organisation?

Example 3

A company has prepared the following fixed budget for the coming year.

Sales 10,000 units10,000 units

Production 10,000 units10,000 units

$

Direct materials 50,000

Direct labour 25,000

Variable overheads 12,500

Fixed overheads 10,000

$97,500

Budgeted selling price $10 per unit.

At the end of the year, the following costs had been incurred for the actual production of 12,000 units.

$Direct materials 60,000Direct labour 28,500Variable overheads 15,000Fixed overheads 11,000

$114,500

The actual sales were 12,000 units for $122,000

(a) Prepare a flexed budget for the actual activity for the year(b) Calculate the variances between actual and flexed budget, and summarise in a form

suitable for management. (Use a marginal costing approach)





6. Behavioural aspects

6.1. Participation

If the budget process is not handled properly, it can easily cause dysfunctional activity. It is therefore necessary to give thought to the behavioural aspects.๏ Top-down budgeting

This is where budgets are imposed by top management without the participation of the people who will actually be involved for implementing it.

๏ Bottom-up budgeting

Here the budget-holders do participate in the setting of their own budgets.

๏ Advantages and disadvantages

6.2. Target setting and motivation

Targets can assist motivation and appraisal if they are set at the right level.๏ if they are too difficult then they will demotivate

๏ if they are too easy then managers are less likely to strive for optimal performance

๏ ideally they should be slightly above the anticipated performance level

Good targets should be:๏ agreed in advance

๏ dependant on factors controllable by the individual

๏ measurable

๏ linked to appropriate rewards and penalties

๏ chosen carefully to ensure goal congruence

6.3. Responsibility accounting

A system of accounting that separates revenues and costs into areas of separate responsibility, which can then be assigned to specific managers

6.4. Management by objectives

A system of management incorporating clearly established objectives at every level of the organisation.

Here there is less emphasis on monetary budgets and more emphasis on taking action which helps the business to achieve its objectives.





7. Methods of budgeting

7.1. Incremental budgeting

This approach uses prior period figures and adjusts them by an amount to cover inflation and any other known changes.

It is the most common approach, it is reasonably quick and for stable companies it tends to be fairly accurate.

However, one potential problem is that it can encourage errors and past inefficiencies to be carried forward.

Incremental planning does not encourage the company to consider new ways of operating the business. Wasteful expenditure is not questioned each year because the budgeting process incorporates and carries this forward to next period.

For example, if we require a wages budget, we will probably ask the wages department to produce it and they (using an incremental approach) will assume that our workers will continue to operate as before. They will therefore simply adjust by any expected wage increases.

As a result, the ‘plan’ for our workers stays the same as before. Nobody has been encouraged to consider different ways of operating that may be more efficient.

7.2. Zero-based budgeting (ZBB)

With zero-based budgeting we do not build upon the prior period values. Instead, we consider each activity on its own merits and draw up the costs and benefits of the different methods of achieving it (and indeed whether or not the activity should continue). The management then decide on the most effective way of performing each activity.

ZBB is bottom up by nature and aims to cut wasteful expenditure.

Although this approach is in principle a much better approach to budgeting, it is time-consuming and also requires high level of management expertise. For this reason, it is sometimes restricted to just to a few activities each year in order that training and help may be given to the people involved. The remaining activities may then be budgeted using the incremental approach.

7.3. Activity Based Budgeting (ABB)

The activity-based approach uses the principles and costing information obtained by an ABC costing system.

ABB budgets will use a number of different cost drivers e.g. number of orders , number of machine-set-ups, number of inspections etc – to calculate the budgeted overhead figures.

Activity Based measures recognise that certain costs are are a result of a demand for activities rather than output driven (which is the assumption in our traditional budgeting model).

The process will begin with the key budget factor (usually sales) in order to first determine the volume driven costs and revenues – from here the various other overhead costs will be calculated according to the expected level of support activities, which drive them.





7.4. Suitability

Based on your assessment of budget methods above, be able to comment on their suitability for different scenarios.

Factors you might consider – Size of business, management expertise, culture, skills and attitudes, time available, business objectives, economic climate, the type of business (manufacturing, service industry, not for profit) etc.

8. Budgeting in a digital age

8.1. Big Data

Big data are extremely large collections of data that may be analysed to reveal patterns and trends, especially relating to human behaviour.

For example, Amazon - one of the world’s leading e-retailers - collects an enormous amount of information about each customer. Not only, obviously, what a customer has bought, but what other products they may have looked at on the website but not bought, how they made payment for purchases, where they live, what items they may have returned, what products they have ordered more than once, what ratings and/or comments that customers may have posted about specific products. All of this enables them to make recommendations to customers of other items that might appeal to them.

Big Data has the following characteristics:๏ Volume - The amount of data being stored by the likes of Amazon is enormous - many times

the amount of data that can be stored on a normal PC.

๏ Velocity – For the data to be useful, the data needs to be analysed and information provided quickly enough. In the case of Amazon, suggestions need to be presented to customers immediately they access the website.

๏ Variety - The data being stored will come from a large variety of sources - again, Amazon collects information about past purchases, which other products the customer has looked at on their website, etc. etc.. All of this information needs special software and algorithms that collates the different data into useful information.

Later a 4th V was added:

๏ Veracity – users must consider data integrity to decide whether it is representative & authentic and can be trusted.





8.2. Big data analytics

Big data can be collected ( sometimes purchased or obtained via company data collection process) then analysed and used to provide insights that lead to better decisions based on more informed knowledge

Using Big Data for Budgets & Forecasts

We have seen that sale forecasts are often the principle budget factor in many businesses.Big data can be used to predict buyer behaviour, product popularity and used to estimate likely sales demand in the form of detailed forecasts. The data may be misleading and can be misinterpreted - it can also be overwhelming in some cases but if used correctly can lead to competitive advantage and intelligent insight into customer preferences.It may enable businesses to determine why customers are selecting a rival’s product or the reasons behind other subtle behaviour shifts.

Big Data – Stress Testing

Stress testing is a form of analysis that can determine which factors are important in a budget’s success and how they could change and impact the final outcomes.

Big data analytics can play a key role in stress testing. It can help in the following ways: ๏ Identify stress events

๏ Help quantify the effects of stress events

๏ Help test the validity of assumptions in measures to deal with stress

๏ Identify correlations for stress events

๏ ︎Create and identify warning signs / triggers for stress events

For example, financial institutions regularly use big data analytics to manage and ensure the adequacy of assets used for retirement investments and insurance funds. Through data modelling and simulation they can determine their ability to withstand economic shocks and ensure decisions are resilient enough to withstand changes in the economy. Big data can be used to inform these models indicating employment shifts/ credit changes/ recession factors and other behaviours which can lead to better decisions.





Chapter 12

FORECASTING TECHNIQUES

1. Introduction

This chapter demonstrates some of the key mathematical techniques, which can be used to prepare financial forecasts.

These are:

๏ High low method

๏ Regression Analysis

๏ Time Series.

You are expected to be able to calculate and interpret results for all methods.

2. Semi Variable costs

From your previous studies, you will be aware of different types of cost and the typical cost behaviour of variable and fixed costs.

Many costs are ‘semi-variable’ and have a fixed AND a variable element.

A typical example of a semi variable cost would be a telephone bill where the customer’s total bill comprises of a fixed monthly line rental and the cost of telephone calls on top.

The line rental is fixed and does not change throughout the period. It is known in advance and does not change regardless of how many telephone calls are made.

The cost relating to telephone calls is classed as variable because it is determined by the usage in the period. (i.e. it is volume driven and increases in a linear fashion)

2.1. Importance of accurate costing information

As a management accountant, you will need to obtain accurate cost information to provide a reliable basis for budgets and forecasts.

In addition to statutory and reporting requirements- better costing information supports better planning as well as better decision making in areas such as product pricing.





2.2. Historic Data.

Historic cost data can be obtained from system records.

A graph of total costs, in relation to output could look something like this:

Individually, the costs are unlikely to be useful in determining which element is fixed and which variable.

However, our techniques of High-low and Regression analysis enable us to use this data as a basis for estimating costs and identifying their variable and fixed elements.





3. High-low method

The high-low method is a very quick and simple approach to identifying the variable and fixed elements of semi variable cost.

This approach assumes a linear relationship and uses the highest and lowest data points taken from a normal range of business activity.

Once identified – the highest and lowest activity levels and the associated total cost for each, can be input into the following formula to obtain variable cost per unit.

VC =Total Cost at highest activity – Total Cost at lowest activity

VC = Total Units at high activity level – Total units at low activity level

Substituting total variable cost back into the total cost figures can then identify the fixed cost element.

Total Cost = Fixed Cost + Total Variable Cost

NB) Total Variable Cost = Variable cost per unit x Number of Units

Example 1

The following table shows the total costs recorded at different activity levels during the year

Output (units)

Total Cost($)

100 40,000400 65,000200 45,000700 85,000600 70,000500 70,000300 50,000

Use the High-low technique to estimate variable cost per unit and fixed cost per month.

NB) It is important that data selected is representative of normal business activity. Any anomalies or one-off occurrences that could distort the results should be removed.





4. Regression Analysis

Also known as ‘least squares’ method, this technique is also appropriate for use when costs are believed to follow a linear relationship.

Similar to High-low method, regression analysis can be used to separate semi-variable costs into their fixed and variable elements.

However, instead of using just two extreme points, highest and lowest, as our method previously, this superior technique allows you to incorporate all of the data sets into your computation and thus provides an estimate of variable and fixed costs that is based on a greater amount of historic information.

Effectively, this recreates a line of best fit through the scattered data points.

The equation of a line and the formula needed to find ‘a’ and ‘b’ are given below:

n xy∑ − x∑ y∑n x 2∑ − x∑( )2

y∑n

−b x∑

n

y = a + bx

Applied to our costing scenarios,

a will be the fixed cost (y intercept)

b will be the variable cost per unit (the gradient)

y will be total cost (independent variable)

x will be the activity level ( dependent variable)

n is the number of data sets

The method is far simpler than the formula appears and involves a logical process (see lecture).

* CIMA have confirmed that this formulae is examinable and will not be provided in the objective test examinations.





Example 2

The following table shows the number of units produced each month and the total cost incurred:

Output (units)

Total Cost($)

100 40,000400 65,000200 45,000700 85,000600 70,000500 70,000300 50,000

Calculate the regression line, y = a + bx

Note – this will give you a slightly different answer to the high-low technique. This is because both provide approximations only.

4.1. Using the equation as a forecasting tool

Once a linear expression for the data has been obtained – we are able to use this to estimate or predict total costs ‘y’ for any given activity level x.

However, forecasting beyond the data range or applying to scenarios, which are based on different circumstances, should be avoided.

Example 3

Calculate the estimated total cost for the above scenario if the forecast output level is expected to be 650 units.





4.2. Correlation Coefficient

You are NOT required calculate or remember the formula for Pearson’s correlation coefficient for CIMA P1 however you must be able to show an understanding of the results.

For information only

Correlation Coefficient r = n xy − x y∑∑∑

n x 2 − x∑( )2∑( ) n y 2 − y∑( )2∑( )The formula is applied to the historic data as before and can be used to determine how linear the relationship between variables is.

The result should fall within the range of -1 to + 1 and can be interpreted as follows:

r = 1 the data variables X and Y display a perfect positive linear correlation (ie costs Y are increasing directly with output X.)

r = -1 the variables display a perfect negative linear correlation (in this case Y will decrease for each increase in X)

r = 0 The variables do not appear to exhibit linear correlation.

Eg. If correlation coefficient r = 0.91 (close to +1) then this tells us that the two variables ( for example, cost and output, appear to have a very strong positive linear correlation – based on the data observations selected.

Example 4

Our techniques can be applied to scenarios outside management accounting.

State what type of correlation you would expect to find in examples below: i.e. positive, negative or no correlation.(a) Number of hours spent studying and likely exam score. (b) Number of pages printed and ink levels in a printer. (c) Shoe size and level of disposable income .

4.3. Problems with regression analysis?





5. Time series analysis

Management accountants can use historic data to identify trends and patterns, which can be used to better inform their forecasts.

As before – these patterns may not be exhibited by each individual value within the data but instead become apparent when looking a general movements across a period of time.

5.1. Key Definitions

Time series: A data set of observations recorded in equal intervals over a period of time – e.g. monthly.

Histogram is a graph of time series data. Where X axis displays time period –e.g. years, quarters, months.

5.2. Time series components

๏ Trend within data is the ‘underlying’ general movement over time.

๏ Seasonal fluctuations in data, -this is a regular variation within the data that is calendar or seasonally related. Any predictable change or pattern that recurs or repeats within one year can be described as seasonal.

๏ Cyclical variations repeat in cycles over period that is more than one year, eg often these are fluctuations relating to economic cycles of boom and bust.

๏ Random (residual) fluctuations are unpredictable and irregular and are not therefore useful for forecasting.

You will not be required to calculate the cyclical or random components in CIMA P1 exam questions

๏ Additive model - assumes that all components are independent of each other.

TS = T + SV + C + R

๏ Multiplicative model is better for use when components are moving in line with trend (eg seasonal variations appear to be increasing as level of trend rises).

TS = T x SV x C x R

Regression analysis can be used to estimate a trend line for a time series. The X variables in the regression formulae will be represented by time – with period one being the first data observed. This line can then be used as a forecasting tool.





5.3. Obtaining the Trend - Moving averages

In order to distinguish the trend from the seasonal variations, we use the method of moving averages. This is a smoothing technique intended to reveal underlying data trends and cancel the effect of random fluctuations.

Example 5

Set out below are the sales per quarter (in 000’s of units) of a company over the last 3 years.

QuarterQuarterQuarterQuarter1 2 3 4

2000 80 87 82 902001 90 95 93 1022002 105 112 103 116

Identify the trend and calculate the average seasonal variation.

5.4. The multiplicative model

In the previous example we calculated the seasonal variations using the additive model.

However, if the trend is increasing it would perhaps be more sensible to accept an increasing seasonal variation.

The multiplicative model deals with this by measuring the seasonal variation as actual as a percentage of trend.

Example 6

Using the data from example 5 together with the trend already calculated, calculate the average seasonal variation using the multiplicative model.

6. Forecasting Considerations

Example 7

Discuss below the limitations of using past data as a prediction of future results.





Chapter 13

RISK AND UNCERTAINTY

This topic represents 15% of the 2015 CIMA P1 syllabus.

It lends itself well to objective type questions and will provide the basis for further techniques introduced in CIMA P2 and P3.

1. Introduction

Business decision-making often requires choices to be made now about future outcomes, which are unlikely to be known with certainty.

Key decisions such as new product launches, capital investments and other opportunities are usually made without guarantee of future results.

Risk exists where the actual outcomes of a decision may not be in line with the forecasted or expected outcomes. This will mean that results will be different than planned or hoped for.

2. Risk vs Uncertainty

The terms risk and uncertainty are often used interchangeably but there is a technical difference:

Risk differs from uncertainty in that risk can be quantified. For example – we do not know what the result will be from a roll of a dice – but we do know it can only be one of six possible outcomes.

Uncertainty exists when there are no such ‘well defined’ possible outcomes. The outcomes are not known or quantifiable in the same way as risk. This means probabilities cannot be used as a basis for predictions.

3. Risk profiles

The approach taken to decision- making may be influenced by the decision-makers attitude to risk.

A risk seeker will be interested in the best possible outcome, no matter how small the chance that they may occur. This is described as an optimistic attitude, which may be considered reckless if likelihood of outcomes are ignored.

Someone who is risk neutral will be concerned with the most likely or ‘average’ outcome.

A risk averse decision maker is pessimistic and selects options on the basis of the worst outcomes occurring.





4. Decision Making Techniques (Risk and Uncertainty)

For the examination you are expected to be aware of, and to apply, several different approaches when dealing with risk and uncertainty within the decision making process.

๏ Expected values

๏ Decision Rules (Maximax, maximin, minimax regret)

๏ Decision Trees

๏ Sensitivity Analysis

๏ Standard deviation

5. Expected Values

Expected Values can be obtained when in situations which have various possible outcomes for which the probabilities of each are known.

The expected value represents a long run average result that the decision maker could expect if the event were repeated numerous times.

EV = Σpx

Example 1

The outcome of a new venture has been forecast below.

Probability of $50,000 profit = 0.3

Probability of ($20,000) loss = 0.7

What is the expected value of this project?

Should the decision maker go ahead with the venture?

5.1. Limitations of Expected Value Method.

Expected value method is often the approach of a risk neutral decision maker. However there are some serious limitations of this method.





6. Decision Rules

Given a range of possible outcomes (usually profits or payoffs) examination questions may ask you to identify the decision that would be chosen by the decision making criterion below.

๏ Maximax – represents the choice of an optimist who will prefer the option that results in the best possible returns regardless of likelihood.

๏ Maximin – this pessimistic decision maker considers the worst result of all available options and seeks to minimise this. Therefore maximin option will choose the option that gives the best of the worst outcomes.

๏ Minimax Regret – this represents the choice of a ‘sore loser’. They seek to minimise the maximum possible ‘regret’ from all the options available.

Example 2

John has a factory capacity of 1,200 units per month.

Units cost him $6 each to make and his normal selling price is $11 each. However, the demand per month is uncertain and is as follows:

Demand Probability400 0.2500 0.3700 0.4900 0.1

He has been approached by a customer who is prepared to contract to a fixed quantity per month at a price of $9 per unit. The customer is prepared to sign a contract to purchase 300, 500, 700 or 800 units per month.

The company can vary production levels during the month up to the maximum capacity, but cannot carry forward any unsold units in inventory.

(a) Calculate all possible profits that could result from the various demand levels.(b) Determine for what quantity John should sign the contract, under each of the following

criteria:i) expected valueii) maximiniii) maximaxiv) minimax regret(c) What is the most that John would be prepared to pay in order to obtain perfect

knowledge as to the level of demand?





7. Decision Trees

A decision tree is a diagrammatical representation of the various alternatives and outcomes. It is relevant when using an expected value approach and where there are several decisions to be made – it makes the options more understandable.

Example 3

Combi plc are having problems with one of their offices and have decided that there are three courses of action available to them:

(a) shut down the office, raising proceeds of $5 million

(b) have an expensive refurbishment of the office costing $4,000,000

(c) have a cheaper refurbishment of the office at a cost of $2,000,000

If they do the expensive refurbishment, then a good result will yield a return of $13,500,000 whereas a poor result will yield a return of only $6,500,000.

If they alternatively decide to do the cheaper refurbishment, then a good result will yield a return of $8,500,000 whereas a poor result will yield $4,000,000.

In either case, the probability of the refurbishment achieving a good result has been estimated to be 2/3.

An independent company has offered to undertake market research for them in order to identify in advance whether the result of refurbishment is likely to be good or poor. The research will cost $200,000 and there is a 68% probability that it will indicate a good result.

Unfortunately, the research cannot be guaranteed to be accurate. However, if the research indicates a good result, then the probability of the actual result being good is 91%.

If the survey indicates a poor result, then the probability of the actual result being good is 13%.

Combi have already decided that if they do have market research, and if the research indicates a poor result, then they will only be prepared to consider the cheaper refurbishment.

Use a decision tree to recommend what actions should be taken.

Note: In this example, the market research is not guaranteed to be accurate. This is likely to be the case in real life and is an example of imperfect knowledge





8. Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity analysis can be useful to appraise a decision, where the outcome is dependent on a number of uncertain input variables.

For example, a decision to launch a new product is likely to be based on estimated demand levels, estimated selling price, estimated variable costs etc.

Sensitivity analyses the effect of changes made to each variable, in order to determine their effect on the decision.

By considering the sensitivity of each input variable we can ascertain which variables are the most critical and therefore perhaps need more work confirming our estimates.

Example 4

Harry is about to considering a new business opportunity.

Based on his current estimations – the opportunity looks profitable.

His forecasted sales revenue is $30,000 per year – based on 1000 units sold.

His accountant has helped him to estimate fixed costs of 15,000 p.a.

The variable costs per unit are likely to be $10 per unit.

(a) Confirm, on the basis of the above figures, that the new opportunity is worthwhile(b) Calculate the sensitivity to change of:

i. Sales Revenue (selling price)ii. Sales volumeiii. Total variable costsiv. Fixed costs

(c) Comment on the results





9. Standard Deviation.

When dealing with average outcomes – such as expected values – it can be useful to have an indication of ‘dispersion’. That being the difference between individual values within a sample from their ‘mean’ average.

The higher the standard deviation – the more spread out the individual values will be from their mean. High standard deviation therefore represents high risk.

For example – project A and project B both have an expected value of $40,000.

Project A has a standard deviation of $2000

Project B has a standard deviation of $6500

This means that project A’s profits are within ±$2000 of $40,000. Whereas Project B profits have a difference of ±$6500 from $40,000.

The formula for standard deviation is below:

SD= X–X( )2

p∑

Note: you will not be asked to calculate the standard deviation in the exam, but you are expected to understand what it is.

Example 5

The following are likely returns from project Z.

Return Probability

10% 0.2

15% 0.5

20% 0.3

Calculate the expected value and the standard deviation for project Z.What is the co-efficient of variation in this case?





Chapter 14

RELEVANT COSTING

1. Introduction

A key part of business is decision making. This involves selecting a course of action NOW that will affect the future.

Relevant costing is a method that is used for long term and short term decisions.

Short-term decisions concern how to make the best use of resources in the short term- they are operational or tactical in nature. Short-term decisions are usually concern relatively low values, are likely to be repeatable/ reversible and individually are not expected to have much impact on the business long term.

For short term decisions we can ignore the time value of money.

Typical examples involve make-or-buy, contract pricing, acceptance of one-off orders and shut down decisions.

2. Relevant Costing

Relevant costs refer to costs which are directly incurred (or saved) by the decision being made.

As a rule they should be Future, Incremental and cash based.

An exception to this is Opportunity costs which is the value of the next best alternative, that must be sacrificed in order to pursue the current course of action.

Opportunity costs can only apply to limited or finite resources- otherwise no sacrifice results from using them.

Example:

The cost of contribution lost from transferring key workers to focus on a new project would be a relevant cost for the new project.





3. Non –relevant costs

Non-relevant costs are those that will not change as a result of the decision.

Always read the particulars of the question – but in general the following costs are not relevant for decision making.

Sunk costs – These are costs, which have already been paid. Therefore they will not change as a result of a decision and therefore are not relevant when evaluating the costs of a decision. An example may be costs of research relating to a new product – these should not be allowed to influence the decision to go ahead with the product because those costs have been already paid and not change

Committed Costs – these type of costs must be paid regardless of the decision. They are usually ongoing commitments – possibly lease or rental agreements that must be honoured by the business in the short term.

Book Values or historic costs these costs are usually irrelevant to a decision because they are out of date and are not a consequence of a decision being taken now.

Non- monetary costs – these are accounting valuations and estimates such as depreciation and amortisation – these are not cash flows, so are seen as irrelevant for decision making.

Example 1

Identify the relevant costs from scenarios below: Your research team have spent $50,000 researching project Q during 2X14? ( Relevant / Non-relevant)

The production manager currently earns a salary of $20,000p.a. Your new project will incur approximately $5000 p.a of overtime from him which means his salary is expected to be $25,000 for the duration of the project. (Which is relevant cost for project here? $20,000 or $5000 or $25,000)

A decision to manufacture a new product is expected to increase fixed costs by $3000 per month. ( Relevant / Non-relevant)





4. Relevant costing – further practice

This sort of question is really testing that you can determine what information in the question is relevant to the decision, and what information (for example, sunk costs) is irrelevant.

This is not a topic for which you can really learn rules. The main thing is to understand the thought process involved and then to read questions very carefully and to state the assumptions you have made where relevant.

Example 2

The managing director of Parser Ltd, a small business, is considering undertaking a one-off contract and has asked her inexperienced accountant to advise on what costs are likely to be incurred so that she can price at a profit. The following schedule has been prepared:

Costs for special order:

Notes $Direct wages 1 28,500Supervisor costs 2 11,500General overheads 3 4,000Machine depreciation 4 2,300Machine overheads 5 18,000Materials 6 34,000

98,300

Notes:

Direct wages comprise the wages of two employees, particularly skilled in the labour process for this job, who could be transferred from another department to undertake work on the special order. They are fully occupied in their usual department and sub-contracting staff would have to be bought-in to undertake the work left behind. Subcontracting costs would be $32,000 for the period of the work. Different subcontractors who are skilled in the special order techniques are available to work on the special order and their costs would amount to $31,300.

A supervisor would have to work on the special order. The cost of $11,500 is comprised of $8,000 normal payments plus $3,500 additional bonus for working on the special order. Normal payments refer to the fixed salary of the supervisor. In addition, the supervisor would lose incentive payments in his normal work amounting to $2,500. It is not anticipated that any replacement costs relating to the supervisor’s work on other jobs would arise.

General overheads comprise an apportionment of $3,000 plus an estimate of $1,000 incremental overheads.

Machine depreciation represents the normal period cost based on the duration of the contract. It is anticipated that $500 will be incurred in additional machine maintenance costs.

Machine overheads (for running costs such as electricity) are charged at $3 per hour. It is estimated that 6000 hours will be needed for the special order. The machine has 4000 hours available capacity. The further 2000 hours required will mean an existing job is taken off the machine resulting in a lost contribution of $2 per hour.

Materials represent the purchase costs of 7,500 kg bought some time ago. The materials are no longer used and are unlikely to be wanted in the future except on the special order. The complete





inventory of materials (amounting to 10,000 kg), or part thereof, could be sold for $4.20 per kg. The replacement cost of material used would be $33,375.

Because the business does not have adequate funds to finance the special order, a bank overdraft amounting to $20,000 would be required for the project duration of three months. The overdraft would be repaid at the end of the period. The bank’s overdraft rate is 18%.

The managing director has heard that, for special orders such as this, relevant costing should be used that also incorporates opportunity costs. She has approached you to create a revised costing schedule based on relevant costing principles.

Adjust the schedule prepared by the accountant to a relevant cost basis, incorporating appropriate opportunity costs.

5. Shutdown problems

This sort of question is asking for a decision as to whether or not to close part of the business.

Example 3

(a) A company manufactures three products, Pawns, Rooks and Bishops. The present net annual income from these is as follows:

Pawns Rooks Bishops Total

$ $ $ $

Sales 50,000 40,000 60,000 150,000

Less variable costs 30,000 25,000 35,000 90,000

Contribution 20,000 15,000 25,000 60,000

Less fixed costs 17,000 18,000 20,000 55,000

Profit/loss 3,000 (3,000) 5,000 5,000

The company is considering whether or not to cease selling Rooks. It is felt that selling prices cannot be raised or lowered without adversely affecting net income. $5,000 of the fixed costs of Rooks are direct fixed costs which would be saved if production ceased. All other fixed costs would remain the same.

(b) Suppose, however, that it were possible to use the resources released by stopping production of Rooks to produce a new item, Crowners, which would sell for $50,000 and incur variable costs of $30,000 and extra direct fixed costs of $6,000.

Consider whether the company should cease production and sale of Rooks under each of the scenarios in (a) and (b) above.





6. Make or Buy decisions

In order to overcome problems of limited resources, a firm may buy in a product instead of making it itself.

Where incremental costs of manufacture are less than those of buying in, the firm should make – assuming that there are not limited resources.

Where resources are limited, the firm should concentrate on making those products which give the greatest saving (over buying in) per unit of the scarce resource.

To decide which products should be made and which should be bought, we calculate the saving per unit of scarce resource from making the product rather than buying it in.

Example 4

The availability of Material B is limited to 8,000 kg

Product X Y ZDemand (units) 2,000 2,500 4,000Variable cost to make ($ per unit) 10 12 14Buy-in price ($ per unit) 13 17 16Kg of B required per unit 3 2 1

(included in variable cost)

Which products should the company make and which should it buy?









Chapter 15

COST VOLUME PROFIT ANALYSIS

1. Introduction

You are likely to be familiar with elements of CVP analysis from your previous studies. CIMA P1 syllabus advances this knowledge by requiring application of breakeven techniques to more complex decision making scenarios. You will need to become familiar with Profit Volume (P/V) analysis – and the calculation of breakeven point in a multi-product environment.

Cost-volume-profit analysis considers the relationship between costs (fixed and variable), sales volume and levels of profit.

The techniques of CVP analysis are used in breakeven calculations, contribution/ sales ratio analysis and can be applied to indicate the level of sales necessary to make a desired profit (target profit) or the amount by which sales can fall before the product is loss making (margin of safety).

2. Breakeven

Breakeven point represents the minimum level of sales (revenue or volume) needed to cover total costs (fixed and variable). At breakeven point, profit is equal to zero because our total sales income is equal to total expenditure.

The formula is for breakeven volume is below:

Breakeven point (in UNITS) =Total Fixed Costs

Breakeven point (in UNITS) =Contribution per unit

3. Contribution to sales ratio (C/S Ratio)

The contribution sales ratio is an important concept – it indicates the level of contribution that is included in sales revenue or selling price.

C/S ratio =Contribution per unit

x 100C/S ratio =Selling price

x 100

It can be used in the calculation of Breakeven point ($s)

Breakeven point (in REVENUE) = Total Fixed Costs

Breakeven point (in REVENUE) =C/S ratio





Example 1

Product X has variable costs of $2 per unit, and selling price of $6 per unit.

The fixed costs are $1,000 per year

(a) Use the above information to calculate budgeted sales revenue and budgeted costs when planned production is 300 units per year. What is budgeted profit (or loss) at this level?

(b) What is the breakeven point (in units)?(c) What is C/S ratio of this product – explain the meaning?(d) What is the breakeven revenue ($) ?

4. Margin of safety

The Margin of Safety measures the difference between budgeted sales and breakeven sales.

It can be expressed as percentage and shows the fall in budgeted sales that can be tolerated before breakeven point is reached. This is a key measure of risk because management know that any fall beyond breakeven point means the product will become loss making.

Margin of Safety ($) = Budgeted Sales less Breakeven sales

Margin of Safety as % = Budgeted Sales less Breakeven sales

x 100Margin of Safety as % = Budgeted Sales

x 100

Example 2

Calculate the margin of safety % for example 1

5. Target Profit

Breakeven calculations will often ask for level of sales that is necessary to earn a target profit figure.

Target Profit (Sales units) =Fixed Costs + Target Profit

Target Profit (Sales units) =Contribution per unit

Target Profit (Sales revenue) =Fixed Costs + Target Profit

Target Profit (Sales revenue) =C/S Ratio

Example 3

Using example 1, calculate the sales revenue needed to generate a target profit of $320?





6. Breakeven chart

Breakeven point can be displayed and solved graphically.

Example 4

Draw a breakeven chart for example 1

Output (units)

Cost and revenue ($)

7. Profit-volume chart

The profit volume chart shows the profit or loss at any level of activity. Intuitively, the greatest loss will occur when no sales are made (sales = zero). This loss will be equal to the fixed costs. The point will be the vertical intercept and is the starting point when creating this graph.

Example 5

Draw a profit-volume chart for example 1

Sales units)

Profit ($)

Loss ($)





8. Multi-product CVP analysis

Breakeven analysis so far has assumed that just one product is being sold –in reality a company is likely to make several products, a range - each with a different CS ratio.

Management are still likely to be interested in the break-even sales revenue (in order to cover the fixed overheads), but the existence of several products makes it less certain and this is approach through an assumption that products will be sold in a predetermined ‘budgeted’ sales mix.

The mix may be obtained from scenario’s forecast sales volumes or from indicated ratios or percentages.

A weighted average c/s ratio is the quickest way to find the breakeven sales values for a multiproduct scenario.

Weighted Average C/S Ratio =Total Contribution (standard proportions)

Weighted Average C/S Ratio =Total Sales Revenue (standard proportions)

Breakeven Sales Revenue =Fixed Costs

Breakeven Sales Revenue =Weighted average C/S ratio

Example 6

A company produces and sells three products: C, V and P.

The budget information for the coming year is as follows:

C V PSales (units) 4,800 4,800 12,000Selling price (p.u.) $5 $6 $7Variable cost (p.u.) $3.75 $5.25 $4.35Contribution (p.u.) $1.25 $0.75 $2.65

The total budgeted fixed overheads for the year are $8,000

(a) Calculate the CS ratio for each product individually(b) Calculate the weighted average CS ratio (assuming that the budgeted product mix

remains unchanged)(c) Calculate the breakeven revenue (assuming that the budgeted product mix remains

unchanged)(d) Construct a PV chart (assuming that the budgeted product mix remains unchanged)(e) Assume that the products are sold in order of their CS ratios, construct a table showing

the cumulative revenue and cumulative profits associated with this selling order.(f) Add the information to the P/V chart already produced for Exercise 6 and calculate the

breakeven sales revenue on this basis





9. Limitations of CVP analysis

CVP analysis is sometimes described as a crude, oversimplified model of cost, behaviour. The following assumptions are its weaknesses.

๏ The selling price per unit is assumed to remain constant at all levels of activity

๏ The variable cost per unit is assumed to remain constant at all levels of activity.

๏ It is assumed that the total fixed costs do not change across all levels of production.

๏ It is assumed that the production volume is equal to sales volume in the period (i.e. there are no changes in the levels of inventory)

๏ It requires the budgeted product mix proportions to be known in advance and remain unchanged.









ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES

Chapter 1

No examples

Chapter 2

Answer to Example 6

units costHigh 1,000 110,000Low 200 30,000Difference 800 80,000

Therefore, variable cost =80,000

= $100 per unitTherefore, variable cost =800

= $100 per unit

Using in ‘high’, total cost = $110,000variable cost(1,000 × $100) $100,000

Therefore, fixed cost = $10,000Therefore, y = 100x +10,000

Chapter 3

Answer to Example 1

Reasons why a cost per unit is required:

๏ To value inventory (SFP)

๏ To calculate cost of sales for income statement.

๏ To determine a selling price.

๏ To plan and make decisions (budgeting, forecasting)

๏ To determine the impact of management decisions on costs i.e. evaluation of a cost savings or change in cost due to a new supplier etc.

๏ To measure performance- eg using key ratios and variance analysis.





Answer to Example 2

Production units > Sales units (inventory has increased).

SIAM helps us to remember when stocks increase absorption costing profit will be higher.

The adjustment required is:

Change in units x OAR

(13500-12000) x $30 = $45,000

Absorption costing profit will be $45,000 higher than the marginal costing profit reported for that period.

NB) The inclusion of selling price, variable cost etc are distracters and not needed to solve this problem.

Fixed production cost per unit is another name for Overhead Absorption Rate (OAR).

Chapter 4

Answer to Example 1

(a) Total overheadsTotal overheadsTotal overheads $190,000Total labour hoursTotal labour hoursTotal labour hours

A 20,000 × 2 = 40,000B 25,000 × 1 = 25,000C 2,000 × 1 = 2,000

67,000 hours

O.A.R. =190,000

= $2.836 per hourO.A.R. =67,000

= $2.836 per hour

Cost cards:

A B CMaterials 5 10 10Labour 10 5 5Overheads (at $2.84 per hr) 5.68 2.84 2.84

20.68 17.84 17.84Selling price 20 20 20Profit / Loss $(0.68) $2.16 $2.16





(b) Total A B CSet-up costs(Cost per set up = ) 90,000 36,000 46,800 7,200

Receiving

(Cost per delivery = ) 30,000 13,636 13,636 2,728

Despatch

(Cost per order = ) 15,000 5,000 5,000 5.000

Machining

(Cost per machine hour: ) 55,000 23,404 29,256 2,340190,00

0 78,040 94,692 17,268Number of units 20,000 25,000 2,000Overheads p.u. $3.90 $3.79 $8.63

Costings:

A B CMaterials 5 10 10Labour 10 5 5Overheads 3.90 3.79 8.63

18.90 18.79 23.63Selling price 20 20 20Profit / Loss $1.10 $1.21 $(3.63)

Answer to Example 2

Better costing information can be used to reduce and control costs more effectively.

Better pricing decisions

More accurate basis for forecasting and budgeting

Supports other areas of decision-making – such as identification and discontinuation of unprofitable product lines.





Chapter 5

Answer to Example 1

A BSelling price 25 28Materials 8 20Other variable 12 4

20 24Contribution p.u. 5 4Machine hrs p.u. 2 1

Contribution per hour $2.50 $4

Production

units hoursB: 10,000 × 1 hr = 10,000A: 19,000 × 2hrs = 38,000

48,000hours

Profit

$A: 19,000 × $5 95,000B: 10,000 × $4 40,000

135,000less Fixed costs:

[A: 20,000 × $3B: 10,000 × $2] 80,000

Profit $55,000

Answer to Example 2

(a) A BSelling price 25 28Materials 8 20

Throughput p.u. $17 $8

Machine hrs p.u. 2 1

Contribution per hour $8.50 $8(2) (1)





Production Plan

units hoursA: 20,000 × 2hrs = 40,000B: 8,000 × 1hr = 8,000

48,000 hours

Profit

$A: 20,000 × $17 340,000B: 8,000 × $8 64,000

404,000less “fixed” costs:

[A: 20,000 × $15B: 10,000 × $6] 360,000

Profit $44,000

Cost per factory hour =360,000

= $7.50Cost per factory hour =$48,000

= $7.50

(b) Throughput accounting ratios:

A:8.50

= 1.13A:7.50

= 1.13

B:8

= 1.07B:7.50

= 1.07

Interpretation: Both products have a TPAR greater than 1 which means they are both financially viable products (they return more per hour than the factory cost per hour) However, Product A is more profitable than product B – which is why the production plan we created prioritised resources to producing all of product A first.

(c) Management should always consider other business strategic factors before withdrawing a product from sale. For example, product may be a vital part of the range that customers value. Alternatively, sale price may be deliberately low due to pricing strategies such as introductory pricing, loss leadership or a price penetration policy.





Chapter 6

Answer to Example 1

Total joint costs: $Materials 5,000Labour & o/h 2,300

7,300Less: proceeds of by-product

(500 kg × $0.20) (100)Started & finished (25,000 u) $7,200

Production of joint products: kgA 1,000B 2,000

3,000 kg

Cost per kg7,200

= $2.40Cost per kg3,000

= $2.40

(for A and B)

Answer to Example 2

Total joint costs: $Materials 5,000Labour o/h 2,300

7,300Less: Proceeds of by-product

(500 kg × $0.20) (100)$7,200

Sales value of production of joint products:

$A (1,000kg × $5) 5,000B (2,000kg × $2) 4,000

$9,000





Allocation of joint costs to production:

$

A

5,0009,000

×7,200⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟

4,000 for 1,000 kg

B

4,0009,000

×7,200⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟

3,200 for 2,000 kg

Cost per kg:

A

4,0001,000

⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟ = $4.00 per kg

B

3,2002,000

⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟

= $1.60 per kg

Answer to Example 3

Total joint costs: $Materials 5,000Labour o/h 2,300

7,300Less: Proceeds of by-product(500 kg × $0.20) (100)

$7,200

Net realisable value of production

$A 1,000 kg × ($8.40 – $4.80) = 3,600

B 2,000 kg × ($4.50 – $2.20) = 4,600$8,200

Allocation of joint costs to production:

$

A

3,6008,200

×7,200⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟

3,161

B

4,6008,200

×7,200⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟

4,039

$7,200





Cost per kg:

A

3,1611,000

⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟ = $3.16 per kg

B

4,0392,000

⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟

= $2.02 per kg

Chapter 7

Answer to Example 1

Types of costs – e-books

๏ Software expertise

๏ Royalties for author

๏ Design costs for cover image

๏ Marketing costs

๏ IT support ongoing for updates etc

๏ Licence/ commission paid to advertise on audio book site.

Note – many of these are fixed and paid up front.

Once the product is created, the cost of selling it again and again has virtually no extra cost.

Costs saved

Compared to physical manufacturing of books -there are no inventory storage or holding costs or any transportation costs.

Chapter 8

Answer to Example 1

Let S = number of standard chairs produced per week

E = number of executive chairs produced per week

Constraints: Materials: 2S + 4E ≤ 80 Labour: 5S + 6E ≤ 180 Demand: E ≤ 10 Non-negativity: S ≥ 0; E ≥ 0

Objective:

Maximise C = 6S + 9E





E

S

0

30

20

10

Feasible area:A, B, C, D, 0

10 30 4020

40

B

C

D

A

Maximum contribution occurs at point B (using the objective function).At B, 2S + 4E = 80 (1) 5S + 6E = 180 (2)(1) × 2.5: 5S + 10E = 200 (3)(3) – (2): 4E = 20 E = 5In (1): 2S + 20 = 80 2S = 60 S = 30 C = 6S + 9E = 180 + 45 = $225

Produce 5 Executive chairs and 30 standard chairs per week.

Maximum contribution is $225 per week.

Answer to Example 2

There is no spare material or labour

The spare demand for executive chairs is 5 chairs (10 – 5)

Answer to Example 3(a) If there was 1 more kg of material available, then the material constraint becomes:

2S + 4E ≤ 81

Point B will still be the optimum solution, and therefore this will be when:

2S + 4E = 81 (1)

5S + 6E = 180 (2)





(1) × 2.5 5S + 10E = 202.5 (3)

(3) – (2) 4E = 22.5

E = 5.625

in (1) 2S + 22.5 = 81

2S = 58.5

C = 6S +9E

= 175.5 + 50.625

= 226.125

Shadow price of material = extra contribution

= 226.125 – 225

= $1.125 per kg(b) If there was 1 more hour of labour available, then the labour constraint becomes: 5S + 6E ≤

181

Point B will still be the optimum solution, and therefore this will be when:

2S + 4E = 80 (1)

5S + 6E = 181 (2)

(1) × 2.5 5S + 10E = 200 (3)

(3) – (2) 4E = 19

E = 4.75

in (1) 2S + 19 = 80

2S = 61

S = 30.5

C = 6S +9E

= 183 + 42.75

= 225.75

Shadow price of labour = 225.75 – 225

= $0.75 per hour

The shadow price of demand for executive chairs is $0, because there is already spare demand.





Chapter 9

Answer to Example 1

Original Fixed Budget

Flexed Budget Actual Variances

Sales (units) 8,000 8,400 8,400

Production (units) 8,700 8,900 8,900

$ $ $

Sales 600,000 630,000 613,200 16,800 (A)

Materials 156,600 160,200 163,455 3,255 (A)

Labour 217,500 222,500 224,515 2,015 (A)

Variable o/h 87,000 89,000 87,348 1,652 (F)

461,100 471700 475318

Less: Inventory (37,100) (26,500) (26,500)

424,000 445,200 448,818

Contribution 176,000 184,800 (164,382)

Less: Fixed o/h (130,500) (130,500) (134,074) 3,574 (A)

Profit $45,500 $54,300 $30,308 23,992 (A)

Answer to Example 2

Materials

Expense variance

Actual purchases at actual cost 163,45535,464kg

at standard cost($4.50) 159,588

$3,867 (A)

Usage variance

kgActual usage 35,464Standard usage for actual production(8,900 u × 4kg) 35,600

136 kg

at a standard cost ($4.50) = $612 (F)





Labour

Rate of Pay variance

Actual hours paid at actual cost 224,51545,400 hours at standard cost ($5) 227,000

$2,485 (F)

Idle Time Variance

Actual hours paid 45,400Actual hours worked 44,100

1,300 hrs

at a standard cost ($5) = $6,500 (A)

Efficiency variance

Actual hours worked 44,100Standard hours for actual production(8,900 u × 5hrs) 44,500

400 hrs

at a standard cost ($5) = $2,000 (F)

Variable overheads

Expenditure variance

Actual hours worked at actual cost 87,34844,100 at standard cost 88,200

$852 (F)

Efficiency variance

Actual hours worked 44,100Standard hours for actual production(8,900u × 5hrs) 44,500

400 hrs

at a standard cost ($2) = $800 (F)

Fixed overheads


Actual total 134,074Original budget total 130,500

$3,574 (A)






Operating Statement

$Original budget profitOriginal budget profit 45,500Sales – volume variance 8,800 (F)

54,300Sales – price variance (16,800) (A)Materials – expense variance (3,867) (A)

– usage variance 612 (F)Labour – rate of pay variance 2,485 (F)

– idle time variance (6,500) (A)– efficiency variance 2,000 (F)

Variable o/hs – expense variance 852 (F)– efficiency variance 800 (F)

Fixed o/hs – expense variance (3,574) (A)Actual profit $30,308

Answer to Example 3

Original Fixed Budget

Flexed Budget Actual Variances

Sales (units) 8,000 8,400 8,400Production (units) 8,700 8,900 8,900

$ $ $Sales 600,000 630,000 613,200 16,800 (A)Materials 156,600 160,200 163,455 3,255 (A)Labour 217,500 222,500 224,515 2,015 (A)Variable o/h 87,000 89,000 87,348 1,652 (F)Fixed o/h 130,500 133,500 134,074 574 (A)

591,600 605,200 609,392Closing inventory (47,600) (34,000) (34,000)

544,000 571,200 575,392Profit $56,000 $58,800 $37,808 20,992 (A)

Fixed overheads


Actual total 134,074Original budget total 130,500

$3,574 (A)

Capacity variance

Actual hours worked 44,100Budget hours (8,700u × 5hrs) 43,500

600 hrs






Efficiency variance

Actual hours worked 44,100Standard hours for actual production(8,900u × 5hrs) 44,500

400 hrs


Operating Statement

$Original budget profitOriginal budget profit 56,000Sales – volume variance 2,800 (F)

58,800Sales – price variance (16,800) (A)Materials – expense variance (3,867) (A)

– usage variance 612 (F)Labour – rate of pay variance 2,485 (F)

– idle time variance (6,500) (A)– efficiency variance 2,000 (F)

Variable o/hs – expense variance 852 (F)– efficiency variance 800 (F)

Fixed o/hs – expense variance (3,574) (A)– capacity variance 1,800 (F)– efficiency variance 1,200 (F)

Actual profit $37,808

Answer to Example 4

No Answer





Chapter 10

There are different ways to calculate planning variances – however, this method is CIMA’s preferred method – as per examiner’s article

Answer to Example 1

Labour rate planning variance

Actual output x revised std hours x original labour rate

22000 x 0.5 x $14 = 154000

= $38,500 ADV

Actual output x revised std hours x revised labour rate

22000 x 0.5 x $17.50 = 192500

Labour rate Operational variance

Actual output x actual std hours x revised labour rate

22000 x 0.518* x 17.50 = 199500

=22800 Fav

Actual output x actual hours x actual labour rate

22000 x 0.518* x 15.50 = 176700

*11,400/22,000 =0.511h per unit





Answer to Example 2

Planning material price variance

Actual output x revised std kg x original cost per kg

10,000 x 3kg x $4 = 120,000

= 36000 ADVERSE

Actual output x revised std kg x revised cost per kg

10,000 x 3kg x $5.20 = 156,000

Operational material price variance

Actual output x actual kg x revised cost per kg

10,000 x 3.3kg x 5.20 =171600

=33,000 FAV

Actual output x actual kg x actual cost per kg

10,000 x 3.3kg x 4.20 =138600

Answer to Example 3

Note: throughout this answer we use standard costs because cost variances are calculated separately in the usual way

Total sales margin variance

Budget profit:

A 200u × (20 – 17) 600B 100u × (25 – 21) = 400C 100u × (30 – 24) = 600

1,600

Actual profit (using standard costs):

A 180u × (22 – 17) 900B 150u × (22 – 21) = 150C 107u × (26 – 24) = 340

1,390

Total variance = 1,390 – 1,600 = $210 (A)





Sales price variance

Actual sales Actual selling price Actual sales Standard

selling priceunits $ units $

A 180 × 22 = 3,960 180 × 20 = 3,600B 150 × 22 = 3,300 150 × 25 = 3,750C 170 × 26 = 4,420 170 × 30 = 5,100

$11,680 $12,450

Sales price variance = 11,680 – 12,450 = $770 (A)

Sales mix variance

Actual total sales

Actual selling price

Actual total sales

Standard profit p.u.

units $ units $A 180 × $3 = 540 (2/4) 250 × $3 = 750B 150 × $4 = 600 (1/4) 125 × $4 = 500C 170 × $6 = 1,020 (1/4) 125 × $6 = 750

500 $2,160 500 $2,000

Mix variance = 2,160 – 2,000 = $160 (F)

Sales quantity variance

Actual total sales standard

mix

Standard Profit Budget sales

Standard profit

units $ units $A 250 × $3 = 750 200 × $3 = 600B 125 × $4 = 500 100 × $4 = 400C 125 × $6 = 750 100 × $6 = 600

500 $2,000 400 $1,600

Quantity variance = 20,000 – 1,600 = $400 (F)





Answer to Example 4

Total variance:

$Actual total expenditure 126,720Standard cost for actual production 126,000 (50,400 × 120,000/48,000)

720 (A)

Expenditure variance:

$Actual total expenditure 126,720Standard cost for actual despatches 132,000(2,200 × 120,000/2,000)

5,280 (F)

Efficiency variance:

DespatchesActual number of despatches 2,200Standard number of despatches for actual production 2,100(50,400 × 2,000/48,000)

100

Variance = 100 despatches × standard cost per despatch

= 100 × 120,000/2,000 = $6,000 (A)





Chapter 11

Answer to Example 1

Budget Objectives Discussion

Depending on your own experiences, you may find the budgets that you have dealt with so far were or were not effective in their purpose of planning, coordination, communication and other goals.

If you found the budgets you have experienced were particularly poor in any of the aspects – consider why this was the case. How might the results or the reaction of those involved be different, if the budget process had been approached a different way?

A budget is a key internal document and underpins the foundations of the next period’s activities. Therefore, as a management accountant the choice of budget and how successful it is implemented will depend on your ability to consider different methods and the suitability of each, for the organisation where you work.

(a) Budgets can be motivating if targets are challenging but achievable. Motivation can be enhanced further by involving staff in their own target setting. Rewards such as salary bonuses can also be linked to achievement of budgeted figures. However, when dealing with individuals and incentivising courses of action, care must be taken to ensure that the results are goal congruent with the aims of the company.

(b) Budgets can be used to communicate strategic aims of the owners and senior managers to all levels of the company. The budget executes these plans by translating them into smaller objectives. Messages on strategic direction of the company, will be transferred across the organisation. For example, a drive for growth, quality or cost-cutting should be apparent in the targets set. This communication should be consistent with other messages that are conveyed across the company and elsewhere.

Answer to Example 2

(a) Sales budget

$X 2,000u × $100 = 200,000Y 4,000u × $130 = 520,000Z 3,000u × $150 = 450,000

$1,170,000

(b) Production budget

X Y ZSales 2,000 4,000 3,000Opening inventory (500) (800) (700)Closing inventory 600 1,000 800Production 2,100 u 4,200u 3,100u





(c) Material usage budget

Wood VarnishX 2,100u × 5 = 10,500 × 2 4,200Y 4,200u × 3 = 12,600 × 2 8,400Z 3,100u × 2 = 6,200 × 1 3,100

29,300 kg 15,700 litres

(d) Materials purchases budget

Wood VarnishUsage 29,300 15,700Opening inventory (21,000) (10,000)Closing inventory 18,000 9,000

26,300 kg 14,700 litres× $8 × $4

$210,400 $58,800

(e) Labour budget

hoursX 2,100u × 4 = 8,400Y 4,200u × 6 = 25,200Z 3,100u × 8 = 24,800

58,400 hours×$3

$175,200

Answer to Example 3

Flexed Actual VariancesSales 12,000u 12,000 uProduction 12,000u 12,000 u

Sales 120,000 122,000 2,000 (F)Materials 60,000 60,000 –Labour 30,000 28,500 1,500 (F)Variable o/h 15,000 15,000 –

105,000 103,500Contribution 15,000 18,500Fixed o/h 10,000 11,000 1,000 (A)Profit $5,000 $7,500 $2,500 (F)





Statement

$Original budget contribution (10,000u × $1.25)(10,000u × $1.25) 12,500Sales volume variance (2,000 × $1.25)(2,000 × $1.25) 2,500 (F)

15,000Sales price variance 2,000 (F)Labour variance 1,500 (F)Actual contribution 18,500Fixed overheadsBudget 10,00010,000Variance 1,000 (A) 11,000Actual profit $7,500

Chapter 12

Answer to Example 1

u $High 700 85,000Low 100 40,000

600u $45,000

Variable cost =45,000

= $75Variable cost =600

= $75

For high:

Total cost = 85,000Variable cost (700u @ $75) 52,500Fixed cost $32,500

Answer to Example 2

x y xy x2 y2

1 40 40 1 1,6004 65 260 16 4,2252 45 90 4 2,0257 85 595 49 7,2256 70 420 36 4,9005 70 350 25 4,9003 50 150 9 2,500

28 425 1,905 140 27,375Σx Σy Σxy Σx2 Σy2





b =n xy−∑ x y∑∑n x2− x∑( )2

∑=

7×1,905−28×4257×140−282

=1, 435196

= 7.321

a=y∑

n−

b x∑n

=425

7−

7.321×287

= 31.430

y = 31.430 + 73.21x

Answer to Example 3y =31,430 + 73.21(650)

y = $79,016

Answer to Example 4Number of hours spent studying and Exam results [positive correlation expected]Number of pages printed and ink levels in a printer. [Negatively correlated]Shoe size and level of disposable income [No correlation]

Answer to Example 5

Moving Average

Trend Seasonal Variation

% variation

2000 1 802 87 84.753 82 87.25 86 - 4 95.34 90 89.25 88.25 + 1.75 102.0

2001 1 90 92 90.62 - 0.62 99.32 95 95 93.5 +1.5 101.63 93 98.75 96.87 - 3.87 96.04 102 103 100.87 +1.13 101.1

2002 1 105 105.5 104.25 +0.75 100.72 112 109 107.25 +4.75 104.43 1034 116

1 2 3 42000 - - - 4 + 1.752001 - 0.62 + 1.5 - 3.87 + 1.132002 + 0.95 + 4.75 - -Total + 0.13 + 6.25 - 7.87 + 2.88Averages + 0.06 + 3.12 - 3.93 + 1.44





Answer to Example 6

1 2 3 42000 - - 95.3 102.02001 99.3 101.6 96.0 101.12002 100.7 104.4 - -Total 200 206 191.3 203.1Averages 100% 103% 95.6% 101.5%

Answer to Example 7

Discussion could include:

Correlation does not necessarily imply causation.

Too few data observations reduces the reliability of using data as a forecast.

The past is not necessarily an indication to the future.

Take care when predicting outside the range of normal activity.

Take care when predicting too far in the future.

Consider other factors that may influence future results (PEST factors).

Conclusion

As a management accountant techniques, which can analyse past data and use them to forecast future results, can be very useful.

However, these methods should always be applied carefully – considering the points discussed above – in addition to application of good judgment and management expertise.

Chapter 13

Answer to Example 1(a) The expected value will be ( 0.3*50,000) + (0.7 * -20,000) = $1000.

In the long run they should end up with an average profit of $1000.

(b) On the basis of EV alone - the decision maker can accept the project.

However, the actual result of the venture may be loss making. The principle of expected values is designed for experiments that are due to be repeated multiple times – therefore using this technique to appraise a one-off venture may not be appropriate.





Answer to Example 2

(a) 400u 500u 700u 900u300u 2,900 3,400 4,400 5,400500u 3,500 4,000 5,000 5,000700u 4,100 4,600 4,600 4,600800u 4,400 4,400 4,400 4,400

DemandContract size

(b) (i) Expected value if contract size =

300 units = (0.2 ×2,900) + (0.3 × 3,400) + (0.4 × 4,400) + (0.1 × 5,400) = $3,900

500 units = (0.2 × 3,500) + (0.3 × 4,000) + (0.5 × 5,000) = $4,400

700 units = (0.2 × 4,100) + (0.8 × 4,600) = $4,500

900 units = $4,400

Sign contract for 700 units

(ii) maximin

Worst outcome from:

300 units = $2,900

500 units = $3,500

700 units = $4,100

800 units = $4,400


(iii) Best outcome from

300 units = $5,400

500 units = $5,000

700 units = $4,600

800 units = $4,400


(iv) Regret table:

400u 500u 700u 900u

300u 1,500 1,200 600 0500u 900 600 0 400700u 300 0 400 800800u 0 200 600 1,000

DemandContract size

Worst regret for

300 units = $1,500

500 units = $900

700 units = $800





800 units = $1,000


(c) With perfect knowledge of the level of demand, the payoffs would be as follows:

Result of perf. know. Decision Contract Payoff$

400 800u 4,400500 700u 4,600700 500u 5,000900 300u 5,400

The expected return with perfect knowledge =

(0.2 × 4,400) + (0.3 × 4,600) + (0.4 × 5,000) + (0.1 × 5,400) = $4,800

The expected return without perfect knowledge (from (b)(i) is $4,500

So the most to pay for perfect knowledge

= 4,800 – 4,500

= $300





Answer to Example 3

1

2

3

(2M)cheap

Bad ⅓

Bad ⅓ Market

research(0.2M)

Bad result0.32

Bad 0.09

Bad 0.09

Bad 0.87

(2M)cheap

5M

13.5M

6.5M

8.5M

4M

A

B

C

D

F

E

13.5M

6.5M

8.5M

4M

8.5M

4M

5M

cheap (2M)

Good result 0.68

5M

shut

expensive (4M)

Good 2/3

Good 2/3

Good 0.91

Good 0.91

Good 0.13shut

expensive (4M)shut

Expected values:

at A (2/3 × 13.5M) + (1/3 ×6.5M) = 11.17MB (2/3 ×8.5M) + (1/3 × 4M) = 7MC (0.91 × 13.5M) + (0.09 × 6.5M) = 12.87MD (0.91 × 8.5M) + (0.09 × 4M) = 8.095ME (0.13 × 8.5M) + (0.87 × 4M) = 4.585M

Decisions

at 2: choose expensive, 8.87M (12.87 – 4)

at 3: choose shut, 5M





Expected value at F, (0.68 × 8.87M) + (0.32 × 5M) = 7.63M

Decision at 1: choose market research, 7.43M (7.63 – 0.2)

Answer to Example 4

Sensitivity Analysis

Current Assumptions – based on 1000 units sold:$

Sales Revenue 30,000Variable costs (10,000)Contribution 20,000Fixed Costs (15000)Profit 5,000 <Based on these estimates – this project will be profitable

Sensitivity Analysis

Sales revenue

5000x 16.6%

30,000x 16.6%

Sales Volume ( this is like sensitivity of contribution)

5,000x 100 = 25%

20,000x 100 = 25%

Total Variable costs

5,000x 100 = 50%

10,000x 100 = 50%

Fixed costs

5,000x 100 = 33.3%

15,000x 100 = 33.3%





Interpretation.

Each element can be interpreted in similar way as below:If total sales revenue was to fall by more than 16.6% (of its current estimated value) then the project will be loss making.

If the total variable costs were to rise by more than 50% of the current estimated figure then the project will become loss making.

Critical variable: Sales RevenueIn sensitivity analysis – the smallest % of the results identifies the most critical variable. In this case - sales revenue (based on the estimated selling price) is the lowest percentage of the project. This means management should recognise that this variable needs to be carefully estimated and based on thorough market research. The analysis tells them that a drop in selling price of more than 16.6% will make the project non-viable.

All sensitivity calculations assume the other variables of the project are held constant.

Answer to Example 5

Standard Deviation with Expected Value

x p px x – x p (x – x)2

10 0.2 2 – 5.5% 6.05

15 0.5 7.5 – 0.5% 0.125

20 0.3 6 + 4.5% 6.075

15.5% 12.25

x

Standard deviation = 12.25 = 3.5%

The expected value of return = 15.5%

The standard deviation is 3.5% (expressed in same units as the data given).

The coefficient of variation is 3.5/15.5 = 0.2258 which is 22.6% ( This % gives an indication of relative magnitude of variation in the data).





Chapter 14

Answer to Example 1

(1) Your research team have spent $50,000 researching project Q during 2X14? (Non-relevant)

(2) The production manager currently earns a salary of $20,000p.a. Your new project will incur approximately $5000 p.a of overtime from him which means his salary is expected to be $25,000 for the duration of the project. (Which is relevant cost for project here? $5000 )

(3) A decision to manufacture a new product is expected to increase fixed costs by $3000 per month. ( Relevant )

Answer to Example 2

Revised costs for special order:Notes $

Subcontractor costs 1 31,300Supervisor costs 2 1,000General overheads 3 1,000Machine maintenance 4 500Machine overheads 5 22,000Materials 6 31,500Interest costs 7 900

88,200

Notes:1. The choice lies between the two subcontractor costs that have to be employed because of

the shortage of existing labour. The minimum cost is to have subcontractors employed who are skilled in the special process.

2. Only the difference between the bonus and the incentive payment represents an additional cost that arises due to the special order. Fixed salary costs do not change.

3. Only incremental costs are relevant.4. Depreciation is a period cost and is not related to the special order. Additional maintenance

costs are relevant.5. The relevant costs are the variable overheads ($3 × 6000 hours) that will be incurred, plus the

displacement costs of $2 × 2000 hours making a total of $22,000.6. Since the materials are no longer used the replacement cost is irrelevant. The historic cost of

$34,000 is a sunk cost. The relevant cost is the lost sale value of the inventory used in the special order which is: 7,500 kg × $4.20 per kg = $31,500.

7. Full opportunity costing will also allow for imputed interest costs on the incremental loan. The correct interest rate is the overdraft rate since this represents the incremental cost the company will pay. Simple interest charges for three months are therefore: (3/12) × $20,000 × 18% = $900.

Answer to Example 3

(a) Lost contribution from Rooks (15,000)Save fixed overheads 5,000Net loss from ceasing Rooks 10,000

Therefore, should continue production of Rooks.





(b) Lost contribution from Rooks (15,000)Save fixed overheads 5,000Extra contribution from Crowners 20,000Extra fixed costs of Crowthers (6,000)Net gain from ceasing Rooks 4,000

Therefore, should cease production of Rooks and produce Crowners instead.

Answer to Example 3

X Y ZBuy-in price 13 17 16Cost to make 10 12 14Saving (p.u.) $3 $5 $2

Kg of B 3 2 1

Saving per kg $1 $2.50 $2RANKING 3 1 2

Units Material B (kg)

Y MAKE 2,500 5,000Z MAKE 3,000 3,000

8,000 kg

Z BUY 1,000X BUY 2,000





Chapter 15

Answer to Example 1

$Selling price 6Variable costs 2Contribution 4

(a) $Total contribution (300u × $4) 1,200Fixed costs (1,000)Profit $200

(b) Breakeven =Fixed costs

=1,000

= 250 units(b) Breakeven =Contribution p.u

=4

= 250 units

(c) C/S Ratio is 4/6 = 0.66 (This tells us that 66% of selling price is contribution)

(d) Breakeven revenue = 250 u × $6p.u. = $1,500

If used formula with C/ S ratio – result is approx the same as above1,000

= 1,515If used formula with C/ S ratio – result is approx the same as above0.66

= 1,515

Approx $1500

Answer to Example 2

Margin of safety

Budgeted sales = 300 unitsBreakeven = 250 units

Margin of safety =300 – 250

× 100 = 16.67%Margin of safety =300

× 100 = 16.67%

Answer to Example 3

C/S ratio =Contribution

=4

= 0.67C/S ratio =Sales

=6

= 0.67

$

Target profit 320

Fixed overheads 1,000

Target contribution $1,320

Sales revenue required = Target contribution ÷ C/S ratio = 1320 ÷ 4/6 = $1,980





Answer to Example 4

output (units)

Cost & revenue($)

0

3,000

2,000

1,000

Total cost

Total revenue

500250

breakeven

}variable cost

fixed cost}Answer to Example 5

Profit($)

0

1,000

1,000

500

breakeven(250 units)

Sales (units)





Answer to Example 6

(a) CS ratios:

C = 1.25 / 5.00 = 0.25 (or 25%)

V = 0.75 / 6.00 = 0.125 (or 12.5%)

P = 2.65 / 6.00 = 0.379 (or 37.9%)

(b) Average CS ratio:

Based on budget sales,

Total revenue = (4800 x 5) + (4800 x 6) + (12000 x 7)

= $136,800

Total contribution = (4800 x 1.25) + (4800 x 0.75) + (12000 x 2.65)

= $41,400

Average CS ratio = 41400/136800 = 0.303 (or 30.3%)

(Alternatively, the average CS ratio may be calculated by taking the weighted average of the individual CS ratios, weighting by the budgeted sales revenues.)

(c) Breakeven sales revenue = fixed overheads / CS ratio

= 8000/0.303

= $26,400





(d) See graph below

50,000 100,000 150,000

– 10,000

+ 10,000

+ 20,000

+ 30,000

+ 40,000

0 Sales ($)

Profit ($)

P

C

V

(e) P has the highest CS ratio, followed by C, followed by V.

Cumulative Sales

Cumulative Profit

P (12,000 × 7 =) 84,000 ((12,000 × 2.65) – 8000) 23,800C (4,800 × 5 = 24,000) 108,000 (4,800 × 1.25 = 6000) 29,800V (4,800 × 6 = 28,800) 136,800 (4,800 × 0.75 = 3600) 33,400

(f) If selling products in the order of highest contribution (P then C then V) Product P’s sales alone will achieve breakeven. This means breakeven point from this selling strategy will be = 8000/0.379 = $21,108 of product P.

See dotted lines on P/V chart above




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