Church History Survey I: From Pentecost the Reformationa1.phobos.apple.com/us/r30/CobaltPublic/v4/b4/63/7b/b4637b9a-ca4e-5df3... · A video tape would show all of your past actions—the

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryi

God’s People Through the Ages.

C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I :

FromReformation

Pentecost to the

L e c t u r e s b y D r . G a r t h R o s e l l

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryii

C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I

About the Ockenga Institute and Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary:Established in 1985, the Ockenga Institute exists to make the rich educational resources of Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary available to Christian leaders throughout the world. Through our various centers and programs, we serve as the research and continuing education arm of the school, seeking to build Christian leaders for the Church of Jesus Christ, present and future.

Contact us:Dimensions of the FaithOckenga Institute of Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary130 Essex StreetSouth Hamilton, MA 01982tel: 1-800-294-2774email: [email protected]: http://www.gordonconwell.edu/ockenga/dimensions/

Copyright:Copyright © 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without written permission from Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. Printed in the USA.

Acknowledgements:Curriculum Design and Developer: David HornProject Editor: Dana HessNotebook Writer: Gypsy FleischmanAudio Editor: Curt WannerGraphic Design: Ashli NewmanNotebook Format: Grace Bailey and Dénes House

About the author:Dr. Garth Rosell is professor of Church History at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary in South Hamilton, Massachusetts. He has a BA in Philosophy from Wheaton College, the M.Div and Th.M de-grees (in Philosophy and Church History, respectively) from Princeton Theological Seminary, and the Ph. D in American Religious History from the University of Minnesota.

Dr. Rosell has taught church history at Bethel Theological Seminary and at Gordon-Conwell, where he originally served as Dean of the Seminary and Vice-president for Academic Affairs and as Director of the Ockenga Institute and Chair of the Division of Christian Thought. Among his publications are eight books and a variety of articles, reviews, case studies and chapters in books, including the Mem-oirs of Charles G. Finney (Zondervan, co-edited with Richard A. G. Dupuis); Commending the Faith: The Preaching of D. L. Moody (Hendrickson); American Christianity (Eerdmans, edited with Ronald C. White, Jr., and Louis B. Weeks); and The Parables of a Country Parson (Hendrickson), co-written with William Flewelling.

Ordained in the Presbyterian Church (USA), Dr. Rosell has ministered in local congregations and served on the denominationʼs local and national committees. He lives in Wenham, Massachusetts with his wife, Jane. They have two children, Karen and Robert. He enjoys classical music, traveling and reading.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryiii

A S u r v e y o f C h u r c h H i s t o r y f r o m P e n t e c o s t t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n

Preface:

The Dimensions of the Faith series is developed with the firm conviction that a life of faith and obedience in Jesus Christ is based upon a working knowledge of Godʼs word. You cannot obey what you do not know.

For this reason, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary has developed the Dimensions of the Faith series for any Christian who desires foundational knowledge in the areas of Old and New Testament, Biblical Interpretation, Church History, Theology, and Missions. The goals of each course are the following:

1. To paint the big picture of what you are learning;2. To provide you with the basic content;3. To introduce you to key words that will enlarge your capacity for knowing;4. To guide you to understand how greater knowledge of Godʼs word can be applied naturally

to everyday life and service;5. To direct you to valuable resources as Godʼs word whets your appetite for further study.

The Dimensions of the Faith series is designed to be used in a variety of settings. You may wish to use the materials as a resource for your own spiritual growth and enrichment. You may also wish to study the materials as a group. The series may be used as a leadership tool for churches or as a training tool on the mission field. We encourage those of you who are pastors to use the series with your ruling boards or your volunteer teaching staffs. A certificate is available for those who complete all six subject areas of the Dimensions of the Faith series.

In addition to the notebook and tape/CD version you currently own, you may listen to the lectures on the Gordon-Conwell website: http://www.gordonconwell.edu/ockenga/dimensions/. The variety of formats will allow greater flexibility in the use of this material.

For more information about the Dimensions of the Faith series, please contact us by postal mail at the Ockenga Institute, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, South Hamilton, Massachusetts 01982, or email us at [email protected].

We pray that God will use this series as a powerful tool for expanding your knowledge of God and Godʼs word so that you may be able to share the good news throughout the world.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryiv

About the Study and Workbook Guide:

The following study guide is designed as a scratch notepad to be used as you listen to the accompanying taped lectures. You may have noticed that we have used the drawings of Leonardo Da Vinci as a motif for our materials. Just as Da Vinci sketched out his ideas in the process of creating a final painting, so we invite you to sketch out your own thoughts in the notebook while you listen to the lectures. Each chapter includes valuable information and questions for you to ponder while you listen. Use the designated blank spaces and margins as your opportunity to interact with what you are learning.

To guide you through the materials, we have provided you with a series of icons. We do so under the firm conviction that a fuller knowledge of God and his word requires expanding your horizons in all directions.

Breadth of Biblical Knowledge: Grasp the big picture, from A to Z.SCOPE

Width of Biblical Knowledge: Expand your understanding by enlarging your vocabulary.

DEFINITION

Height of Biblical Knowledge: Grow in your knowledge of the basic content of Scripture, theology, church history, and culture.

BASIC CONTENT

Length of Biblical Knowledge: Stretch yourself to obedience and service through correct understanding.

APPLICATION FOR SERVICE

Depth of Biblical Knowledge: Use these resources to grow deeper.QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryv

Introduction to the Study of Church History 1

Birth and Spread of the Church 4

Early Church I 7

Early Church II 10

Early Church III 13

The Martyr Tradition 16

The Age of Constantine 19

St. Augustine of Hippo 22

The Ancient Councils 25

The Monastic Movement 28

The Iconoclastic Controversy 31

Mystics and Scholastics 34

Forerunners of the Reformation 37

Appendix: Important Terms in Church History A-I

Appendix: Important People in Church History A-VIII

Table of Contents

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© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminaryvi

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary1

Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e O n e

If you were to be judged by a jury of your peers as to whether your life has been, overall, good or bad, would you prefer that they have access to a video tape of your life or to your personal diary? A video tape would show all of your past actions—the money you placed in the offering plate at church, the times you lashed out in anger at your son or daughter, the selfishness and self-sacrifice. Your diary would give a different perspective—your desires, motivations, the reasons behind the decisions you made. When we look at church history, we have access to both of these types of information. We have factual accounts of what the church did, of councils, of arguments over doctrine or social practices, of decisions made. We also have a “diary” of church history in letters, anecdotes, confessions, and conversion stories. It is a rich and complicated story: the churchʼs past—our past—in all of its failures and triumphs.

postmodernism–A general cultural development, especially in North America, which resulted from the general collapse in confidence of the universal rational principles of the Enlightenment.

What are some areas of our lives that might be touched by our study of church history?

How are the facts of history like a garden?


Notes_____What are three inadequate ways of looking at the facts of church history, according to Dr. Rosell? What does he propose as a fourth way?

How do we distinguish between practices of the church that are faithful to the teachings of Christ, and those that are not?

What is the end result of any whole-hearted search for truth?

How do the creeds describe the church? What do these descriptions emphasize?

How does the reality of the church measure up to the ideal church as described in the creeds?


What is our role, as Christians, in the intellectual search for truth? What do we have that we can contribute to our culture?

What can you do to work for the unity of the church?

“A Christian with faith has nothing to fear from the facts. Indeed, the gospel frees us to pursue our studies without the fear that such efforts might damage our faith.”


Notes_____I n t r o d u c t i o n

“We do not merely jump over twenty centuries of church life; rather, we use those experiences of God’s people to help us interpret the Christian faith and life more fully.”

Gene Edward Veith, Jr. Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture. Wheaton: Crossway Books, 1994.

David F. Wells No Place for Truth. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1993.

Mark A. Noll. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1997.

Susan Lynn Peterson. Timeline Charts of the Western Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1999.

F.L. Cross and E.A. Livingstone, eds. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. NY: Oxford, 1997.

Tim Dowley, ed. Atlas of the Bible and Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1997.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e T w o

When we learn to talk, we start with words for those things nearest to us: Mama, Dada, ball, baby, doggy. When we learn to read, we begin with the ABCs. When we learn to count, we start with the number one. We read a story from beginning to end. We follow a recipe from “Preheat your oven to 350 degrees” to “Makes two dozen.” If we want to study the history of the church, we have to go back to its beginning as well, to the cultural context of that Pentecost morning when the Holy Spirit first came to Jesusʼ followers, when the first sermon was preached and the gospel message began to spread throughout the world.

Pentecost–Church history begins here, with the empowerment of the Holy Spirit that occurred among Christians gathered in Jerusalem during Pentecost in the first century. The events are described in Acts 2.

Evangelism–The spreading of the gospel of Jesus Christ for the purpose of bringing people to the Savior and helping them become his disciples.

Where and when did the church begin?

Within what two dominant realities did the church emerge?


Notes_____What was the economic state of Jerusalem at this time? Why were Jesusʼ words, “Destroy this temple,” so shocking to those who heard them?

What was the religious atmosphere in Jerusalem at the time of Pentecost?

Why is it important that the gospel message was heard in so many different languages?

What are some of the difficulties, both from inside and from outside, that the early church encountered? How were some of these struggles overcome?

B i r t h a n d S p r e a d o f t h e C h u r c h

What are some of the ways in which the struggles of the church today are similar to those faced by the early church?

Have you experienced the life-changing touch of the Holy Spirit? What are some of the internal changes that are taking place within you as a result of the power of the Spirit?


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I

“And it was there in those humble surroundings, in the midst of those unlikely people, that the Spirit of God descended and the church was born.”

Marvin R. Wilson. Our Father Abraham. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1989.

Rodney Stark. The Rise of Christianity. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1997.

Michael Green. Evangelism in the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1983.

Paul L. Maier. First Christians. NY: Harper and Row, 1976.

Joachim Jeremias. Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. Philadephia: Fortress, 1969.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e T h r e e

In beginning any new business enterprise, leadership decisions must be made: Who will be in charge? How much authority will he or she have? And how much input will the employees have? These decisions must be made with the ultimate goals of the company in mind but will also be informed by the cultural context of the company. What kinds of leadership do other companies use? What type of structure do employees expect? How can this new business best accomplish its goals? The early church had these decisions to make, as well, and it comes as no surprise that in some ways it modeled itself after other leadership structures that were current at the time. As we continue our study, we must ask, “How was the business of the church—proclaiming the gospel of Jesus Christ—accomplished within that church structure, and how is it accomplished now?”

ecclesiology – The section of Christian theology dealing with the study of the church.

patristic – An adjective used to refer to the first centuries in the history of the church, following the writing of the New Testament. For many writers, the period thus designated seems to be c.100-451 (in other word, the period between the completion of the last of the New Testament writings and the Council of Chalcedon).

Around what two major pivots does Dr. Rosell structure his discussion of the early church?

What are the three major offices that came to comprise church leadership? What were the functions of these offices?


Notes_____

“For there are many similarities between our times and the times of the Greeks and the Romans. A period of neo-paganism that we face today, a world of relativism with its absence of truth, with its profound interest in spirituality, but a spirituality that is not necessarily connected with traditional Christian values and teachings.”

By what two patterns were these leadership positions filled, according to the letters of Clement and the Didache (The Teaching of the Twelve)?

How was the leadership structure of the church similar to the Roman government?

In what ways were the professional clergy increasingly separated from the laity?


How does the leadership structure in your congregation or denomination compare with the leadership structure of the church as described in this lecture?

How does the leadership structure of your church or denomination compare with our modern style of government?


Notes_____E a r l y C h u r c h I

Michael W. Holmes, ed. The Apostolic Fathers. Grand Rapids, MI: Backer, 1998.

Cyril C. Richardson, ed. Early Christian Writers. NY: Collier, 1970.

Philip L. Culbertson and Arthur B. Shippee, eds. The Pastor: Readings from the Patristic Period. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990.

Arthur G. Patzia. The Emerging of the Church. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2001.

Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1998.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e F o u r

Tell any new believer about Jesusʼ command to “love your neighbor as yourself” and the immediate response is, “How?” It is only natural, when faced with such a sweeping statement like this, to want to know how it will work out in real-life situations, how it can be practiced in our everyday struggles. The early church was faced with an extremely difficult task namely, that of maintaining a unity of purpose and purity of doctrine within a rapidly growing church. As a newborn baby must deal with an overwhelming amount of new information and learn to organize it into language, memory, and sensory experience, so the new church had to organize itself into a body in which believers could “love one another.”

penance – The process of bringing about true repentance in a person who is undergoing church discipline, and restoring that person to usefulness in the church. This became a sacrament in the medieval church.

eucharist – From the Greek term for “thanksgiving,” another name for what is known as “communion” or “the Lord’s Table”: a practice which involves passing the cup and the bread as Christ passed the cup and the bread at the Last Supper.

Why did church “manuals” begin circulating among the churches in the first century?

What are some examples of these church manuals? What issues did they deal with?


Notes_____E a r l y C h u r c h I I

Where can we find an early form of the Apostles’ Creed?

What two purposes was the use of church discipline supposed to accomplish?

What two sources did the early church draw upon for its worship practices?

Where did the early churchʼs meetings take place? Gradually, what happened to the meeting places?

“You must maintain purity so that the church will not be a stumbling block to others coming to the faith, and it also must be a place where the fallen can be restored to full usefulness in the community.”

How do the early churchʼs practices as explained in the “how-to” manuals compare with practices in your own church?

If you could incorporate one practice from the early church as described in this lesson into your church or spiritual life, what would it be?



Gregory Dix and Henry Chadwick, eds. The Apostolic Tradition of St. Hippolytus of Rome. London: Alban, 1992.

Steven A. McKinion, ed. Life and Practice in the Early Church. NY: New York University Press, 2001.

Graydon F. Synder. Ante Pacem. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1985.

J.N.D Kelly. Early Christian Creeds. London: Longman, 1995.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e F i v e

Where would the Earth be without the Sun? Floating in space, barren, cold—it would be nothing more than a lump of rock. Without a central focus on God, the church is much the same. It is Godʼs “gravitational pull” that keeps the church in just the place it needs to be to have light and life. When the church loses that focus—when it begins to fragment, to become concerned about things other than the things of God—it begins to drift off into space. Granted, it is no small task to keep Christians united, and the early church had to work through many difficulties as it sought to maintain its unity and focus, but, as Jesus said, “With God all things are possible”(NIV Matthew 19:26).

sacrament – A church service or rite which was held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ himself. Although Roman Catholic theology and church practice recognize seven such sacraments (baptism, confirmation, eucharist, marriage, ordination, penance, and unction), Protestant theologians generally argue that only two (baptism and eucharist) were to be found in the New Testament itself.

catechumens – Those who were being instructed in the faith as a preparation for baptism and entry into full membership in the church.

According to Justin Martyr, what were the elements of a typical Christian worship service in the second century?


Notes_____What are the two elements of the life of the church that are supposed to be the unifying events? Have these indeed been unifying in the churchʼs history?

What does Dr. Rosell mean when he says that the early church emphasized “Godʼs call to vocation?”

If we admit that many times Christians undervalue those who work in the secular world, where might we find the roots of this problem?

According to Tertullian and Diognetus, how were Christians different from non-Christians, even though they were doing much of the same work?

What are the two unchanging goals of Godʼs call?


“Kneeling was an expression of humility, of contrition, of repentance, of confession of sin. Standing for the common prayer on the other hand as Ferguson has suggested, was a sign of joy and boldness, showing the freedom of God’s children to come boldly into His presence.”

How can you better live out your faith in the midst of the world, as the early Christians did, without being conformed to the world?

As Dr. Rosell asks, “What would happen to the church if we were to recover the centrality of God in our work?”


Notes_____E a r l y C h u r c h I I I

D.A. Carson, ed. From Sabbath to Lord’s Day. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1982.

Paul F. Bradshaw. The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship. NY: Oxford, 1992.

James White, ed. Documents of Christian Worship. Philedelphia: Westminster/John Knox, 1992.

C.D.F. Moule. Worship in the New Testament. Richmond, VA: John Knox Press, 1961.

Robert Banks and R. Paul Stevens, eds. The Complete Book of Everyday Christianity. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997.

R. Paul Stevens. The Abolition of the Laity. London: Paternoster Press, 1999.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e S i x

“How much will it cost?” When we take the family car to the mechanic for repairs, shop around for a new computer, or simply go out for dinner, we want to know how hard our wallets are going to be hit. Yet when many of us come to Christ, we are more concerned with what we will get out of the bargain—sins forgiven, everlasting life, eternity in Godʼs presence—than we are with what the whole process will cost us. Yet the Bible clearly teaches that when we come to Christ, we must lay down our own lives, that it is only when our old self is dead that we can be filled with Godʼs life. The martyrs—those who gave up their physical lives because of their faith in Christ—were much more aware of this truth. Though we may never be put to death for our faith, as we study the martyr tradition we can be reminded of the price Christ himself paid, and we can be encouraged to follow him, whatever the cost.

discipleship–To be a follower of Jesus Christ through changes resulting from consistent application of biblical principles to personal Christian living.

martyr–A person who is put to death because he or she is a follower of Jesus Christ.

What is the primary question we must ask ourselves as we study the martyr tradition?

What are some of the dangers in viewing discipleship in terms of martyrdom?


Notes_____T h e M a r t y r T r a d i t i o n

What was the basic policy of the Roman government toward religions in general? What caused the Roman government to perceive Christianity as a potential threat?

How did Christians react to edicts such as the ones issued under Decius and Diocletian, which called for all people to get certificates saying they had sacrificed to the state gods?

What does Dr. Rosell think is the purpose of the letter to Rome that Ignatius wrote while he was being taken to his death?

Who were Polycarp and Perpetua?

What are some of the lessons we can learn from our study of the martyr tradition, both positive and negative?

How do you think you would have reacted to the persecution that was encountered by the martyrs?

What are some of the ways in which you can fortify your faith against possible suffering? Considering the possibility that you never encounter serious persecution, are there still benefits to this kind of discipline?


Notes_____“A tendency across the centuries to develop a separate class of super Christians is dangerous, for then we put them on a pedestal and begin to honor and worship them, rather than the one whom they worshiped, the very Lord of the universe who alone must be loved and worshiped and adored.”


W.H.C. Frend. Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church. Oxford: Blackwell, 1965.

H.B. Workman. Persecution in the Early Church. Cincinnati: Tennings and Graham, 1906.

Bruce L. Shelley. The Cross and the Flame. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1967.

Joyce E. Salisbury. Perpetua’s Passion. NY: Routledge, 1997.

Cecil M. Robeck, Jr. Prophecy in Carthage. Cleveland: Pilgrim, 1992.

John Foxe. New Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. Bridge: Logos Publishers, 1998.

Thieleman J. van Braght. Martyrs’ Mirror. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1994.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e S e v e n

The assassination of JFK. . .the invasion at Pearl Harbor. . .the destruction of 9/11. These are world events that have made a significant impact on the life of our country and on the lives of the many individuals who lived through them. They are significant, defining events. If you think about your own life, you will likely be able to identify an experience that you consider a “defining moment”—it could be a personal moment of revelation, a family tragedy, or perhaps even a world event that changed you in some essential way. Constantineʼs rise to power was such an event in the churchʼs life. Whatever your opinion of the consequences, his choice to legitimize Christianity changed the path of the church irreversibly.

Eusebius – (c.260-c.340) Bishop of Caesarea whose Ecclesiastical History has earned him the title “Father of Church History.”

Chi-Rho – A type of cross formed by the first two Greek letters of Christ’s name—“Chi” and”“Rho”—often seen in paintings.

Constantine the Great – (c. 274/280-337)) The Roman emperor whose conversion to Christianity ushered in a new era of Christendom.

What are the different ways that the eastern and western parts of the church view Constantine?

What were the political changes that had taken place under Diocletian that allowed Constantine to rise to power?


Notes_____What happened to Constantine when he went to fight Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge in AD 312?

How did Constantine respond to this event?

Who issued the Edict of Milan? Did it make Christianity the state religion? What was its main point?

What were some of the problems that were caused by the growing acceptance of Christianity? What were the benefits?


Do you see parallels between Christendom under Constantine and Christianity in our present society? How might we learn from history to respond better to the challenges of the Christian life today?

Considering the complicated changes that took place in the church under Constantine, how does this story affect your understanding of Godʼs sovereignty?


Notes_____“Thousands were flocking to the church. In place of ‘Caesar is Lord,’ now the cry was’‘Christ is Lord.’ Now the great minds of the church could turn their attention to Christian theology.”

“More, after all, is not necessarily better. More peace does not necessarily produce better Christianity. More Christians do not necessarily mean a stronger church.”

N.H. Baynes. Constantine the Great and the Christian Church. NY: Oxford, 1972.

Robert M. Grant. From Augustus to Constantine. NY: Harper and Row, 1970.

T.D. Barnes. Constantine and Eusebius. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981.

Eusebius. TheLife of Constantine in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. ed. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, Second Series, vol. I. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1982.

H. Richard Niebuhr. Christ and Culture. NY: Harper Torchbooks, 1951.

T h e A g e O f C o n s t a n t i n e


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e E i g h t

Way back in lesson one, we were asked to consider the intellectual search for truth, and were reminded that any wholehearted search for truth would lead us to God, the source of all truth. We have also studied the martyrs, who so passionately held to Godʼs truth that they were willing to endure persecution and death for Christ. It is clear that this God who created the church, who guides it, and who continually works for its good is not about doing things halfway. He is all about accomplishing his goals in an overwhelmingly complete way—transforming lives that are confused by sin into lives that are filled to overflowing with His strength and purity—bringing to minds that have been darkened the understanding of His mysteries.

Dualism–A belief that the world consists of two mutually hostile forces or beings; the one being the source of all good, the other the source of all evil.

Conversion–The act of radical personal change in mind and heart through heartfelt repentance.

What was Augustineʼs greatest wish as a young man? What did he do in order to accomplish this?

What happened to Augustine after his first year of study?

What is the famous “pear tree” incident? What does this incident reveal about the nature of sin?


Notes_____What did Augustine do when he finally got to Carthage at the age of 17?

Why was Augustine attracted to the Manichean religion? Why did he become disenchanted with it?

How did Ambrose and Simplicianus influence Augustine?

What did Augustine do with his life after his conversion?

What was Augustineʼs quarrel with the Donatists? How did he argue against their practices?

S t . A u g u s t i n e o f H i p p o

How are you affected by listening to Augustineʼs own account of his conversion?

Do you think there is a useful place in the life of the church for the giving of “testimonies” such as this? What effect does the telling of conversion stories have?


Notes_____Roy W. Battenhouse. A Companion to the Study of St. Augustine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956.

Peter Brown. Augustine of Hippo. Berkely: University of California Press, 2000.

Henry Chadwick. Augustine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Jaroslav Pelikan. The Excellent Empire: The Fall of Rome and the Triumph of the Church.San Francisco, CA: Harper and Row, 1990.

Philip Schaff, ed. The Nicene and Post-Nicene Father. First Series. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1979. (Volumes 1-8 contain writings by Augustine.)


“In a remarkable series of events, God drew that brilliant young man to himself, transforming his life and giving him the privilege of touching literally tens of thousands of individuals across the centuries with the good news of the glorious gospel.”


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e N i n e

Imagine what the early church would have been like if it had been born into a society with the technology we have today. Pentecost would have been televised and Peterʼs sermon reduced to sound bytes for play on the evening news. Paul could have taken a camcorder on all of his journeys. Think also of the sheer confusion this would cause for us—the glut of miscellaneous information would surely be a hindrance, rather than a help. Every heretic could have and would have published a book, and many of these would have made it to the Timesʼ best-sellers list. How fortunate for us, then, that what was written down and saved was, for the most part, of the utmost importance. When church leaders got together to work out important doctrines, they made sure that the written documents that were produced were painstakingly clear and concise, knowing that the church would be defined and guided by those words for many generations.

“With the coming of Constantine in the fourth century, the doors opened for many brilliant and deeply committed Christian leaders to come together to debate, discuss, and hammer out the faith so that it could be passed on to future generations\.”Christology – The study of the Person of Jesus Christ as

completely human and divine.

monotheism – The belief that there exists one all-powerful God.

Trinity – The distinctively Christian doctrine of God, which reflects the complexity of the Christian experience of God. The doctrine is usually summarized in maxims such as “three persons, one God.”

What are the “ancient councils”? When and where did they take place?

What two important documents did these councils produce?


Notes_____What were the two major theological issues that were dealt with in these councils?

What is the orthodox understanding of the Trinity that came out of the first two councils? What are some of the heretical teachings about the Trinity that existed at the time of these ancient councils?

What were the Alexandrian and Antiochene positions on the nature of Christ? What set of councils did this conflict bring about? What was the result?

What are the canons of the councils? What do they have to do with?

Prior to this lesson, what was your understanding of the Trinity? Of Christ? Did this discussion of the Trinity and of the nature of Christ answer any questions you have had about these topics?

How can a more thorough understanding of the nature of God, how he exists, or how the Persons of the Trinity are related have real significance in your life?



Notes_____T h e A n c i e n t C o u n c i l s

J.N.D. Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. NY: Harper and Row, 1960.

John H. Leith. Creeds of the Churches. Richmond, VA: John Knox Press, 1973.

Jaroslav Pelikan. The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971.

Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds. The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vol. 14, The Seven Ecumenical Councils. 2nd series. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988.

Rowan Williams. Arius: Heresy and Tradition. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001.

Alvyn Pettersen. Athanasius. Ridgefield, NJ: Morehouse Publishing, 1995.


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e T e n

Life in the information age is often overwhelming, confusing, and full of major and minor ethical dilemmas in our finances, our workplace concerns, and our home lives. We sometimes long for a simpler life—a life in which there is order to our everyday activities—a life in which as little as possible gets in the way of our obedience to Christ. From this perspective, we can understand the choices some people have made, from the very earliest church to the present day, to part ways with the world in a radical way, and live a life of peace and order. For those that have chosen this life, they have also experienced the challenge of strict discipline and, more often than not, deprivation. Those of us who have chosen to remain in the world have much to learn from their example: the rewards of such disciplined living is a life uncluttered in its devotion, a singleness of focus, and a greater ability to serve.

Asceticism – Renunciation of the world and its practices, without withdrawal from the world.

Monasticism – Life in community under a rule.

What are some of the reasons why people, throughout the history of the church, have chosen a life of monasticism?

In the beginnings of the church, what were the three paths that emerged to allow people to follow their desire to experience a more intense discipleship?


Notes_____T h e M o n a s t i c M o v e m e n t

“How can faithful Christians, we ask, abandon the world or withdraw from it when our Lord has so clearly instructed us to be in the world though not of it, to be salt and light in a sinful and often decaying culture?”

How are martyrdom and monasticism similar? How are they different?

What significance does the desert, or wilderness, have in the Bible? How was this important to the monastic life?

Who was Anthony? What kinds of people followed his example?

What is the Rule of St. Benedict? What was life like under this Rule?

What benefits did the monastic tradition provide to the church?

What purpose might a return to some kind of monastic tradition serve in the evangelical church? Do you think this is a good idea?

Are there aspects of monastic life that you might moderately integrate into your own life?


“We have much to be grateful for as we look back on this monastic tradition. It is through the monks in the monasteries that many of the books and manuscripts that we use today came down to us….The monasteries also became the centers for learning. Much theology was done there. Also, this was the place where much of the renewal of the church was centered.”

Owen Chardwick. Western Asceticism. Westminster, 1958.

Benedicta Ward. The Lives of the Desert Fathers. Cistercian, 1980.

Robert C. Gregg. (translation) Athanasius: The Life of Antony. Paulist, 1980.

Douglas Burton-Christie. The Word in the Desert: Early Scripture and the Quest for Holiness in Early Christian Monasticisim. Oxford University, 1993.

Belden C. Lane. The Solace of Fierce Landscapes: Exploring Desert and Mountain Spirituality. Oxford University, 1998.

Samuel Rubenson, ed. The Letters of St. Antony. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995.



Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e E l e v e n

Did you ever have a pen pal? Remember the first letter—how are you, how many brothers and sisters do you have, how old are you, etc.? After several more letters, you might have felt like you knew the person— their likes and dislikes, home life, and dreams for the future….At some point, inevitably, you asked for a photo, or even better, a visit. The desire to know someone with all the senses available to us is part of what it means to be human, and God our Creator, knowing us so well, became human so that we might know him better in just this way. For this same reason we must recognize that, whether it is sparse or ornate, we are affected by the environment in which we worship, and that God uses our whole being, including our senses, to communicate with us.

icon – A flat, painted picture of Christ, Mary, or one of the saints of the church that is used in worship.

iconoclasts – “Image breakers.” That group which was opposed to the use of images or icons in worship.

What two opposing views on the use of icons in worship came to the forefront in the eighth century?

Why was there so little art produced by the first century church?



“There is a way, if we seek for it, that we can avoid the dangers of idolatry while allowing God to use, through the power of his Holy Spirit, those special giftings that he has given in the arts for his own worship, praise, and glory.”

What are some examples of the signs and symbols used in early Christian art?

What is the main danger in the use of art in the church?

What are some of the reasons an artistic tradition continued to progress despite the danger?

In your opinion, what are the strongest arguments in favor of the use of art in Christian worship? Against?

What is the role of signs, symbols, architecture, or other artwork in your home church? If these things are present, how do they affect your personal worship?


Notes_____Paul Corby Finney. The Invisible God: The Earliest Christians on Art. NY: Oxford, 1994.

H.R. Rookmaaker. Modern Art and the Death of a Culture. Wheaton: Crossways Books, 1994.

Paul Tillich. Dynamics of Faith. NY: Harper Torchbooks, 1957.

Michael Gough. The Origins of Christian Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 1973.

John of Damascus. On Holy Images. Trans. Mary H. Allies. Philedelphia: J.M. McVey, 1898.

Edward J. Martin. A History of the Iconoclastic Controversy. London: SPCK, 1930.

Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds. The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. Vol. 14, The Seven Ecumenical Councils. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988. 523-615.

Robin M. Jensen. Understanding Early Christian Art. NY: Routledge, 2000.

T h e I c o n o c l a s t i c C o n t r o v e r s y


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e T w e l v e

When you hold your child in your arms after a bath, you can know something about that child: the warmth of skin, the smell of shampoo in hair, the pressure of a small cheek against yours. After a conversation and a bedtime story, you will know many more things: what the child is interested in or afraid of, how talkative, how squirmy. It is relatively easy to go about getting to know a child, because he or she is right in front of you—you can experience that child with all your senses, with your intellect, with your sense of humor. As Dr. Rosell suggests, one of the most important questions Christians have asked throughout time is “How can I know God?” And while getting to know God is a more difficult thing to put your finger on, it is infinitely more rewarding and joyous than anything else you will ever do.

mysticism – The teaching that a person obtains direct knowledge of God primarily through awareness and intuition rather than through logic or reason. Mysticism emphasizes personal experience of God, and proposes that such experience can be achieve through purgation of sin, illumination, and union

scholasticism – A particular approach to Christian theology, associated especially with the Middle Ages, which lays emphasis upon the rational justification and systematic presentation of Christian theology.

Wesleyan Quadrilateral – A way of picturing the ways a person can know God by drawing on Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience.

What are the four primary means by which we can come to know God?


Notes_____What are thethree main features of Mysticism, according to Evelyn Underhill?

How did Bernard of Clairvaux liken the encounter with God to marriage? What did he describe as a“three-fold kiss”?

What teachings of the mystic tradition are similar to those of the our Evangelical heritage?

What is the basic scholastic method of finding “truth”?

According to the Scholastics, what is our primary means of knowing God?

“Let me suggest that we might begin by genuinely seeking to know the beauty and complexity and magnificence of God through a use of all the tools that he has given to us….Our feelings and emotions and our passions, the teachings of those who have gone before, our understanding of the past, our study of the church and its history, our experiences of God and his presence.”


With what aspects of Mysticism and/or Scholasticism do you identify? Are there parallels between these two movements and the way you understand and live out your faith?

What are some steps you might take to deepen your knowledge and experience of God?


Notes_____C.K. Chesterton. Saint Thomas Aquinas: The Dumb Ox. Garden City, NJ: Image Books, 1956.

F.C. Copleston. Aquinas. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967.

G.R. Evans. Bernard of Clairvaux: Selected Works. Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 1987.

Eugene R. Fairweather, ed. A Scholastic Miscellany: Anselm to Ockham. The Library of Christian Classics, vol. 10. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1954.

W. Stephen Guuter, et. al. Wesley and the Quadrilateral. Nashville: Abingdon, 1997.

M y s t i c s a n d S c h o l a s t i c s


Notes_____C h u r c h H i s t o r y S u r v e y I : L e c t u r e T h i r t e e n

It is abundantly clear from our study of church history so far that church leadership, structure, political ties, community involvement, and social consciousness became increasingly complicated as time went on. What began as a fairly simple organization in the earliest church became a large, broad, cross-cultural entity that had numerous political, social, and financial entanglements. Not every Christian, however, was aligned with the main church body. As can be expected, there were many who wanted to break free of what they perceived as a church that had been overtaken by the world. They desired a return to a simpler pattern of church life and worship. And as the Reformation looms on the horizon, we must examine the teachings and desires of these dissenters, and take a look at how the orthodox church reacted to them.

heresy – This term refers to any statement (or sometimes action) that denies or deviates from the accepted, orthodox view on an essential issue. Heresy has come to be equated with doctrinal or theological error that invites the censure of those who seek to defend orthodoxy.

inquisition – Originating in the medieval church, the Inquisition initially employed secular authorities to enforce orthodox behavior and belief among the general populace and to punish heretics. Those accused of heresy were brought before a tribunal and could be tortured, imprisoned, have their property confiscated, and be put to death.

orthodoxy – A term used in a number of senses, of which the following are the most important: Orthodoxy in the sense of “right belief,” as opposed to heresy; orthodoxy in the sense of a movement within Protestantism, especially in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, which laid emphasis upon need for doctrinal definition.


Notes_____F o r e r u n n e r s o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n

What are the five main emphases that tied the dissenting groups together?

Why did Marcion break from the orthodox church? With what about it did he disagree?

What were some of the teachings and emphases of the Montanists? Which of these teachings probably troubled the orthodox churches the most?

What two groups taught that those who had denied their faith during persecution should not be allowed to take part in the church?

Why can many Christians today identify with the Waldensians? Which of their teachings have resurfaced in modern times?

What was the Inquisition? What was its method of dealing with the Waldensians and other similar groups?

How does your church deal with discipline issues? How does it deal with wrong teaching within the church?

As the church tended to become increasingly authoritarian, there were those who yearned to return to a more primitive and simple practice of the faith: simple forms of church organization, more rigorous practice of church discipline and more biblical patterns of church practice.


Notes_____What would you do if, one morning in Sunday School, you heard a teacher say something you know to be wrong? Would you confront the person, just let it go, or tell an elder or pastor in your church?


Christian History. Vol. VIII, No. 2, Issue 22 “The Waldensian.”

Donald F. Durnbaugh. The Believers’ Church: The History and Character of Radical Protestantism.’New York: Macmillan Co., 1968.

Alexis Muston.The Israel of the Alps: A History of the Waldenses. New York: AMS Press, 1978. 2 volumes.

Gunnar Westin. The Free Church through the Ages. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1958.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-I

A p p e n d i xImportant Terms in Church History

A Quick Reference Guide

F r o m P e n t e c o s t t o t h e R e f o r m a t i o n

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-II

Important Terms in Church History: A Quick Reference Guide

Many of these definition have been drawn with permission from: Alister McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction. 3rd edition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2001.

abstinence – To refuse to partake of something altogether, even in small amounts.

adiaphora–– Literally, “matters of indifference.” Beliefs or practices which the sixteenth-century Reformers regarded as being tolerable, in that they were neither explicitly rejected nor stipulated by Scripture. For example, what ministers wore at church services was often regarded as a “matter of indifference.” They concept is of importance in that it allowed the sixteenth-century reformers to adopt a pragmatic approach to many beliefs and practices, thus avoiding unnecessary confrontation.

Alexandrian school – A patristic school of thought, especially associated with the city of Alexandria in Egypt, noted for its Christology (which placed emphasis upon the divinity of Christ) and its method of biblical interpretation (which employed allegorical methods of exegesis). A rival approach in both areas was associated with Antioch.

A-millennialism – A view of the end times that equates the millennial reign of Christ with the age of the Church - from the resurrection of Christ until His paousia (second coming).

Anglicanism – A branch of theology especially associated with the churches historically derived from the Church of England.

Antiochene school – A patristic school of thought, especailly associated with the city of Antioch in modern-day Turkey, noted for its Christology (which placed emphasis upon the humanity of Christ) and its method of biblical interpretation (which employed literal methods of exegesis). A rival approach in both areas was associated with Alexandria.

Apocrypha –– In Protestant terminology, apocrypha refers to those twelve or fourteen books (depending on how they are divided) composed primarily during the intertestamental period which are considered canonical by the Roman Catholic church but are not included in the Hebrew canon of Scripture nor in the Protestant canon. These books include late additions to Old Testament books, rearrangements of Old Testament material, wisdom literature, fictional stories, and historical material covering especially the Maccabean revolt and the subsequent period of Jewish rule in Palestine. Although not considered Scripture by Protestants, these books are important for understanding Jewish thought in the time leading up to Jesus.

Arianism–– A major early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as the supreme of Godʼs creatures, and denied his divine status. The Arian controversy was of major importance in the development of Christology during the fourth century.

Asceticism – Renunciation of the world and its practices, without withdrawal from the world.

Augustinianism – A term used in two major senses. First, it refers to the views of Augustine of Hippo concerning the doctrine of salvation, in which the need for divine grace is stressed. In this sense, the term is the antithesis of Pelagianism. Second, it is used to refer to the body of opinion within the Augustinian order during the Middle Ages, irrespective of whether these views derive from Augustine or not.

Book of Common Prayer – A collection of liturgy, creeds, prayers, and other–“liturgical treasures” that draws together the rich heritage of medieval, eastern, and Lutheran traditions.

Calvinism – An ambiguous term, used with two quite distinct meanings. First, it refers to the religious ideas of religious bodies (such as the Reformed church) and individuals (such as Theodore Beza) who were profoundly influenced by John Calvin, or by documents written by him. Second, it refers to the religious ideas of John Calvin himself.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-III

Cappadocian fathers – A term used to refer collectively to three major Greek-speaking writers of the patristic period: Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzen, and Gregory of Nyssa, all of whom date from the late fourth century. “Cappadocia” designates an area in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), in which these writers were based.

catechism – A popular manual of Christian doctrine, usually in the form of question and answer, intended for religious instruction.

catechumens ––Those who were being instructed in the faith as a preparation for baptism and entry into full membership in the church

Chalcedonian definition – The formal declaration at the Council of Chalcedon that Jesus Christ was to be regarded as both human and divine.

charisma, charismatic – A set of terms especially associated with the gifts of the Holy Spirit. In medieval theology, the term “charisma” is used to designate a spiritual gift, conferred upon individuals by the grace of God. Since the early twentieth century, the term “charismatic” has come to refer to styles of theology and worship which place particular emphasis upon the immediate presence and experience of the Holy Spirit.

Chi-Rho – A type of cross formed by the first two Greek letters of Christʼs name—“Chi” and”“Rho”—often seen in paintings

Christology – The section of Christian theology dealing with the identity of Jesus Christ, particularly the question of the relation of his human and divine natures.

consubstantiation – A term used to refer to the theory of the real presence, especially associated with Martin Luther, which holds that the substance of the eucharist bread and wine are given together with the substance of the body and blood of Christ.

conversion – The act of radical person change in mind and heart through heartfelt repentance.

creed – A formal definition or summary of the Christian faith, held in common by all Christians. The most important are those generally known as the “Apostlesʼ creed” and the”“Nicene creed.”

Deism – A term used to refer to the views of a group of English writers, especially during the seventeenth century, the rationalism of which anticipated many of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The term is often used to refer to a view of God that recognizes the divine creatorship, yet which rejects the notion of a continuing divine involvement with the world.

discipleship – To be a follower of Jesus Christ through changes resulting from consistent application of biblical principles to personal Christian living.

dispensationalism – The teaching that history is divided into well-defined time periods (dispensations) in each of which God has particular purposes He wishes to accomplish.

Docetism – An early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as a purely divine being who only had the “appearance” of being human.

Donatism – A movement, centering upon Roman North Africa in the fourth century, which developed a rigorist view of the church and sacraments.

Dualism – A belief that the world consists of two mutually hostile forces or beings; the one being the source of all good, the other the source of all evil.

Ebionitism – An early Christological heresy, which treated Jesus Christ as a purely human figure, although recognizing that he was endowed with particular charismatic gifts which distinguish him from other humans.

ecclesiology – The section of Christian theology dealing with the study of the church.


© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-IV


Ecumenical – This term was originally applied to the early church councils that included representatives from throughout the Christian church and were intended to be normative for the church throughout the world. Today this term generally refers to the movement that seeks to join people from varying religious traditions and denominations into common fellowship or dialogue.

Elizabethan Settlement – A series of acts by which Queen Elizabeth achieved a compromise between the opposing religious groups in England and made herself the churchʼs governor.

eucharist – From the Greek term for “thanksgiving,” another name for what is known as “communion” or “the Lordʼs Table”: a practice which involves passing the cup and the bread as Christ passed the cup and the bread at the Last Supper.

Enlightenment, The – A term used to refer to the emphasis upon human reason and autonomy during the eighteenth century.

eschatology – The section of Christian theology dealing with the “last things,” especially the ideas of resurrection, hell, and eternal life.

fundamentalism– A form of American Protestant Christianity which lays especial emphasis upon the authority of an inerrant Bible.

Gnosticism – A movement placing especial emphasis upon a contrast between the material and spiritual realms, which became of major importance during the second century. Its most characteristic doctrines include redemption apart from the material world, a dualist worldview which held that different gods were responsible for creation and redemption, and an emphasis upon the importance of–“knowledge” (gnosis) in salvation.

heresy – This term refers to any statement (or sometimes action) that denies or deviates from the accepted, orthodox view on an essential issue. Heresy has come to be equated with doctrinal or theological error that invites the censure of those who seek to defend orthodoxy.

homoousion – A Greek term, literally meaning–“of the same substance,” which came to be used etensively during the fourth century to designate the mainstream Christological belief that Jesus Christ was “of the same substance as God.” The term was polemical, being directed against the Arian view that Christ was “of similar substance” (homoiousion) to God.

hypostatic union – The doctrine of the union of divine and human natures in Jesus Christ, without confusion of their respective substances.

icon- A flat, painted picture of Christ, Mary, one of the saints of the church, or a character from a biblical story that is used in worship.

iconoclasts – “Image breakers.” That group which was opposed to the use of images or icons in worship.

Incarnation – A term used to refer to the assumption of human nature by God, in the person of Jesus Christ. The term “incarnationalism” is often used to refer to theological approaches (such as those of late nineteenth-century Anglicanism) which lay especial emphasis upon Godʼs becoming human.

Indulgences – Written documents whereby all or part of the debt owed to God on account of oneʼs sin can be remitted.

inquisition – Originating in the medieval church, the Inquisition initially employed secular authorities to enforce orthodox behavior and belief among the general populace and to punish heretics. Pope Gregory IX (c.1170-1241) is generally credited with officially having set up the Inquisition in response to concerns about heresy and schism in France, Italy, and Spain. The infamous Spanish Inquisition was authorized by Pope Sixtus IV in 1478. Usually administered by Dominicans and Franciscans, those accused of heresy were brought before a tribunal and could be tortured, imprisoned, have their property confiscated, and be put to death.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-V


justification by faith, doctrine of – The section of Christian theology dealing with how the individual sinner is able to enter into fellowship with God. The doctrine was to prove to be of major significance at the time of the Reformation.

liturgy – The written text of public service, especially of the eucharist.

magisterial Reformation – A term used to refer to the Lutheran and Reformed wings of the Reformation.

martyrs – A person who is put to death because he or she is a follower–of Jesus Christ.

modalism – A Trinitarian heresy, which treats the three person of the Trinity as different–“modes” of the Godhead. A typical modalist approach is to regard God as active as Father in creation, as Son in redemption, and as Spirit in sanctification.

Monasticism – Life in community under a rule.

monotheism – The belief that there exists one all-powerful God.

Moravianism – Essentially a branch of Continental pietism, Moravianism had its impetus from Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf (1700-1760), a Lutheran who founded in Germany a community for religious refugees called–Herrnhut. Under Zinzendorfʼs leadership, Herrnhut became a model Christian community and a primary sending center for missionaries in the eighteenth century.

mysticism – The teaching that a person obtains direct knowledge of God primarily through awareness and intuition rather than through logic or reason. Mysticism emphasizes personal experience of God, and proposes that such experience can be achieved through purgation of sin, illumination, and union.

neo-orthodoxy – A term used to designate the general position of Karl Barth (1886-1968), especially the manner in which he drew upon the theological concerns of the period of Reformed orthodoxy.

nominalism – Strictly speaking, the theory of knowledge opposed to realism. The term is, however, still used occasionally to refer to the via moderna.

orthodoxy – A term used in a number of senses, of which the following are the most important: Orthodoxy in the sense of–“right belief,” as opposed to heresy; orthodoxy in the sense of a movement within Protestantism, especially in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, which laid emphasis upon need for doctrinal definition.

patristic – An adjective used to refer to the first centuries in the history of the church, following the writing of the New Testament. For many writers, the period thus designated seems to be c.100-451 (in other word, the period between the completion of the last of the New Testament writings and the Council of Chalcedon).

Pelagianism – An understanding of how humans are able to merit their salvation which is diametrically oposed to that of Augustine of Hippo, placing considerable emphasis upon the role of human works and playing down the idea of divine grace.

penance ––The process of bringing about true repentance in a person who is undergoing church discipline, and restoring that person to usefulness in the church. This became a sacrament in the medieval church.

Pentecost – Church history begins here, with the empowerment of the Holy Spirit that occurred among Christians gathered in Jerusalem during Pentecost in the first century. The events are described in Acts 2.

Pietism – This was a movement of spiritual renewal that began among Lutherans in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Led by August Hermann Francke (1663-1727) and Philipp Jacob Spener (1635-1705), pietism stressed the importance of personal conversion, transformation of life brought by God, holiness of living, Bible reading and prayer, social responsibility, and sanctification.

Post-millennialism – A view of the end times that identifies the millennium of Revelation 20 with an age of the Spirit - a time of spiritual peace and prosperity for the Church on earth.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-VI


postmodernism – A general cultural development which resulted from the general collapse of the universal rational principles of the Enlightenment.

Pre-millennialism – A view of the end times in which the second coming of Christ and the bodily resurrection of the saints will precede the millennium.

Protestantism – A term used in the aftermath of the Diet of Speyer (1529) to designate those who “protested” against the practices and beliefs of the Roman Catholic church. Prior to 1529, such individuals and groups had referred to themselves as “evangelicals.”

purgatory – The teachings of the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches set forth a place of temporary punishment in an intermediate realm for the purpose of purging away sin.

Reformed – A term used to refer to a tradition of theology which draws inspiration from the writers of John Calvin (1510-64) and his successors. The term is generally used in preference to “Calvinist.”

Renewal – The work of God to revitalize individuals, institutions, and movements, always linked to repentance, united and believing prayer, and obedient study of the word. Jonathan Edwards said that genuine renewal is marked by an increased esteem for Jesus, repentance and righteousness, increased regard for Scripture, promotion of sound doctrine, and genuine love toward God and other people.

revival – Periods of spiritual renewal, often associated with the Great Awakenings that began in the eighteenth century.

Sabellianism – An early trinitarian heresy, which treated the three persons of the Trinity as different historical manifestations of the one God.

sacrament – In purely historical terms, a church service or rite which was held to have been instituted by Jesus Christ himself. Although Roman Catholic theology and church practice recognize seven such sacraments (baptism, confirmation, eucharist, marriage, ordination, penance, and unction), Protestant theologians generally argue that only two (baptism and eucharist) were to be found in the New Testament itself.

schism – A deliberate break with the unity of the church, condemned vigorously by influential writers of the early church, such as Cyprian and Augustine.

scholasticism – A particular approach to Christian theology, associated especially with the Middle Ages, which lays emphasis upon the rational justification and systematic presentation of Christian theology.

Septuagint – The Greek translation of the Old Testament, dating from the third century BC. The abbreviation LXX is generally used to refer to this text.

Social Darwinism – A theory of the origin and perpetuation of social relationships that emphasizes the individualʼs role in society as being based upon the survival of the fittest.

Social Gospel – A term that describes an effort around 1900 of liberal and moderately reformist Protestant efforts to apply biblical principles to the growing problems of urban-industrial American between the Civial War and World War I.

sola scriptura – “The Bible alone.”

sola gratia – “Grace alone.” The principle emphasized by the sixteenth century Reformers that it is only by Godʼs grace in the work of Christ that one can receive eternal salvation.

sola fide – “Faith alone.” The principle emphasized by the sixteenth century Reformers that it is only by faith in Christ and his work that one can receive eternal salvation. Justification is received as a gift of God and is not obtained through works.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-VII


soli Deo gloria ––“Godʼs glory alone.” The idea that all glory belongs to God because it is he who created, wrought salvation, and is sovereign over all. This Reformation principle emphasizes that our lives are to be dedicated to the service of Godʼs glory.

Syncretism – The combining of different religious beliefs or systems of thought.

temperance–– To partake of something in moderation

Thomism, via Thomae – The scholastic philosophy associated with Thomas Aquinas.

Trinity – The distinctively Christian doctrine of God, which reflects the complexity of the Christian experience of God. The doctrine is usually summarized in maxims such as–“three persons, one God.”

Wesleyan Quadrilateral – A way of picturing the ways a person can know God by drawing on Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience.

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-VIII


A p p e n d i xImportant People in Church History

A Quick Reference Guide

© 2005 Gordon-Conwell Theological SeminaryA-IX


Important People in Church History: A Quick Reference Guide

For more information, see The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, E. A. Livingstone, ed., 3rd edition (Oxford University Press, 1997) and Dictionary of Christianity in America, Daniel G. Reid, et al., eds

(InterVarsity Press, 1990)

Abelard, Peter (1079-1142/3): Scholastic theologian who emphasized the use of reason and the scholastic method of beginning with a disputed question, raising and answering objections, and coming up with a solution.

Albigenses (11th-13th centuries): Heretical movement that emerged in France and Italy in the 11th century; also called “Cathari,” the Albigenses were dualistic in their theology and attempted to purify the church by strict discipline.

Allen, Richard (1760-1831): African-American who bought his freedom, became an important religious leader, and eventually founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1816.

Ambrose (c.339-97): Bishop of Milan whose preaching was instrumental in converting Augustine of Hippo to Christianity and who eventually baptized Augustine.

Anselm (c.1033-1109): Archbishop of Canterbury and scholastic theologian who attempted to use reason to defend and articulate the Christian faith; his influential book Cur Deus Homo contributed to the development of the substitutionary theory of the atonement.

Ansgar (801-65): Early missionary to Scandinavia, often called the “Apostle to the North.”

Antony (251?-356): Desert hermit in Egypt who attracted a large number of disciples and admirers and whose life was described by Athanasius in The Life of Antony.

Apollinarius (c.310-c.390): Bishop of Laodicea who denied that Christ had a human mind or soul; his teaching was condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 381.

Aquinas, Thomas (c.1225-74): Dominican theologian and the greatest of the medieval scholastic theologians; his masterpiece, the Summa Theologiae, attempted to integrate Christian theology and Aristotelian philosophy.

Arius (died 336): Heretic who denied the full deity of Christ; he was condemned by the Council of Nicea in 325.

Asbury, Francis (1745-1816): Methodist bishop sent to America by John Wesley in 1771 and given supervision of all Methodist work in the country. After 1784, he and Thomas Coke became joint superintendents of the Methodist church in America.

Athanasius (c.296-373): Bishop of Alexandria who defended orthodox christology against the heresy of Arianism; his “Festal Letter” was the first complete list of the Old Testament and New Testament canonical books.

Athenagoras (2nd century): Christian apologist whose “Apology” defended Christians against many false accusations such as atheism and incest; he also penned the first philosophical defense of Trinitarian theology.

Augustine of Canterbury (died between 604 and 609): Missionary to England sent by Pope Gregory the Great; converted King Ethelbert of Kent and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

Augustine of Hippo (354-430): Bishop of Hippo and one of the most important and influential theologians of the Christian church; in his writings against the Manichees, Donatists, and Pelagians, he developed a theology which emphasized original sin, predestination, and the necessity of divine grace for salvation.

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Barth, Karl (1886-1968): Protestant Swiss theologian who, along with the Neo-Orthodox movement, sought to bring theology back to the principles of the Reformation; he is widely considered to be the most important theologian of the 20th century.

Basil the Great (c.330-379): Bishop of Cappadocia who integrated monasticism more closely into the life of the church.

Baxter, Richard (1615-1691): Puritan preacher and educator at Kidderminster who wrote prolifically and focused upon the spiritual state of his individual parishioners in an attempt to bring about reform in the churches in England.

Beecher, Lyman (1775-1863): American Congregational and Presbyterian clergyman, revivalist, social reformer, and political observer; father of Harriet Beecher Stowe and Henry Ward Beecher.

Benedict of Nursia (c.480-c.550): Founder of a monastic community (the Benedictine order) whose Rule became the standard for Western monasticism.

Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153): Abbot of a Cistercian monastery at Clairvaux and mystic who wrote a famous series of sermons on the Song of Songs and who was influential in persuading people to fight in the Second Crusade.

Beza, Theodore (1519-1605): Reformed leader and educator in Geneva who replaced John Calvin after his death in 1564.

Blackwell, Antionette Brown (1825-1921): First regularly ordained woman in America; graduated from Oberlin college in 1847 (in literature; was denied the earned degree in theology in 1850) and was ordained as a Congregational minister in 1853.

Bryan, William Jennings (1860-1925): American editor, politician and anti-evolutionary leader; was a three-time candidate for president of the U.S.; was the prosecuting attorney in the much-publicized “Scopes Trial” or “Monkey Trial” of 1925.

Bucer, Martin (1491-1551): German reformer who succeeded Zwingli as head of the Reformed churches in Switzerland and south Germany; he later went to England and taught at Cambridge and influenced the reformation there.

Bullinger, Heinrich (1504-1575): Swiss reformer who replaced Zwingli as the chief pastor at Zurich upon his death; also had his hand in the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566.

Calvin, John (1509-1564): French reformer and theologian who, after spending some time in Paris and Strasbourg, settled in Geneva and led the Reformed wing of the Reformation; fountainhead of later “Calvinism”; author of the Institutes of the Christian Religion; married to Idelette de Bure.

Campbell, Alexander (1788-1866): Irish immigrant to America who founded the Disciples of Christ in 1827; leader of the Restorationist movement, which attempted to return completely to N.T. teachings and practice.

Campbell, Thomas (1763-1854): Cofounder, with his son Alexander, of the Restorationist movement; his famous dictum governed his life and the Restorationist movement: “Where the Scriptures speak, we speak; where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent.”

Carey, William (1761-1834): English Baptist missionary pioneer whose passion for missions sparked the beginning of the Protestant missions movement; spent almost 40 years in India, translating the scriptures into 25 local languages; the “Father of Modern Missions.”†

Carnell, Edward John (1919-1967): American evangelical theologian and educator; earned two doctorates (Harvard and Boston University) and taught at Gordon College and Divinity School and at Fuller Theological Seminary.


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Cartwright, Thomas (1535-103): Puritan minister, scholar and Reformation leader; was an important promoter of Presbyterian and Reformed thought in England.

Cassian, John (c.360-after 430): Monk and biblical scholar who developed a fourfold method of interpreting scripture which was adapted from Origenʼs threefold method.

Chafer, Lewis Sperry (1871-1952): American Presbyterian minister, popular conference speaker, and founder of and professor at Dallas Theological Seminary; strong advocate of premillennial dispensationalism.

Charlemagne (c.742-814): First “Holy Roman Emperor”; encouraged education, ecclesiastical reform, and unity in the Empire.

Charles I (1600-1649): King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1625; supported the suppression of the Reformation in England but was deposed and eventually executed by the Puritan Revolution in the 1640s.

Charles II (1630-1685): King of Great Britain and Ireland (in exile) from 1649 but restored to the throne in England in 1660 after the Puritan Revolution; generally conformed to the Anglicanism founded under Elizabeth I.

Chauncy, Charles (1705-1787): Boston minister and Arminian theologian who cautioned strongly against the excesses of the Great Awakening.

Chrysostom, John (c.347-407): Bishop of Constantinople famous for his eloquent preaching; he is the most revered Christian theologian by the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Clement of Alexandria (c.150-c.215): Theologian who attempted to show the philosophical superiority of Christianity over paganism.

Clement of Rome (1st century): Early bishop of Rome who wrote the epistle to the Corinthians known as “1 Clement,” which dealt with ecclesiastical order and authority..

Columba (c.521-97): Irish missionary to Scotland, where he founded the monastery at Iona.

Constantine the Great (died 337): Roman emperor whose conversion to Christianity ushered in a new era of Christendom, during which Christianity eventually became the official religion of the empire; Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, giving religious freedom to all, and called the first ecumenical council of the church at Nicea.

Cotton, John (1584-1652): Eminent Puritan minister; considered to be the father of New England Congregationalism; emigrated to America in 1633, where he spent the rest of his life ministering and defending Congregationalism.

Cranmer, Thomas (1489-1556): Archbishop of Canterbury; attempted to promote Reformation principles in England while pleasing royalty; had his hand in the Ten Articles, Forty-Two Articles and the Common Book of Prayer; he was burned as a heretic under Queen Mary Tudor.

Cromwell, Oliver (1599-1658): Head of the revolutionary army during the Puritan Revolution; was made Lord Protector (instead of king) of England in 1653 but died before the Restoration in 1660.

Cyprian (died 258): Bishop of Carthage who allowed those who lapsed under persecution to rejoin the church after a period of penance.

Cyril of Alexandria (died 444): Patriarch of Constantinople and important theologian of the Alexandrian school.

Darby, John Nelson (1800-1882): Plymouth Brethren minister and theologian; vigorously espoused a particular brand of eschatology known as “dispensationalism.”

Decius (249-251): Roman emperor who led the first large-scale imperial persecution of Christians.


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Diocletian (245-313): Roman emperor who established himself as an absolute, semi-divine monarch, divided the empire into a Tetrarchy ruled by two Augusti and two Caesars, and began the “Great Persecution” against the Christians.

Donatists (4th century): Faction within the African church who believed that those Christians who had renounced their faith during the Diocletian persecution could no longer be a part of the church and that sacraments administered by such ministers were invalid.

Douglass, Frederick (c. 1817-1895): Ex-slave, orator, journalist, and abolitionist who escaped to freedom in 1838 and had an influential career as an advocate for abolition, temperance, and womenʼs rights.

Dwight, Timothy (1752-1817): Congregational clergyman, theologian, poet, and educator; was the grandson of Jonathan Edwards and president of Yale College from 1795.

Dyer, Mary (c. 1605-1660): Quaker martyr in Boston who repeatedly returned to Boston to spread the Quaker faith.

Edward VI (1537-1553): King of England from 1547; son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour who inherited the throne at a young age and promoted the Reformation.

Edwards, Jonathan (1703-1758): American Calvinist theologian and philosopher; the Great Awakening affected his church in Northampton, Mass., in the 1730s; he wrote prolifically, defending Calvinism, orthodoxy, and the revivals; is considered to be Americaʼs greatest theologian.

Eliot, John (1604-1690): Puritan minister, missionary, linguist and Bible translator; commonly called the “Apostle to the Indians” for his pioneering missionary work among the American Indians.

Elizabeth I (1533-1603): Queen of England from 1558; daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn who crafted a theological compromise (Anglicanism) between the Reformation and Catholic factions in an attempt to unify England and standardize worship.

Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1469-1636): Extremely influential Roman Catholic humanist and church critic; produced the first Greek N.T. in 1516 that became the basis for much of the work of the later Protestant reformers.

Erigena, John Scotus (c.810-c.877): Irish scholastic theologian.

Ethelbert (died 616): King of Kent in Anglo-Saxon England who converted to Christianity under the influence of his wife Bertha and the Roman mission led by Augustine.

Eusebius (c.260-c.340): Bishop of Caesarea whose Ecclesiastical History has earned him the title “Father of Church History.”

Eutyches (c.378-454): Heretic who taught that Christ had only one nature after the Incarnation; he was exiled by the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

Farel, Guillaume (1489-1565): Genevan reformer who initially detained Calvin in Geneva; he and Calvin were important leaders of the reform measures directed from Geneva.

Finney, Charles (1792-1875): Leading revivalist of the 19th century, often called the “Father of Modern Revivalism” for his “new measures” and ardent revivalism; later in life he became an avid educator, becoming a professor and president at Oberlin College.

Fosdick, Harry Emerson (1878-1969): American Presbyterian minister who withdrew from the Presbyterian denomination over fundamentalist issues and became pastor at Riverside Baptist Church in New York City.

Francke, Auguste Hermann (1663-1727): German pietist and educator; from 1692 he was a professor at the University of Halle and promoted pietist thinking and reform.


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Frelinguysen, Theodore (1691-c.1747): Dutch Reformed minister in New Jersey whose evangelical fervor and itinerancy contributed to the onset of the Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies.

Galerius (died 311): Roman emperor who ruled with Diocletian as the Caesar in the East and who inspired the persecution of the Christians.

Gordon, Adoniram Judson (1836-1895): Baptist minister and missions leader; founded the Boston Missionary Training School (1889), the forerunner of Gordon College and Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary.

Graham, Billy (1918- ): Most well-known 20th century American evangelist whose simple messages and direct call for a decision to follow Christ has connected with millions of listeners worldwide.

Gregory the Great (c.540-604): Pope who helped bring peace to a political tumultuous society, sent the first missionary force to England (led by Augustine), wrote a book on pastoral care, and whose name is linked with the development of Gregorian chant.

Henry VIII (1491-1547): King of England from 1509; broke with Rome in 1533, thus triggering the Reformation in England; his infamous six wives were Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr.

Henry, Carl F.H. (1913- ): Evangelical theologian; articulate defender of orthodoxy and promoter of new-evangelical thought; founding editor of Christianity Today and professor at Fuller Theological Seminary and Gordon College.

Herod Antipas (1st century): Son of Herod the Great; tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea; married his sister-in-law Herodias and beheaded John the Baptist.

Herod Archelaus (1st century): Son of Herod the Great; ethnarch of Judaea, Idumaea, and Samaria; deposed in A.D. 6.

Herod the Great (ruled 37-4 B.C.): Roman King of the Jews.

Herod Philip (1st century): Son of Herod the Great; tetrarch in the northeast.

Hippolytus (c.170-c.236): Most important Roman theologian of the 3rd century; significant writings include “Refutation of All Heresies” and “Apostolic Tradition.”

Hodge, Charles (1797-1878): American Presbyterian theologian; was a long-time

professor at Princeton and remained a staunch defender of orthodoxy and Calvinism; his Systematic Theology and What is Darwinism? are perhaps his most influential works.

Hubmaier, Balthasar (c. 1485-1528): German Anabaptist; came under Zwingliʼs reformation teaching in Zurich but soon left to join the Anabaptist movement; was burned at the stake in Vienna.

Huss, John (c.1372-1415): Pastor and professor in Prague who propagated John Wycliffeʼs teachings and who was eventually burned at the stake as a heretic; his name is connected with the Hussite movement or “United Brethren.”

Hutchinson, Anne (1591-1643): Puritan religious dissenter whose accusations of “works-righteousness” preaching against the Boston clergy (along with her claim of direct revelation) earned her banishment to Rhode Island in 1638.

Ignatius (c.35-c.107): Bishop of Antioch who wrote letters to the churches at Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, Rome, Philadelphia, and Smyrna and to the bishop Polycarp on his way to martyrdom in Rome; his letters are important both for their theological content and for their emphasis on ecclesiastical authority.

Ignatius Loyola (c. 1491-1556): Catholic monk who founded the Jesuits (Society of Jesus) and led much of the so-called “Counter Reformation” in Roman Catholicism.


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Irenaeus (c.130-c.200): Bishop of Lyons who wrote “Against Heresies“ as an attack on Gnosticism; emphasized the authority of scripture.

James I (1566-1625): King of England from 1603 and Scotland as James VI from 1578; authorized a new translation of the Bible (King James Version); was generally lenient toward Catholicism but intolerant toward Puritan dissenters.

Jerome (c.345-420): One of the greatest biblical scholars of the Western Church; translated the Bible into Latin (called the “Vulgate”).

John XXIII, Pope (1881-1963): Pope from 1958; called for the Second Vatican Council that was responsible for much of the modernization of Roman Catholic dogma and practice.

John of Damascus (c.655-c.750): Greek theologian who defended the churchʼs use of images during the Iconoclastic Controversy.

Judaizers: Early Jewish Christians who tried to enforce Old Testament laws (such as circumcision) on all Christians in the church.

Judson, Adoniram (1788-1850): American Baptist missionary to Burma; was ordained a Congregational minister in 1812 but became convinced of Baptist beliefs on the journey to India; was instrumental in founding a lasting mission in Burma.

Justin Martyr (c.100-c.165): Most important early Christian apologist, who defended Christians against false charges and who argued that Christianity was the only true philosophy.

Kahler, Martin (1835-1921): German theologian and long-time professor at Halle; wrote a book that ignited questions surrounding the historical Jesus, especially with regard to historie vs. geschichte.

Latimer, Hugh (c. 1485-1555): English Protestant reformer and Bishop of Worcester; was burned at the stake under Queen Mary in 1555.

Laud, William (1573-1645): Archbishop of Canterbury and scholar; attempted to reform England and promote Anglican/Church of England uniformity.

Leo X (1475-1521): Pope from 1513; excommunicated Martin Luther in 1520.

Leo the Great (died 461): Pope from 440 to 461; his Tome (449) upheld orthodox Christology during the Eutychean controversy and was affirmed by the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

Lucian of Antioch (died 312): Founder of the Antiochene school of exegesis.

Luther, Martin(1483-1546): German Augustinian monk who sparked the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses and other teachings; after his excommunication he went into hiding, translated the N.T, into German, and emerged as a leader of the Lutheran Reformation in Germany; married to Katherine von Bora.

Machen, John Greschem (1881-1937): Presbyterian clergyman, N.T. scholar, and educator; split from Princeton and the Presbyterians to found Westminster Theological Seminary and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church.

Mani (c.216-276): Founder of Manichaeism, a Gnostic system of thought which was based on a dualism between light and darkness and which emphasized severe asceticism.

Marcion (died c.160): Heretical thinker who rejected the Old Testament but whose influence encouraged the church to differentiate carefully between canonical and non-canonical writings.

Mary Tudor (1516-1558): Queen of England from 1553; daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon; was notoriously vicious in her extermination of Protestants in England during her rule, earning her the name “Bloody Mary.”


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McGready, James (c. 1758-1817): Presbyterian revivalist and father of the frontier camp meeting; his revivals were part of the Second Great Awakening.

McPherson, Aimee Semple (1890-1944): Pentecostal evangelist and founder of the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel.

Melanchthon, Philipp (1497-1560): Protestant reformer who helped Luther in his reform measures in Wittenberg and was largely responsible for the Augsburg Confession.

Miller, William (1782-1849): Baptist lay preacher who predicted the second coming of Christ around the year 1843; his teaching formed the basis for much of the later Adventist movements.

Mills, Samuel (1783-1818): American Congregational minister and missions promoter; led the Haystack Prayer Meeting (1809) and helped form the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (1810).

Mohammed (c.570-632): Founder of Islam.

Montanists (2nd century): Dissenting movement which emphasized rigorous ascetic discipline and ecstatic prophecy.

Moody, Dwight L. (1837-1899): American evangelist whose frankness and urgency drew huge crowds in both the U.S. and England.

Nestorius (late 4th-5th century): Patriarch of Constantinople whose name is associated with the heresy that there were two persons in the incarnate Christ, one human and one divine; he was deposed by the Council of Ephesus in 431.

Newton, John (1725-1807): Evangelical English minister and hymn-writer who greatly aided the campaign against slavery (spearheaded by William Wilberforce) after his conversion from the slave trade itself.

Niebuhr, H. Richard (1894-1962): American theologian and younger brother of Reinhold Niebuhr; professor at Yale University from 1938 to 1962; writings include Christ and Culture and The Social Sources of Denominationalism.

Niebuhr, Reinhold (1892-1971): American theologian and ethicist; professor at Union Theological Seminary from 1928 until 1960; primary work is The Nature and Destiny of Man.

Novatians (3rd century): Schismatic movement that believed that Christians who had left the faith under the Decian persecution should not be welcomed back into the fellowship of the church.

Ockenga, Harold John (1905-1985): Congregational minister and new-evangelical organizational leader; pastor of Bostonʼs Park Street Church, founder and president of the National Association of Evangelicals, founding president of Fuller Theological Seminary, founder of Christianity Today and president of the newly formed Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary.

Origen (c.185-c.254): Theologian and biblical scholar from Alexandria; one of the greatest exegetes of the early church who developed a very influential theory of biblical interpretation (the threefold sense of scripture).

Pachomius (c.290-346): Founder of communal monasticism.

Parham, Charles F. (1873-1929): Founder of the Apostolic Faith movement and one of the founders of the modern Pentecostal movement.

Parker, Matthew (1504-1575): Archbishop of Canterbury under Elizabeth I; had his hand in the Thirty-Nine Articles and the Bishopsʼ Bible; promoted Anglican theology but resisted Puritan ideas.

Patrick (5th century): British missionary to Ireland, called the “Apostle of the Irish.”

Paul III, Pope (1468-1549): Pope from 1534; a typical Renaissance Pope in his personal life, he attempted to reform the RCC in various ways, including calling the Council of Trent (first convened in 1545).


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Pelagius (late 4th-early 5th century): British theologian who taught that humans are free to do good and choose God without the help of divine grace; his teaching (called Pelagianism”) was attacked by Augustine and officially condemned by the church.

Perpetua (died 203): Young African catechumen who was martyred in the arena at Carthage and whose imprisonment and death are described in “The Passion of St. Perpetua and St. Felicity.”

Polycarp (c.69-c.155): Bishop of Smyrna and widely respected Christian leader in the 2nd century; his martyrdom at the age of 86 is described in “The Martyrdom of Polycarp.”

Rancke, Leopold von (1795-1886): Prolific German historian; stressed the objectivity of historical inquiry and the necessity of primary materials in the process.

Rauschenbusch, Walter (1861-1918): Baptist minister and theologian of the Social Gospel who urged the Christian church to give the gospel a distinctive social emphasis.

Robinson, John (c. 1575-1625): English pastor to the Pilgrim/Puritan fathers; helped his congregation at Leyden to emigrate to America in 1620, although he was unable to journey with them.

Sadoleto, Jacob (1477-1547): Roman Catholic cardinal who attempted to win Geneva back to the RC fold; had a series of famous debates with John Calvin over RC/Protestant differences.

Schweitzer, Albert (1875-1965): German theologian, physician, and organist; wrote The Quest for the Historical Jesus (1910), further fueling the search for the Jesus of history; later in life he became a medical doctor and missionary to Africa and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1952.

Scofield, C. I. (1843-1921): Bible conference speaker and defender of dispensational premillennialism; his Scofield Bible and the accompanying notes did much to spread the dispensational view within popular conservative Christian culture.

Seymour, William J. (1870-1922): Pentecostal leader who studied under Charles Parham in Texas; his revival meetings in Los Angeles in 1906 and the subsequent outbreak of speaking in tongues marked the beginning of the Pentecostal movement.

Simons, Menno (1496-1561): Anabaptist and Mennonite leader; Roman Catholic priest who became convinced of Reformation doctrine but differed from the mainline reformers on baptism, the use of arms and force, the Lordʼs Supper, and the nature of the church.

Simplicianus (died 400): Bishop of Milan after the death of Ambrose; played an important role in the conversion of Augustine of Hippo.

Spener, Philip Jacob (1635-1705): German Lutheran whose book, Pia Desideria, became the foundation for the Pietist movement; founded the University of Halle in 1694 as a center for Pietism and missionary training

Stoddard, Solomon (1643-1729): Colonial minister in Northampton, Mass.; grandfather of Jonathan Edwards and supporter of the “Half-Way Covenant.”

Sunday, Billy (1862-1935): American Presbyterian minister, evangelist, and revivalist; known as the “baseball evangelist”; was amazingly popular and influential in his revivals and reforms; helped pass the Prohibition Amendment.

Tertullian (c.160-c.225): African theologian and apologist; important aspects of his theology include an articulation of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, a strict separation between Christianity and pagan philosophy and culture, and a rejection of infant baptism.

Theodore of Tarsus (c.602-90): Archbishop of Canterbury who established a diocesian structure in England and helped to unify the English church.


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Theodosius (4th century): Roman emperor from 379 to 395 who made Christianity the official religion of the empire and outlawed non-Christian religious practices and heretical ideas.

Tyndale, William (c. 1494-1536): English reformer who translated the Bible into English (1525); after a short but productive career of translation and writing he was burnt at the stake near Brussels.

Waldenses (12th century): Dissenting church founded by Peter Waldo of Valdez, who criticized many of the practices and the hierarchy of the medieval church and believed that the Bible should be the ultimate authority for Christians.

Warfield, Benjamin B. (1851-1921): Princeton theologian and apologist; staunch defender of Calvinistic orthodoxy and opponent of modernism.

Weld, Theodore Dwight (1803-1895): Revivalist, abolitionist, and temperance reformer whose writing and speaking did much to promote the abolitionist cause in the North and influence other writers and leaders.

Wesley, Charles (1707-1788): 18th child of Samuel Wesley and brother of John Wesley; prolific English hymn-writer (over 5,500 hymns), including such favorites as “Jesus, Lover of My Soul.”

Wesley, John (1703-1791): 15th child of Samuel Wesley; English theologian, churchman, and founder of the Methodist movement;

White, Ellen (1827-1915): Cofounder of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church; later in life became an active health reformer, promoting a strict vegetarian diet.

Whitefield, George (1714-1770): English Methodist evangelist whose fervent and popular revivals in both America and England did much to foster spiritual renewal and stir up controversy.

Wilberforce, William (1759-1833): English philanthropist and member of Parliament who labored arduously for over 30 years to pass legislation against the slave trade; the bill was finally passed in 1833.

Willibrord (658-739): English missionary to Frisia.

Winfred (Boniface) (c. 675-754): English missionary to Germany.

Winthrop, John (1588-1649): First governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony whose sermon “A Model of Christian Charity” served as a sort of charter for the Bay Colony: it was to be a “city on a hill.”

Wolsey, Thomas (c. 1474-1530): English cardinal and statesman who unsuccessfully attempted to procure permission from Rome for Henry VIIIʼs divorce from Catherine of Aragon.

Wycliffe, John (c.1330-84): English theologian and early reformer who argued for the supreme authority of scripture in the life of the church, the priesthood of all believers, and the translation of the Bible into the language of the people; he was condemned as a heretic after his death.

Zinzendorf, Count Nicolaus Ludwig von (1700-1760): Leader of the Moravians at Herrnhut; was primarily concerned with evangelism and a genuine religion of the heart; was influential in the worldwide missions movement.

Zwingli, Ulrich (1484-1531): Swiss Protestant reformer; instituted reform measures in Zurich as early as 1519 but differed with the other reformers, especially with Luther on the issue of the Lordʼs Supper.
