Cross-Cultural Application of Ancient Chinese Philosophy in Journalism Ethics AnalysisKoji Fuse, Ph.D.Frank W. and Sue Mayborn School of JournalismUniversity of North Texas SWECJMC SymposiumDallas, TexasNov. 11, 2011

Journalism EthicsDominance of the Western taxonomy of macro ethical theories: consequentialist ethics, deontological ethics, and virtue ethicsNeed for global media ethics to grapple with diverse cultural values and sensitivities (Christians, 2005)Starting with exploration of different ethical approaches in the world to avoid a top-down approachPostcolonical approach to knowledgeTaking non-Western philosophical systems seriously and taking time to research and theorize them while grounding them in their respective local contexts; All knowledge is indigenous (Bujo 2000/2001; Rao, 2010)John C. Merrill (1994)Confucian journalist, Taoist journalist: possible to adapt non-Western philosophies to analyzing contemporary journalism practice beyond cultural boundaries

Hundred Schools of ThoughtHundred Schools of Thought (): not a hundred but about 10 or so ancient schools of thoughtSpring and Autumn Period (770 B.C.476 B.C.) and Warring States Period (475 B.C.221 B.C.): intellectually fertile golden age of Chinese civilization; emerged during wartime; thinkers itinerated to various states and attempted to persuade the state rulers to adopt their ideas about government, diplomacy, defense, warfare, and conduct of lifeThree major ancient Chinese schools of thought: Confucianism, Mohism, and DaoismMoral imagination: different types of reasoning when facing a moral dilemma (even though the resolution of the dilemma is similar to those by other philosophical systems)Not making a judgment on which one is better or worse, or superiority of the West over the East or vice versa

Three Major Schools of Thought

SchoolsPrincipal thinkersLocus of ethicsDao (): way, pathOther key termsConfucianism()Confucius ()Mencius ()Xun Zi ()Agent,actionli (): ritualjunzi (): exemplary person, gentlemanwuchang (): five constant virtuesren (): benevolenceyi (): righteousness, justicezhi (): wisdomxin (): trustwulun (): five cardinal relationshipsxiao (): filial pietymianzi (): faceMohism()Mo Zi ()Actionjianai (): universal lovefeigong (): against offensive warfareli (): benefittiandao (): heavens wayDaoism()Lao Zi ()Zhuang Zi ()Lie Zi ()Agentwuwei (): inactionweiwuwei (): action without actionyin and yang (): evil and good, positive and negative

(Classical) ConfucianismConfucius (Kong Zi), Mencius (Meng Zi), Xun ZiGoal: to build a unified China under one virtuous sage-ruler by restoring the tradition of the early Western Zhou Dynasty Confucian dao (way, path): li (ritual, rite); contemporary applications including harmonious words and actions, such as appreciation, politeness, apologies, and face-saving communication; ultimately leading to a harmonious, humanistic societyJunzi (exemplary person): habitual practice of li channel to express sincere human emotionsWuchang (five constant virtues): ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness, justice), li (ritual, rite), zhi (wisdom), xin (trust); not completely rigid but flexible; Under certain circumstances, yi may require us to suspend li in order to be ren.Wulun (five cardinal relationships): (1) ruler and minister, (2) father and son, (3) husband and wife, (4) elder and younger brothers, and (5) friend and friend; reciprocity (Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire)Mianzi (face): reciprocal; {W}hoever is devoid of the heart of shame is not human; (Mencius).

(Early) MohismMo Zi (not Mao Zedong)Goal: to materialize the world in which all states could coexist peacefully; Mohism being Confucianisms strongest archrival, opposing the latters core principlesMohist dao (way, path) or tiandao (heavens way): jianai (universal love); universality as the source of all the great benefits (Mohist universal love) and partiality as the source of all the great harm (Confucian graded love)Feigong (condemnation of offensive warfare): against the mainstream zeitgeist that the weak would fall victim to the strong; compared to theft or murder, the even greater unrighteousness of offensive warfare against other states is not condemned (the unrighteousness of the powerful); a division of the Mohist school to manufacture defensive weaponry, train members, dispatch them, etc.Li (benefit or pragmatic utility): praising an extremely frugal life while condemning needless expenditure (e.g., music, dance, funeral rituals, aggressive offensive warfare); not like utilitarianism because of Mohisms collectivism, authoritarian rules, and espousal of ghosts

(Classical) DaoismLao Zi, Zhuang Zi, Lei Zi(T)he definition of a Taoist is, normally, what a Confucianist is not! (Lin, 1947); repels against Confucian formalities and conformityGoal: to construct a humanistic world in accordance with the dao by letting people experience epiphanic transformation of themselves to acquire detached fortitude, clairvoyance, and spontaneity (mature Daoist) after going through deep skepticism, relativism, and wuweiDao in Daoism: wuwei (inaction, without action) and weiwuwei (action without action); The way that can be spoken of is not the constant way (Lao Zi); Confucius believed that the dao could be improved upon by humans, but Lao Zi believed that the dao couldnt be improved upon because it refers to the natural order of thingsYin (contractive or negative force) and yang (expansive or positive force): not bipolar but complementary because (f)rom the unity and harmony between yin and yang arise all things (Zhuang Zi); relativism and skepticism against Mohist-like confidence in pragmatic utility; A man is supple and weak when living, but hard and stiff when dead. . . . Thus the hard and the strong are the comrades of deaths; the supple and the weak are the comrades of life (Lao Zi)

(Classical) DaoismLao Zi, Zhuang Zi, Lei ZiNot like Western individualism: Enlightened Daoists would exhibit quiet, persistent activism instead of lively, forceful, aggressive activism; Daoist freedom of thought and action is not a freedom to function effectively in society but a freedom that ignores and transcends the social order; Western individualism focusing on freedoms of and from something specific, Daoism positing generalized freedom of all from all without specific content (freedom of a presocial or an asocial being)

Embedded JournalismEmbeddingJournalists receiving an invitation to join troops and live and share combat experiences with the military units; more than 600 U.S. and foreign journalists involved; opening up an opportunity to have soldiers speak more candidly and report on combats more closely, but leading to journalists unconscious adoption of the U.S.-centric perspective into the conflictMichael Hastings (2010) The Runaway General published on Rolling Stone, Lara Logans criticism of Hastings and her pro-military comments as journalist, and the ensuing controversy Utilitarian means-end rationality and Mills staunch defense of freedom of speech: powerful justification for this practice; embedded journalism is a rational choice for war correspondents, and an alternative is no direct access to the U.S. military and physically risking the self

Three Types of JournalistsConfucian journalistsAbsolute obedience to rituals (li) set by the government; agreeing with the sentiments of the government and the public; a mouthpiece of the governments stance under the rubric of the objectivity norm and publish stories to promote the militaryMohist journalistsWilling to challenge and critique the powerful, the U.S. military and the government, to shed light on the predicaments and sufferings of powerless Iraqi and Afghan civilians (e.g., WikiLeaks); Mohist love is universal, not partial; advocacy of antiwar stance (feigong); taking self-sacrifice and physical risksDaoist journalistsNovice Daoist: doing nothing special (wuwei)Mature Daoist: challenging the whole structure of embedded journalism by disputing with the powerful media-military-government complex; quitting their jobs in mainstream journalism and initiating their independent weiwuwei (returning to what journalism is supposed to do) via alternative media

ConclusionLimitation of this paper on moral reasoningShould explore actual examples of journalists using each philosophical approachOther ancient Chinese schools of thought, such as the Legalist School and the School of Vertical and Horizontal Alliances; other non-Western philosophical frameworksChallenge: strong opposition to this line of studyConfucianism is too sexist!: Yes, that was born more than 2,500 years ago. What about Aristotle? How about Kant?Those non-Western philosophies are irrelevant!: How relevant was the feminist theory, black feminist thought, critical race theory, queer theory, etc. perceived by the mainstream scholarship when they emerged for the first time? Allan Blooms (1987) The Closing of the American MindPaying non-Western philosophies the same hermeneutic respect as Western philosophical systems