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A S I A P A C I F I CVol 58, No 1 March 2012

CASTING TECHNOLOGIES

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Please visit us at:Metallurgy and Foundry Exhibition, 20-30 March, Chongqing, ChinaInt. Rail Transit Technology Exhibition, 26-28 April, Beijing, China Metal+Metallurgy, 9-12 May, Beijing, ChinaM-LAB, 22-24 May, Kuala Lumpur, PhilippinesAluminium China, 06-08 June, Shanghai, China

WES mixers provide easy accessibility to the mixing shaft and blades for periodic cleaning and maintenance. Tungsten carbide tipped blades are held captive in the slotted shaft to prevent rotation during the mixing cycle.

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STANDARD MIXER Single pivot type units are ideally suited to fi lling moulds or core boxes on an automated or manual type conveyor system.

ARTICULATED MIXER Articulated type mixers offer much greater fl exibility and are typically utilised in larger jobbing type moulding work Articulated Mixers can be setup to provide sand to both repititious and jobbing moulds.

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Jimmy Loke Yoon CheeDirector, Yoonsteel Foundry MalaysiaRepresentative of FOMFEIAMr Gopal RamaswamiNational Secretary of the Institute of Indian Foundrymen, IndiaEmail: [email protected] FrostWorld Consulting Specialist Foundry Process [email protected]

Mr Zhang LiboExecutive Vice PresidentChina Foundry [email protected] Seksan TangkoblabPresident Thai Foundrymen’s SocietyDr John PearceMetals SpecialistMTEC National Metals and MaterialsTechnology Centre, Thailand

Industry AssociationsAustralian Foundry InstituteSouth Australia: The Secretary, PO Box 288, North Adelaide SA 5006Western Australia: The Secretary,[email protected] South Wales: The Secretary, Locked Bag 30, Bankstown NSW 2200,[email protected]: C/- PO Box 89, Acacia Ridge QLD 4110Victoria: PO Box 4284, Dandenong South VIC 3164Casting Technology New Zealand Inc.PO Box 1925, Wellington, New ZealandTel: +64 4 496 6555, Fax: +64 4 496 6550China Foundry Association3rd Floor, A-32 Zizhuyuan RdHaidian District, Beijing 100048, CHINATel: +86 10 6841 8899 Fax: +86 10 6845 8356Web: www.foundry-china.comFederation of Malaysia Foundry & Engineering Industries Association(FOMFEIA), 8 Jalan 1/77B, Off Jalan Changi at Thambi Dollah 55100,Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaTel: +603 241 8843, Fax: +603 242 1384Institute of Indian FoundrymenIIF Center, 335 Rajdanga Main Road, East Kolkata Township P.O.Kolkata - 700107 IndiaTel: +91 33 2442 4489, +91 33 2442 6825Fax: +91 33 2442 4491

Japanese Association of Casting TechnologyNoboru Hatano, Technical Director, JACT,Nakamura Bldg, 9-13, 5-chome, Ginza,Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104 JapanTel: +81 3 3572 6824, Fax: +81 3 3575 4818Metalworking Industries Association of the Philippines Inc.Pacificador Directo, National President, MIAP, No. 55 Kanlaon St, Mandaluyong,1501 Metro Manila, PhilippinesTel: +632 775 391, Fax: +632 700 413Philippine Iron & Steel Institute(PISI), Room 518, 5th Floor, Ortigas Building,Ortigas Avenue, Pasig, Metro ManilaTel: +632 631 3065, Fax: +632 631 5781Philippine Metalcasting Association Inc.(PMAI), 1135 EDSA, Balintawak, Quezon City Metro Manila, PhilippinesTel: +632 352 287, Fax: +632 351 7590South East Asian Iron & Steel Institute2E 5th Floor Block 2, Worldwide Business ParkJalan Tinju 13/50, 40675 Shah Alam, Selangor MalaysiaTel: +603 5519 1102, Fax: +603 5519 1159, Email: [email protected] Foundry AssociationKhun Wiboolyos AmatyakulPresident Thai Foundry Association86/6 1st Floor BSID BuildingBureau of Supporting Industries DevelopmentSoi Trimitr, Rama IV RoadKlongtoey Bangkok 10110 Thailandwww.thaifoundry.comThe Materials Process Technology CenterJapan. Kikai Shinko Bldg,3-5-8 Shiba-Koen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105 JapanTel: +81 3 3434 3907, Fax: +81 3 3434 3698

Publisher & Managing EditorBarbara CailEmail: [email protected]

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Metal Casting Technologies is a technically based publication specifically for the Asia Pacific Region.The circulation reaches:• Foundries• Diecasters• Iron and steel mills• Testing labs• Planners & Designers – CIM-CAD-CAM

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Australian Foundry Association

China Foundry Association

Thai Foundry Association

The Institute of Indian

Foundrymen

The Korean Foundrymen's

Society

Metal working Industry Association

of the Philippines

Federation of Malaysian Foundry & Engineering Industries Association

South East Asian Iron & Steel

Institute

castitir jonj kack@[email protected] TTechhnollog Cy C tentre, Th Th ilail dand

Industry Associations Japanese Association of Casting Technology

A S I A P A C I F I CVol 58, No 1 March 2012

CASTING TECHNOLOGIES

Highest analytical performance, simple operation, high mobility

– when your daily analyses require more than mediocrity, you’re equipped with the best for every mobile analytical task with the new SPECTROTEST.Pr

int P

ost A

ppro

ved

2550

03/0

1135

CHINA • INDIA • TAIWAN • SINGAPORE INDONESIA • THAILAND • PHILIPPINES

MALAYSIA • HONG KONG • JAPAN • EUROPE USA • AUSTRALIA • KOREA • NEW ZEALAND

ContentsMarch 2012 Volume 58, No 1

24

14

CONTENTS

METAL Casting Technologies March 2012 3

04 EDITORIAL

10 BRIEFINGS

24 FEATURES 24 Use of a die-casting ring test piece to study aluminium alloy melt quality By Supparit Lounksonchai, Julathep Kajornchaiyakul & John Pearce

28 Microstructure and properties of cast al-sic-graphite hybrid particle composites By Pankaj Kumar, Surya P. Prabhakar and P. C. Maity

32 EVENTS

34 WEBSITE SHOWCASE

36 BACK TO BASICS Primary elements in ductile iron By J. F. Meredith

38 BACK TO THE FLOOR Metal for a virtual bronze foundry By Prof John HD Bautista

POWERFUL INTEGRATEDMEDIA PLATFORMSPRINT & ONLINE EDITIONSEXCLUSIVE EMAIL BROADCASTSContact: [email protected]

PRINT & ONLINE EDITIONSEXCLUSIVE EMAIL BROADCASTS

ADVERTISER’S INDEXBeckwith Macbro Sands ......................... 34Bruker Elemental GmbH.......................... 17Cast Metal Services ............................ 22-23Finite Solutions Inc .............................10-11Foseco ..................................................... OBCG&C Instrument Services ...................25, 31General Kinematics ................................... 13IMF ................................................................15Inductotherm ..............................................9Linn High Therm GmbH ......................... 35Magma Engineering Asia Pacifi c ... 20-21Metal+Metallurgy China 2012 ............... 33Morgan Molten Metal Systems .... 18-19Sibelco ................................................. 27, 29Spectro Analytical Instruments Cover Gatefold/Company Profi le ...... 6-7 Synchro32 ..................................................... 5Thermo Fisher Scientifi c ....................... IBCWarill Engineering Sales (Aust) .................................. Inside Cover Gatefold

Front Cover: Spectro Analytical Instruments.For further information and details please see Company Cover profile on page 6-7.

CON

TRIB

UTO

RS

JOHN HERMES D. BAUTISTAPMAI Technical Consultant

DR. P. C. MAITYMetal Casting and Materials Engineer

GOPAL PADKIGopal Padki is a senior executive member of HA in China. HA is committed to green, environment and energy efficient processes for the best performance of foundries worldwide.

JEFF F. MEREDITHCasting Solutions Pty Ltd

JOHN PEARCEMetals Specialist, MTEC National Metals and Materials Technology Centre, Thailand


Combustion Engine technology keeps fighting

espite the world’s huge focus on energy efficiency and the pursuit of electric vehicles, the powers that be still fight to keep the old technology of combustion engines. They claim and expect that massive research presently prevails which will lead

to and enable refinement of combustion engine technology to use less petrol and diesel.

Robotic production of new smart cars went on display at the Detroit Car Show recently. The claim by the manufacturers was that the smart car is just like a personal computer – its simply electrification for a whole new industry.

But is the car industry really going electric? Japanese car manufacturers really think so. They claim that hybrids already are the biggest share of the EV market and they are rapidly becoming serious business for the Japanese market. However, they still admit that petrol and diesel engines are still highly popular. The Holy Grail is to reproduce an electric version of the bigger cars we currently prefer. And, at the same time, keep the vision of achieving zero dependence on oil.

In Australia, Ford is seeking co-investment from the government to maintain its plant and promises to maintain a reasonable profit. Also in Australia Nissan’s casting plant in Victoria claims that their casting technologies are of world standard and the government should recognize this expertise. There are approximately 3000 jobs in the auto component sector but many Australian economists believe government subsidies for the industry are useless while also accepting that the car manufacturing industry is networked globally to minimize labor costs. They point out that China and India are emerging as the leaders for supply and consumption. And Japan seems to be losing its manufacturing edge because they have invested too much in too many countries. They further claim that Japan needs to invest in the new technologies and focus on home turf. It appears it is too hard to have such a large geographic spread while retaining the strategic decisions in head office.

The UK motor manufacturing industry has received billions of dollars investment from the government with the confidence of being competitive with the European market nearby.

In the USA Obama has been waxing lyrical about the US investing in battery technology and will become the world’s leader. The high tech battery and the electric car are being driven as a political movement.

While battery technology could be another holy grail, the fuel efficiency economics still don’t add up because of the weight of a battery. With innovation being the essential ingredient for today’s world there is a reasonable expectation that soon the fundamental battery technologies will be good enough to seriously market.

It is indeed important that the new technologies emerge quickly. The petrol energy technology goes back 100 years and it is still easier to use oil. Ford’s electric cars have always been in the background. But how can this oil technology prevail? There are approximately 750 million cars in the world at the present time and with the rising affluence of India and China, there will be billions of cars in 20 years. What happens if the oil runs out?

It is essential that there is an ongoing and important focus on energy security. While many car manufacturers all over the world are beavering away on achieving the right technology for the transition to EV’s in Australia they are close to rolling out electric charging locations to trial their effectiveness and uptake. However, there still remains, for a lot of people the problem of “range anxiety”. But there are already claims that the battery technology is close to delivering a life of ten years and go 400 kms on one charge.

Predictions for the battery powered or plug in hybrid fluctuate enormously: some EV manufacturers say they will soon represent 20% but the oil companies say 5% because they are so fixated on making big investments to get fuel efficiencies.

Globally, the industry has spoken. Electric vehicles will continue to be the focus of major manufacturers around the globe. In today’s economically fragile world, it will be an ongoing subject for us to report upon.

Meantime, as usual, we bring you information and knowledge to help provide you with guidance for the metal casting market. In the news section in this edition there is a extract from a report by Professor Henry Lee of the Kennedy College at Harvard University. He and his colleagues have intensively researched the US market to gain information for their research paper: Will Electric Vehicles transform the US Vehicle market? I recommend that you visit the website at http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/21216/will_electric_cars_transform_the_us_vehicle_market.html to read the whole document.

Please let us have your thoughts on what issues you would like us to cover for you. Please also enjoy this edition.

Barbara CailManaging Editor

Barbara Cail

EDITORIAL

D

Software Specific to the Cast Metal Industry

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September 18-23 2012

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hether metal, plastic or organic material, a solid,

powder or solution, with its unique product range of mobile and stationary metal analyzers, ICP and ICP-MS spectrometers as well as and X-ray fluorescence spectrometers, SPECTRO offers the optimum solution for any application. The smallest system barely weighs one kilogram while the largest fills a whole laboratory. All systems, however, are based on the most innovative technology, strictly geared towards specific user requirements, optimum configuration for the respective task and the worldwide recognized reliability that has made SPECTRO the leading supplier in the field of elemental analysis.

Mobile Metal Analyzers - MMAScrap sorting of production materials, identification of semi-finished products during processing and material testing of finished products are just some of the typical applications for SPECTRO portable and mobile metal analyzers. The applications are manifold: Pipes, forged parts, rods, valves, welds, containers and many other sample types can be tested both easily and effectively. Whether in production workshops, external stores, in places difficult to access or on components already mounted in industrial installations, the mobility of SPECTRO industrial spectrometers knows no limits. The range of SPECTRO portable and mobile metal analyzers extends from the small hand-held spectrometer weighting only one kilogram through to multi-matrix devices with on-site analysis performance features that are otherwise the realm of pure laboratory instruments.

Stationary Metal Analyzers - SMAStationary metal analyzers from SPECTRO are used wherever precision analysis of the chemical composition of metallic materials is required.

In all sectors of the metal producing and processing industry these analyzers control the alloying processes, monitor metal quality and rule out the use of incorrect materials and consequently the resulting production downtimes and safety risks.

XRF SpectrometersEnergy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis technology is one of the simplest yet most efficient and economical analysis methods. With SPECTRO’s polarization technology it is also one of the most versatile and precise methods. Whether dealing with waste at an incinerator, raw materials in incoming goods inspection, petrochemical, chemical and pharmaceutical intermediate and finished products in manufacturing processes, soils in nature conservation or rocks in geology – SPECTRO X-ray fluorescence spectrometers are suitable for many thousands of applications.

ICP SpectrometersThe ICP spectrometers from SPECTRO are characterized by excellent measurement accuracy, maximum sensitivity and a high degree of flexibility. They are predestined for trace and ultra-trace analysis of solutions in environmental applications, for comprehensive analysis of foodstuffs, petrochemical products and for the monitoring of innumerable manufacturing processes in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry.

ICP-Mass SpectrometersThe SPECTRO MS is the first fully simultaneous measuring mass spectrometer with inductively coupled plasma in the world and offers a greatly increased sample throughput rate and much better precision and accuracy compared to sequential mass spectrometers. In addition to research laboratories, it is attractive for environmental, chemical, pharmaceutical and geology laboratories as well as many other branches of industry.

AMETEK, Inc. is a leading global manufacturer of electronic instruments and electric motors with an annual turnover of approximately 2.1 billion US$. AMETEK’s corporate growth plan is based on four key strategies: Operational Excellence, Strategic Acquisitions & Alliances, Global & Market Expansion, and New Products. AMETEK’s common stock is a component of the S&P MidCap 400 Index and the Russell 1000 Index.

Elemental Analysis for Every ApplicationSPECTRO offers a full range of metal analyzers as well as ICP, ICP-MS and XRF spectrometers

SPECTRO Analytical Instruments (Asia-Pacific) Ltd Unit 1603, 16/F., Tower III Enterprise Square No. 9 Sheung Yuet Road Kowloon Bay, Kowloon Hong Kong Tel: +852.2976.9162 Fax: +852.2976.9542 [email protected] www.spectro.com

SPECTRO is one of the worldwide leading suppliers of analytical instruments for optical emission, ICP-mass and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. As a member of the AMETEK Materials Analysis Division, SPECTRO manufactures advanced instruments, develops the best solutions for strongly varying applications and provides exemplary customer service. Innovation, instrument concerns and customer relations are its main activities. From its foundation in 1979 until today, more than 30,000 analytical instruments have been delivered to customers around the world.

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On-site, at-line and in the laboratory - from SPECTRO and its metal analyzers you can expect:- Perfect analysis solutions with innovative technologies - Fast and precise measurements, plus ease of use and reliability- Outstanding performance and flexibility- Comprehensive service and analytical expertise of the market leader- Unrivaled price-to-performance-ratio

Talk with SPECTRO and find out why SPECTRO‘s metal analyzers are an investment in better efficiency and higher profitability.

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Please visit us at:Chongqing Metallurgy and Foundry Exhibition 2012, 20-30 March, Chongqing, ChinaChina International Rail Transit Technology Exhibition 2012, 26-28 April, Beijing, China Metal+Metallurgy 2012, 9-12 May, Beijing, ChinaM-LAB 2012, 22-24 May, Kuala Lumpur, PhilippinesAluminium China 2012, 06-08 June, Shanghai, China


Will electric cars transform the US vehicle market? (The following is an extract from a research paper by Professor Henry Lee at the Kennedy College at Harvard University)If electric vehicles are to penetrate the market sufficiently to have a measurable impact on gasoline consumption (and oil imports) or to be able to reduce carbon dioxide emissions significantly, then millions of consumers will have to purchase those vehicles. Seven thousand consumers bought electric cars in 2009, and this number will easily increase to over 50,000 vehicles per year in the next few years. The test, however, is whether electric vehicles can surpass 2.5 million vehicles sold per year, which would allow the industry to capture 20% of the U.S. new car market by 2025. To put this goal in perspective, sales of conventional hybrids (HEVs) in 2009 in the United States remained below 300,000 vehicles.35 Reaching sales levels above 2.5% of the new car market means convincing consumers that an electric car provides benefits that in aggregate are equal to (or greater than) those of an equivalent conventional gasoline-powered car.

Our study shows that in a scenario characterized by increases in gasoline prices and decreases in battery costs approximately in line with what the industry is predicting, battery- powered electric cars will cost less than conventional gasoline-powered vehicles over the course of their lifetimes. This result is absent the existing $7,500 tax credit or any other federal subsidy. If gasoline prices turn out to be even higher, either because of future demand/supply imbalances or because of additional taxes on gasoline or carbon, electric cars, particularly BEVs, will have a significant net present cost advantage. We find that if the only issue were cost, government subsidies may not be needed past 2015. If oil prices decrease instead of increase, this will not be the case, but we believe that oil prices in 2015 will probably be measurably higher than those in 2010.

The only case where this scenario does not hold is if one assumes that consumers have a very high discount rate in calculating the value of the gasoline

costs avoided over the life of the electric car. Thus, the lifetime cost advantages that EV proponents extol may not be embraced by consumers who do not value savings beyond those that pay back in three years. Furthermore, some consumers do not retain their cars beyond three to five years, and thus lifetime cost benefits measured over ten years are not very meaningful to them. For these consumers, the trade-in value of EVs will be a key aspect of their decision-making process, and little data on EV trade-in values currently exists.

If the reader embraces the high discount rate scenario, then to sway large numbers of consumers to purchase them, either EVs will have to have a clear upfront (“sticker”) cost advantage over conventional cars, or gasoline prices will have to be closer to $6-$8 per gallon than $4.

Perhaps the biggest challenge facing electric cars is providing attributes—particularly range—that are equal to or superior to those of conventional vehicles. Consumers want to purchase new cars that provide comparable or superior attributes to their current (ICE) vehicles. Electric car manufacturers have worked very hard to achieve comparability in every area, save range. To eliminate this constraint completely, the industry must find new battery technologies that are lighter and less expensive and that can withstand harsh driving conditions; or the industry must make breakthroughs in lithium-ion technologies that most battery experts believe is improbable. The former may happen, but if it does, the new technologies are unlikely to be commercialized before 2018.

Alternatively, many urban-dwelling car buyers may discover that their range anxiety is irrational. While consumers in Nebraska and South Dakota will not rush to their local electric car dealer, those in New York, Washington, D.C., San Francisco, Baltimore, and Chicago may find that electric cars fit their needs well. This scenario may be even more realistic in Chinese and Indian cities than in the United States. The problem is that it is very difficult to change consumer habits and preferences. The consumer who drives 20 miles or fewer 340 days per year buys a vehicle not for 340 days, but for the

25 days that their family drives 100+ miles. Since these trips are often in the summer to more rural locations, the existence of charging stations at their work places or at their shopping mall parking lots may not resolve the problem.

A scenario like the one painted by the recent McKinsey report (in which urban dwellers aggressively purchase electric vehicles) is possible, but in our view, is unlikely, unless either gasoline prices are in the $5+ per gallon range and battery costs fall considerably, or the government aggressively restricts certain urban areas to electric cars only. A number of European cities already have travel restrictions in place, such as pedestrian-only downtown areas, or very high congestion or cordon pricing schemes, such as in London and Stockholm. It is not outside the realm of plausibility to see similar restrictions that favor electric vehicles, but again, they are much more likely to occur in Europe, China, and/or India than in the United States.

In summary, significant penetration of electric cars into the U.S. marketplace will only occur if the vehicles are competitive with conventional vehicles, not only on a cost basis, but also on an attribute basis. We believe that for this to occur, 1. gasoline prices will have to increase to or beyond $5 per gallon; 2. the government will have to accelerate such an increase by placing a price on those externalities—pollution, imported oil, or greenhouse gases—that it wishes to reduce, and 3. the industry must develop a battery technology that will permit electric cars to travel greater distances at lower costs, probably with aggressive government support in the research, development, and deployment of these new technologies.

A future in which electric cars play a significant role in the nation’s transportation system is not a pipe dream, but it will not happen without higher gasoline prices and a much stronger partnership between private industry, the federal government, and state and local government.

Read the full paper at :http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/21216/will_electric_cars_transform_the_us_vehicle_market.html

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OLIDCast simulates castings poured in cast iron, steel, aluminum, copper-base, magnesium, nickel-

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Optimization of casting process de-sign using SOLIDcast™ and HyperOpt®OPTICast™ is an amazing software tool that works in conjunction with the SOLIDCast™ solidification modeling system. OPTICast uses the HyperOpt® system from Altair Engineering, Inc., the leader in the field of optimization software.

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Constraints: Used to determine whether a particular design is acceptable. For example, the foundry engineer might specify a minimum acceptable yield percentage, or a maximum acceptable level of macroporosity.

The Objective Function: States what the foundry engineer is trying to achieve. Examples might be to maximize the yield, minimize shrinkage or minimize solidification time.

Once these elements are identified, the user then launches an Optimization Run. This consists of a series of simulations in which the design conditions are varied under the control of HyperOpt, model changes are made and simulation results are evaluated, all completely automatically, until the desired result is achieved.

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Feeding Zone Analysis for Riser Design



Phenomenal demand in India and China set to drive up hybrid car salesSales for hybrid cars may have started off slowly but due to improved models, government incentives and the escalating costs of petrol ownership, these fuel efficient cars is set to explode and will account for more than half of all vehicles sold by 2030, according to BP.

The phenomenal demand in India and China would drive up the number of cars worldwide from 1 billion to 1.6 billion by 2030 said the oil giant in its latest ‘energy outlook’ report.

Even though this is indicative of an increase of 60% in vehicle ownership, energy used by the world’s cars will only rise by 26% and hybrid ownership will grow to represent a third, an increase from 1%.

Even with projected efficiency gains from the transport sector, the oil giant warned that total worldwide energy usage will increase 39% by 2030, potentially putting global warming targets out of reach. Experts say global warming targets below 2 degrees Celsius could avoid the worst consequences of climate change.

Energy production will continue to be dominated by coal, oil and gas with each forecasted to account for approximately 30% of the total power produced in 2030.

China will have to import more than five times the amount of coal, oil and gas as it currently does having potentially huge geopolitical implications for China. India will need to bring in twice as much. In Europe, imports of oil and coal will remain near current levels, while natural gas imports will rise by about two-thirds.

BP said that meanwhile, the extraordinary growth of shale oil and gas production and widespread cultivation of biofuels in the US and tar sands developments in Canada, will transform North America from having a substantial energy deficit to a small surplus by 2030.

It sees energy generated from renewable sources, which here include

wind, solar and biofuels, but not hydropower, growing much faster than the traditional fossil fuels of oil, gas and coal.

BP forecasts that renewably generated energy will grow by 8.2% a year and, together with nuclear and hydro power, the non fossil fuel contribution will satisfy 34% of the additional energy demanded by 2030.

Ford increases its China capacity by a thirdFord Motor Co. has opened its third assembly plant in China, increasing the automaker’s manufacturing capacity in the country by a third to more than 600,000 vehicles annually. The $490 million (3.1 billion yuan) assembly plant, built by Ford’s joint venture with Changan Automobile Group Co., will produce the redesigned Focus sedan in southwest China’s city of Chongqing.

The production line at the new factory will be able to produce six different vehicle types.

Expansion in the world’s largest vehicle market is part of Ford’s push to increase annual global sales by 50 percent to 8 million vehicles by 2015 and have one-third of its deliveries in Asia by 2020. Ford plans to bring 15 new models to China by 2015.

Support for the Australian automotive industryRecent reports about the future of manufacturing and the automotive industry in Australia have been headlining the news.

Prime Minister Julia Gillard says that the Government is determined to secure a strong and sustainable future for manufacturing in this country.

Making vehicles is central to Australia’s manufacturing capability. The Government is providing $5.4 billion through the New Car Plan to support investment and innovation in the automotive industry.

A Manufacturing Taskforce has been

established, which will develop a vision for Australia to be an international leader in advanced manufacturing and map out the steps to achieve this. The Government has a clear plan to support the industry through to at least 2020.

Daimler and Beiqi Foton Motor Co Joint Venture Daimler’s commercial vehicle division will be a big player in the Chinese market for medium and heavy-duty trucks due to the Joint Venture called Beijing Foton Daimler Automotive Co., Ltd. (BFDA).

Daimler holds 50 percent stake in the medium- and heavy-duty truck business of Auman brand. The JV is an integral part of Daimler Trucks’ growth strategy.

The market’s volume has doubled over the last five years, and more than one million trucks are now being sold in this segment in China. Last year, China accounted for around 40% of total sales of medium- and heavy-duty trucks worldwide.

“Metals Science for Eco-industry” – TMETC5: The 5th Thailand Metallurgy ConferenceThe application of science to improve economic and ecological performance in the metals industry was the theme of the 5th Thailand Metallurgy Conference was held at the Miracle Grand Hotel in Bangkok, 19-20th January 2012. Due to the floods in Thailand the conference had to be postponed from its original October 2011 date but support remained strong and the event was attended by around 150 delegates mainly from industry and universities in Thailand. A total of sixty five oral papers were presented during sessions on applications & engineering practice, corrosion, metal processing, surface engineering and structure & properties, together with 24 poster displays. The event was organized by the Department of Materials & Production

BRIEFINGS



Technology Engineering, King Mongut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, and was well supported by ten industrial sponsors.

One of the keynote speakers, Dr. Paritud Bhandhubanyong who is Executive Director of the Technology Promotion Association (Thailand – Japan) focused on how R&D in surface treatment technology can contribute to sustainable manufacturing development

through improvements in the durability, life and cost efficiency of machines and equipment. The problems caused by corrosion, wear and early failure of components were the main topics for discussion in the paper and poster sessions.

During the conference awards were presented to the 2011 Metallurgist and Younger Metallurgist of the Year. The Metallurgist award went to Dr. Narong

Akkarapattanagoon who is in the School of Metallurgical Engineering at Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, while Dr. Panyawat Wangyao received the Younger Metallurgist award. Dr. Panyawat is now Head of the Metallurgical Engineering Dept. at Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok.

Due to the postponement the year 2012 will now see two Thailand Metallurgy conferences since it was decided to hold the 6th event in the series in Chiang Mai during late November/early December. The host for TMETC6 will be the Dept. of Industrial Chemistry at Chiang Mai University.

Indonesia - the next stop for TATA MotorsAutomobile giant TATA Motors has plans to start assembly of its successful ACE range of light commercial vehicles in Indonesia.

Speaking to The Hindu and Business Line in an interview, Mr PM Telang MD (India Operations) of TATA Motors said “We are looking at Indonesia quite seriously which in several ways is a replica of the Indian market.”

During the interview it was asked if it would be a full-scale manufacturing venture, Mr Telang said that “It is always step by step. Assembly is the first step. We do see local content ratio rising rapidly as ASEAN has good amount of component infrastructure. So we see good possibilities of growth.”

BRIEFINGS

Thailand Metallurgist of the Year 2011 - Dr. Narong with his award, congratulated by colleagues from Suranaree University of Technology, Dr. Tapany Udomphol (right) and Dr. Sakhob Khumkoa (left).

Thailand Younger Metallurgist of the Year 2011 – Dr. Panyawat with Dr. Ekasit Nisaratanaporn, Director of the Metallurgy & Materials Research Institute at Chulalongkorn University.

SUBSCRIPTION WINNERCongratulations to Maxwell Billman from Billmans Foundry in Victoria, Australia who is the winner of our Special Renewal Offer for March 2012 renewals. Maxwell will receive a complimentary one year subscription to the Metals magazine.

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Thai Technical Service Network Centre expands scopeThe Technical Service Network Centre (TSNC) project began during November 2008 as an initiative to provide a one stop shop for technical services to Thai industry. Since then the TSNC has been managed by the Iron & Steel Institute of Thailand (ISIT) with support from the Bureau of Supporting Industries Development (BSID). The services offered by TSNC are being expanded under BSID to include testing, analysis & measurement, calibration, product development, failure analysis & consulting and provision of seminars, training and materials information. (www.tsnc.in.th). To raise awareness of these wider services BSID organized a one-day seminar for industry on 27th January 2012 at the BSID complex in Bangkok. The seminar “Testing and Analysis for Material Problem Solving” covered structure and properties control, specifications, uses of patents and sources of technical information available to industry in Thailand. The leader of TSNC, Dr. Kriangyut Phiu-on, opened the programme with a presentation on “Properties important in materials selection”. A second seminar for industry on “Improvement and standardization of steel testing laboratories” is being held from 15-17th February 2012. This is organized by ISIT with support from JFE Techno-Research Corporation of Japan and the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade & Industry (METI). The aim of the seminar is to encourage improvements both in the technology and range of testing in analytical laboratories and test-houses serving the steel industry in Thailand.

Nissan expands its domestic sales outletsBy aggressively marketing popular models, Nissan Motor Co said that its aims to sell 8,000 cars in South Korea in 2012.

The sales target represents a 9.59% increase from the 7,300 cars it is expected to sell this year. Nissan will open dealerships in cities such as Daejeon and Jeonju, potentially expanding its domestic sales outlets to 16 as well as launching new vehicle models to enable the car maker to meet the goal.

It plans to introduce the new Altima midsize sedan, sell the limited edition of its Cube box type car and introduce several new Infinity vehicles in 2012. Nissan’s Cube and luxury brand Infinity are very popular in South Korea.

Hyundai Motor Co aims to increase domestic vehicle sales in 2012With imported cars expected to compete more aggressively for domestic market share South Korea’s largest carmaker, Hyundai Motor Co, is aiming to sell 700,000 vehicles in the domestic market in 2012, up by 2.4% YoY from 2011.

Hyundai controlled approximately 46% of the domestic market in 2011 with local sales of 683,570 units. Worldwide sales were up by 13% YoY with 4.06 million cars sold.

Hyundai’s smaller affiliate, Kia Motors Corporation, expects to increase its sales by around 1.4% to 500,000 units in 2012 from 493,000 in 2011. This target should allow it to hold onto its 33% market share in 2012 with new car sales predicted to reach 1.5 million units.

Economic uncertainty influences fluctuating aluminium pricesIncreasing economic concerns together with the euro debt crisis may keep the light metal under pressure in the first half of 2012. However, with a possible recovery in manufacturing and infrastructure sectors it is set to get support in the second half of 2012.

With the optimism of worldwide growth, prices increased in the first half of 2011 to a two year high of USD 2803 a tonne at

the London Metal Exchange, translating at INR 124.5 a kg on the Multi Commodity Exchange. However, with the decline in manufacturing and the euro zone crises aluminium failed to strengthen.

The metal market experienced paradigm shift of production centre as its output headed towards the eastern side of the globe due to rise in power costs leading to closures by smelters in the US and Europe. Alumina prices treaded higher during first half of 2011, even though Chinese and global production increased due to re-stocking activity. However, stocks in LME hit a record high above 4.71 million tonnes in May, backed by turbulence in Europe and the US which impacted the trend later in the year.

Mr Jayant Manglik president retail distribution of Religare Securities Ltd said that “However, China is set to adopt a path of monetary loosening policy in 2012 to avoid hard landing of its economy which may prop up prices coupled with the renewal in demand from Japan, once manufacturing activity recommences. The transportation sector will be the single largest end-use market for aluminum demand. Despite high inventories of aluminum in warehouses, the demand growth and looming supply issues in China may push prices northward in the second half of 2012.”

According to the World Bureau of Metal Statistics, global primary aluminum consumption rose 5.% YoY to 28.1 million tonnes between January to August 2011. Consumption in China during the first eight months of this year rose 6.2% while growth in Germany during the same period rose by a whopping 15%.

Due to problems in the manufacturing supply chain caused by the devastating earthquake and tsunmani which hit Japan in March 20, the nation is expected to slow down from its previous world consumption of 5%.

Despite a decline of 10.5% YoY between January and August 2011, India, who accounts for 4% of global aluminium demand is forecast to rise around 9% in 2012 and 2013.Manufacturers including Hindalco and Nalco are set to see a turnaround in sales in the second half of 2012.

Mr Naveen Mathur associate director of Angel Broking said that “Rising inventories coupled with a comfortable supply-side scenario is expected to act as a negative factor for aluminum in the coming year. But with improvement in the US economic scenario and expected decline in interest rates in China, sharp downside in prices will be cushioned in the second-half of the year.”

Thai Foundry Association surveys flood damage and recoveryThe effects of the 2011 flooding on foundries located in the flooded areas in Ayutthaya and Bangkok have been surveyed by the Thai Foundry Association (TFA). Of the 15 foundries in the survey only 6 were able to successfully prevent floodwater from entering their plants, 8 foundries suffered from severe flooding with water depths of 1 – 3 m, and just 1 foundry had mild

flooding with a depth of 0.5m. The survey did not include all the foundry and die-casting shops in the affected areas but it does give an indication of the extent of the damage suffered by the industry. During the crisis and the ongoing recovery period the TFA has acted as a centre to provide assistance, support and information to affected foundries and related businesses. Assistance has involved provision of lifting gear and transport to move heavy production machines and equipment, provision of temporary storage and production areas, provision of sand bags and water pumps, and helping foundries to find substitute producers so that they could continue to meet customer delivery requirements. The TFA have co-operated with Thai government organizations to inform foundries of assistance available and continue to provide information on recovery and refurbishment of plant and facilities. Of the 15 foundries in the survey only 1 company had not been able to re-start

full production by the end of January 2012. The accompanying photographs, courtesy of the TFA, show some production areas during the flood and how these have been successfully cleaned up afterwards reflecting the tremendous recovery efforts made by flood-affected companies to get back up and running.

The National Nanotechnology Centre of Thailand (NANOTEC) has also shown how nanotechnology can help in the clean up by developing nanotechnology based surface cleaning solutions for homes and factories. These solutions, developed in association with the Petroleum Authority of Thailand, consist of locally sourced bio-degradable materials and are more environmentally friendly than conventional cleaning solutions.

NANOTEC has also developed the nano-sack. N-sacks use hydrogel and nano-coatings to absorb water and act like large super-absorbent diapers as an alternative to sandbags for flood water barriers. ■

BRIEFINGS BRIEFINGS


Dr. Kriangyut introducing the role of TSNC at BSID seminar for industry

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18 www.metals.rala.com.au METAL Casting Technologies March 2012 19

Yet the non-ferrous metals industry is evolving more rapidly than ever — from old world operations to the utilization of new and more productive technology. Manufacturers need to stay ahead of these changes, and this is particularly important in Asia, where MorganMMS continues to accurately take the pulse of the marketplace in order to better meet the specific needs of our Asian customers. With requirements differing from country to country, it’s important that we’re prepared to support the Asian market’s current and future needs, while respecting varying political and cultural wishes.

An industry begging for innovation

In the final analysis, however, the key to improving a manufacturer’s efficiency and productivity is technology innovation. To that end, the MorganMMS Global Technology Team is driven by customer and market needs. Its focus is on new product development, testing advanced materials and the development of improved manufacturing processes. The team, working in conjunction with our customers and with industry and university partners

on a regional and global level, has been designing and implementing cutting edge advancements in geometrics, coatings, manufacturing and a wide array of forward-looking industry technologies, all driven by the need to ensure that products offer the best possible solution for the many applications that exist.

New and improved MorganMMS crucible brands are offering significant advantages in energy efficiency, higher thermal conductivity and other performance features that are critical to the melting process. A good example is our enhanced Z2 Syncarb crucible, a high pressure, isostatically pressed clay-graphite crucible. It is achieving optimal life when melting copper and copper alloys and in induction furnace applications, as well as demonstrating exceptional performance in zinc distillation operations, where a common mode of crucible failure is corrosive attack from the Zn vapors. For some applications, the Z2 has demonstrated four times the service life

compared to crucibles used previously. This enhanced performance is what customers are looking for today.

The proof is in performance

To illustrate, a major MorganMMS customer in China specializes in the production of zinc oxide. Their annual production levels of roughly 16,000 tons make them the largest zinc oxide producer in the country. More importantly, they have long been known for their customer response time and for a policy of “pursuing development through quality,” achieving these objectives, among other ways, by using some of the most advanced equipment in the industry.

In their production of zinc oxide, the company operates a large number of gas-fired furnaces, and recognizes that a significant contribution to their highly efficient and reliable operation comes from the utilization of MorganMMS cylinders. One of the primary reasons MorganMMS continues to be this customer’s manufacturer of choice is due to the MorganMMS cylinders having an average service life of 4 to 5 months compared to the performance of competitors, which typically max out at two months. It is this typical performance advantage combined with excellent thermal conductivity of its cylinders that make MorganMMS the leading supplier for this application in China and Asia.

Customer-friendly communications

We are working in a world of fast-paced information and often the need for fast decisions. It is more crucial than ever that cutting edge technology be applied to improved communications as well, not only

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from an informational perspective, but with its ability to simplify the customer service process.

For example, with a growing reliance on the Internet, it becomes critical that websites in our industry evolve into more user-friendly environments for customers. MorganMMS has taken this a step further by developing and implementing a first-of-its-kind website for the foundry industry, offering customers the opportunity to quickly match their specific melting needs with the precise crucible for their melting application. Using the site’s new product application selector, customers confirm what they are melting and the particular method they are using, which in turn enables them to view crucible brands that work best with that process. They can then move on to the product search engine and immediately identify the best solution for their application. Customers can then request a quote on line, with MorganMMS Sales and Customer Service teams quickly responding.

Major industry players like MorganMMS

need to provide customers with a full range of high-end technical services in order to help them achieve optimum casting performance. The future of our industry appears bright for those manufacturing companies committed to energy efficiency, technology innovation

and the continuing improvement of product performance.

Global competition is tough. In this era of the customer, those suppliers who best respond with improved product performance and customer support will thrive.

For more information about MorganMMS or metal casting trends,

contact Didier Finck at [email protected] , or visit morganmms.com

With more than 150 years experience and a significant presence around the globe,

MorganMMS is considered a worldwide leader in the manufacture and servicing of crucibles to

non-ferrous metals operations, a segment of the metals market displaying dramatic growth.

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With leadership comes responsibility... for innovation and for creating solutions. Morgan Molten Metal Systems has been the industry leader for over 150 years, working closely with customers to develop new systems for non-ferrous melting applications.

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Methods Engineering Ferro Alloys Moulding & Core Making

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Technical Support Equipment & Services

Melting Consumables

Postal: PO Box 7, Grange Qld 4051Offices: 275 Toombul Rd, Northgate Qld 4013

T: +61 7 3266 6266 F: +61 7 3266 6366 E: [email protected]

Branches located in: Brisbane Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide & Perth.

NZ Distributors: Metcast Services Limited. Auckland NZ

SORELMETAL® High Purity Pig Iron:• Australian agents for SorelMetal High Purity

Pig Iron Produced by Richards Bay Iron and Titanium Pty Ltd in South Africa

Refractories:• CMS manufactures a selected range of

premium grade Castables, Ramming Materials, Mortars etc. developed to suit our customer’s Specifications and applications.

• Mayerton Refractories UK. Australasian Agent (Furnace & Ladle Refractory Bricks)

• Unifrax, Ceramic Fibre Products Insertec Refractories – Spain. Australasian Agent (Acid Induction Furnace Linings)

• Other agencies are held and combined with our own manufacture of high integrity Refractories and Pre-cast shapes, a complete range of refractory products are available to customers.

• Services include specification, installation and supply for Foundry EAF. Induction and Heat Treatment Furnaces and Ladles.

Refractory Hollowware:• Mayerton Refractories – UK. Australasian

Distributors (Highest Quality Ceramic hollowware)

Insulating Riser TilesFoundry Equipment:• Omega Foundry Equipment UK. Australian

Distributors• A1 Roper UK. Ladles and accessories –

Australian distributors• Whiting Equipment Canada Inc. Electric Arc

Furnaces & metallurgical Equipment• PowerHammer Riser removal equipment -

Australian AgentFerro Alloys:• A complete range of Ferro Alloys, Pig Iron

& Metals available from stocks held in all mainland states

Nodulants & Inoculants:• Elkem a/s Norway. Exclusive Australian

Agent• Services include Charge calculations,

melting procedures etc., for all Steels and Grey and Nodular Irons.

Nickel:• Stocks held in all Australian states Indium: • Australian Agent for Indium Corporation of

AmericaRecarburiser:• L.D.I. China – Graphite, GPC & Calcined

Anthracite – Exclusive Australian AgentOxy Lance Pipes:• Shinto Japan – Australian/NZ agentCeramic Foam Filters:• CMS supply the full range of Jinan quality

ceramic foam filtersSlag Coagulant:• Castkleen A from Chillagoe Perlite –Australian distributorsMoulding Sands:• Southern Pacific Sands. Exclusive Foundry

distribution of local Silica Moulding Sands• Premium grade Zircon Sand Australian

distributors for Illuka & CRL• Chromite and Olivine SandsBentonite:• Unimin, Trubond Bentonite – Qld distributorsSand Additives:• Anti-veining additives such as SphereOXIron Oxide and Woodflour, Cereals andCoal DustSand Binders:• Alkaline Phenolic Resin Binders– Australian distributors• HAA Cold Box Binders – Qld distributors• Jinan Shengquan High Reactivity Furansand binders – Australian distributors• CMS sell a full range of Furan resins andhardeners• and manufacture a complete range ofCatalysts for Sodium Silicate and FuranSystems

Mould Coatings:• CMS manufacture a full range of Foundry

Mould Coatings, in water and Solvent suspensions and dry powder blends based on Zircon, Graphite, Magnesite, Olivine and Alumina.

• Manufacture extends into Adhesives, sand additives, and release agents etc to provide a full range of consumables for foundry moulding systems.

Methoding Software:• NovaCast AB, Sweden (Exclusive

distributors in Australia & New Zealand)• CMS provide a comprehensive methoding

service and staff training to all Customers including the Auto companies, the major steel and iron foundries throughout Australia and New Zealand.

• We use and sell Novacast Software for the heaviest section steel castings.

Refractory Support:• John Shannon, Peter Stafford and Gary

Bryde technically service all refractory applications including EAF/LF, Induction Furnaces, Ladle Linings, bottom pour ladle systems, Launders etc. CMSspecify, supervise and assist with refractory installations, whilst training foundry personnel, providing them with documented installation and operating procedures.

Other products include:• Steel Shot. Graphite Electrodes, Resin

Coated Sands.• Local fabrication of Melt out Formers for

Induction Furnaces,• Continuous Sand Mixer Spares and a

complete range of Foundry Chaplets, Sprigs and Chills.

• Patternmaking Supplies- CMS is the largest supplier/stockist in Australia and provides full Technical support.

TECHNICAL SALES AND SERVICES – CONTACTS

QLD• JOHN SAAD General Manager• GLENN PEARCY Trading Manager Business Development• STEVE HALL Sales and Operations Manager• PAUL SLOMAN Qld Regional Sales Manager• PETER STAFFORD Metallurgist – Foundry Engineer• MARK DAWSON Metallurgist – Methods Engineer• JOHN SHANNON Technical Manager Refractories

NSW• PAUL GALLOVICH NSW Regional Sales Manager• STEVE HARMON - National Sales Manager Steel Works & Smelters• GARY BRYDE Chemist – Refractories Engineer• MICK NOLAN Product Development Manager

VICTORIA• WOLFGANG MAIER VIC Regional Sales Manager

SOUTH AUSTRALIA• PETER Di ROSA SA Regional Sales Manager

WESTERN AUSTRALIA• IAN MOUNTFORD WA Regional Sales Manager

UNITED KINGDOM• BRIAN BLAIR UK Regional Sales Manager

HEAD OFFICE• Postal: PO Box 7, Grange Qld 4051• Offices: 275 Toombul Rd, Northgate Qld 4013• T: +61 7 3266 6266 F: +61 7 3266 6366 • E: [email protected]• Branches located in: Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide & Perth. • NZ Distributors: Metcast Services Limited. Auckland NZ



PRODUCTS & SERVICES


TECHNICAL FEATURE

Introductionn producing reliable aluminium alloy die-castings sufficient attention must be given to the quality of ingot and returns in charge materials, melting and the

treatment and handling of liquid metal before casting. Damaging defects must be prevented by removing dissolved hydrogen and by avoiding oxide films and entrapped air. Many smaller die-casting shops do not evaluate the quality of molten metal correctly and most do not make use of a standard die to study how their melting variables and process conditions can affect casting quality.

This short article outlines the use of a ring test die-casting designed for SME die-casters in Thailand. The aim is to encourage the smaller companies to improve their liquid metal preparation and to help them to understand the importance of correct shot sleeve casting conditions. The work described here examines how hydrogen levels and casting conditions can affect variation in mechanical properties.

Experimental detailCorrect melting and efficient effective liquid metal treatment will provide good quality molten aluminium but this effort is wasted if it is followed by unsuitable casting conditions. Hence two characteristics were selected to demonstrate this interaction:● Hydrogen content to represent the quality of liquid metal ● Shot sleeve conditions (slow speed, fast speed and switching

point) to represent the casting condition.The alloy used was DC12 (JIS H 5302 / Rev 2006), the

composition (in wt%) of which is given in Table 1. The experimental work was carried out in two phases. In

the first, the shot sleeve conditions were set up using foundry experience. In the second phase casting simulation was used to determine the shot sleeve conditions. In each case the degassing procedure was the same. For melting a conventional gas burner furnace was used. Liquid metal treatment involved conventional cleaning flux and the use of nitrogen gas flow introduced via a stainless steel lance. In each case the hydrogen content of the

Use of a die-casting ring test piece to study aluminium alloy melt qualityBy Supparit Lounksonchai, Julathep Kajornchaiyakul & John Pearce

I

Elements Cu Si Mg Zn Fe Mn Ni Al

Alloy used 1.747 11.630 0.24 0.676 0.851 0.26 0.028 remainder

JIS H 5302 1.5-3.5 9.6-12.0 max 0.3 max 1.0 max 1.3 max 0.5 max 0.5 remainder

Table 1. Composition of alloy (in wt%).

Condition 1 (No simulation) Condition 2 (Use of simulation)

Distance (mm.) Velocity (m/s) Distance (mm.) Velocity (m/s)

0 0 0 0

30 0.3 30 0.135

169 0.3 120 0.268

175 3.5 169 0.268

300 3.5 175 2.689

300 2.689

Table 2. Shot sleeve conditions for testing.

liquid was determined by Reduced Pressure Testing just before casting. The ring test pieces were produced in company on a 135 tonne die casting machine. Tensile strengths (kN/mm2) of the ring test pieces (see Figure 1) were determined using the testing arrangement shown in Figure 2.

ResultsFrom the first phase using experience to set up the casting conditions, as shown in Table 3 the average tensile strengths of the ring parts for three different levels of hydrogen (three different molten treatment methods) are similar at about 0.22 – 0.23 kN/mm2. However application of Weibull Distribution Analysis showed that reducing the hydrogen content of the melt reduces the variation in mechanical strength with Weibull Modulus increasing as the gas content is reduced. The less the variation in mechanical properties, the higher is the Weibull Modulus.

In the second phase, casting simulation was used to determine the shot sleeve conditions (Table 2).

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Figure 1. Test piece and die-set.

Figure 2. Diagram and views of testing equipment



TECHNICAL FEATURE

This condition was validated and the results are shown in Figure 3. Further experimental work examined the interaction between the amount of gas in the supplied liquid metal and shot sleeve conditions for four sets of castings. The results of this work are listed in Table 4. The Weibull plots are all shown for comparison in Figure 4.

DiscussionIn the first phase it was found that improving the quality of molten aluminium as represented by reduced H content reduces variation in mechanical strength as indicated by increasing Weibull Modulus. In the second phase the interaction between hydrogen content in the molten aluminium and shot sleeve casting conditions was examined. Casting condition 1, decided by experience, gave rise to air entrapment in the shot sleeve, and resulted in incomplete biscuit sections containing gas porosity. Casting condition 2, set up following simulation, did not give rise to air entrapment in the shot sleeve and gave satisfactory biscuit

sections on the casting. As seen in Table 4, there is not much difference between the average strength levels for each run, but the Weibull Modulus and standard error depend on H level and shot condition.

The results in Table 4 show that in Run 1 the lowest value for Weibull Modulus reflected low quality liquid metal (no treatment and casting condition 1) giving wider variation in the measured strengths of the ring parts. For the same shot condition in Run 4 degassing treatment increased the Modulus by 21% up to 11.51 but the unsuitable shot sleeve condition still gives extra variation as indicated by the higher value of standard error. In Run 3 when the melt treatment is correct with good shot sleeve condition, consistency is improved with a high Weibull Modulus and low standard error. Run 2 provides a reminder that, even when simulation is used to set up the good shot sleeve condition, if inadequately degassed metal is used a lower Weibull Modulus and a higher standard error will result, i.e. the castings will be less consistent than they could be.

Run No. Treatment Shot Sleeve

Conditions

Hydrogen Content (ml/100 g. Al)

Avg. Strength (kN/mm2)

Weibull Modulus

Standard Error

1 No 1 0.90 0.22 9.47 0.37

2 No 2 0.98 0.23 10.47 0.27

3 Yes 2 0.43 0.24 11.05 0.16

4 Yes 1 0.45 0.25 11.51 0.41Table 4. The summary results in the second phase.

Figure 3. Comparison of condition 1 (shot conditions by experience) with condition 2 (shot conditions set up by simulation) as listed in Table 2. Condition 1 gave air entrapment in the shot sleeve and the biscuit sections at the top of the ring did not fill properly and contained gas porosity.

Figure 4. Summary of Weibull Analysis. Bad parameter refers to condition 1 (no simulation), good parameter to condition 2 (set up following simulation).

Concluding remarksIn producing aluminium die-castings this work shows that for consistent quality castings both liquid metal quality and shot sleeve conditions must be correctly controlled. Application of Weibull distribution analysis has shown that even if the supplied liquid metal is correctly treated the resultant die-castings will have inferior and more variable mechanical properties if shot sleeve conditions give rise to unfavorable metal flow. Likewise, without good liquid metal treatment, die-cast parts will be inferior even when simulation is used to set up shot sleeve conditions that provide satisfactory liquid metal flow. It reminds foundries that no matter how clean the liquid metal high integrity die-cast parts cannot be produced if the process set up results in unsuitable flow into the die.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank the Thai-German Institute, Thailand for financial support. Thanks are due to the MTEC casting group for assistance with the in-company experimental work. ■

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Supparit Lounkonchai obtained a B.Eng. in Production Engineering from King Mongut’s University of Technology Thonburi in 1996 and then was awarded a Master of Engineering in Materials Technology from the same university in 2001. His thesis was on “Design of Gating and Riser Systems for Aluminium

Casting”. Following experience in industry at Siam Kubota Industry he is now a research & development engineer in the Design & Engineering Research Unit at MTEC – the National Metals & Materials Technology Centre in Thailand. He is currently serving as a Vice-President of the Thai Foundry Association.

Dr Julathep Kajornchaiyakul graduated in 1992 with a B.Eng. in Metallurgical Engineering from Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. He then undertook post-graduate studies in the US obtaining his M.Sc. in “Mechanical Metallurgy: Deformation Processing of Metals” from the Colorado School of Mines, Golden

in 1996, and his Ph.D. in “Brittle Materials Manufacturing: Abrasive Machining & Processing” at University of Connecticut in Storrs CT in June 2000. Since September 2000 he has been working as a R&D Engineer at MTEC – the National Metal and Materials Technology Center under the National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) of Thailand. He is now a Senior Researcher in the Design & Engineering Research Unit at MTEC working mainly on Foundry Engineering and Aluminium Processing. He is the current Chairperson of the Aluminium Technology Forum of Thailand and a Vice President of the Thai Foundry Association (former Thai Foundrymen’s Society). He is also a member of the Technical Committee of the Federation of Thai Industry’s Clustering Development Board relating to Machinery and Metallurgical Industries.

Test Run

Hydrogen Content (ml/100g. Al)

Avg. Strength (kN/mm2)

Weibull Modulus

1 0.20 0.22 19.11

2 0.24 0.22 15.53

3 0.29 0.23 13.85Table 3. Results of the first phase experiment


TECHNICAL FEATURE

IntroductioniC particle reinforced aluminum matrix composites are being developed over the past two

decades, as they exhibit improved elastic modulus, yield and tensile strength and wear resistance and lower coefficient of thermal expansion in comparison to monolithic Al alloys [1-6]. The improved wear resistance is a significant property of these composites containing hard and abrasion resistant SiC particles, which can not be developed by other means for such soft alloys. Other group of Al matrix composites with graphite particles has also been developed in parallel for improving wear resistance, although by a different mechanism altogether [7-10]. The graphite particles are well known solid lubricants. Hence existence of such particles in Al matrix also improves the wear resistance of these materials, although there are conflicting results reported in the literature about the effect of graphite particles present in Al alloy matrix on the wear behavior of the composites. Relatively less work has been carried out on the wear behavior of Al matrix SiC and graphite particle hybrid composites [11-13]. The objective of the present work is to study the effect of addition of graphite particles on the mechanical properties of Al matrix – SiC particle reinforced composites.

Experimental procedureMaterialsa) Alloy: The grade of the base Al alloy was C355.0 having the

composition as shown in Table 1. b) Reinforcements:

i) SiC particles (<150 μm)ii) Graphite particles (90-125 μm)

Microstructure and properties of cast Al-siC-graphite hybrid particle composites*

Pankaj Kumar 1, Surya P. Prabhakar 1 and P. C. Maity 2

1 Ex-student of B. Tech. (Metallurgical and Materials Engineering), National Institute of Foundry andForge Technology, Ranchi, India, 2 Metal Casting and Materials Engineer

S

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the experimental set up for the production of the composites.

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Element Cu Si Mg Al

Wt % 5.0 1.5 1.6 Balance

Table 1. Nominal composition of the base Al alloy

Production of composites The method of production of the composites is same as that described elsewhere [14-16] except with minor modification to avoid flying away of the particles during its addition into the Al alloy melt. To produce the composites, the Al alloy was melted in a resistance furnace. The required amount of SiC/graphite particles were packed in a consumable Al tube and the tube was slowly pushed into the liquid Al alloy at 720oC stirred with a graphite impeller driven by a motor at 1200 rpm. After complete addition of the particles, the composite /alloy melts were poured into preheated (200-300oC) graphite moulds of 12 and 15 mm dia. The particle content of the composites is listed in Table 2. The base alloy was also cast for comparison of properties.

A

C

B

D

Figure 2. Optical Micrographs of (a) Base Al Alloy (b) Composite No.1 (c) Composite No.2 and (d) Composite No.3 at Magnification 100 ×.

Composite No. SiC Particles (Wt%)

Graphite Particles (Wt%)

0 - -

1 15.00 -

2 13.33 1.66

3 12.00 3.00

Table 2. Content of SiC and graphite particles in thecomposites


TECHNICAL FEATURE

are presented in Table 4. It is observed that the wear resistance of Al-SiC particle composite is only marginally better than that of the base alloy. This result conforms to the trend in hardness data, as the beneficial effect of SiC particles in the matrix is balanced by the harmful effect of porosity. It is significant to notice that the wear resistance of hybrid composite with less graphite particles is best. Both SiC and graphite particles are expected to improve wear resistance of Al alloy by two different mechanisms. SiC particles are hard and abrasion resistant, whereas graphite particles are solid lubricant. Therefore the dispersion of both types of particles in the matrix at an optimum level has imparted combined effect to improve the wear resistance to a maximum level. Similar improvement in wear resistance of Al-SiC-graphite hybrid composites has been reported in other works [11-13]. With higher wt % of graphite particles in the composite, the wear resistance has reduced due to much softness of the particles and higher porosity (Table 4).

Alloy/ Composite No.

Weight Loss (g × 10-4) at Sliding Distance (m)

125 250 375 500 625

0 3 10 16 21 30

1 2 9 16 20 26

2 1 2 7 10 12

3 8 15 24 35 48Table 4. Wear of the Base Alloy / Composites

ConclusionsMost of the research on Al alloy based particle composites for wear resistant applications are on Al-SiC, Al-Al2O3 and Al-graphite particle composites. The present work on Al-SiC-graphite hybrid particle composites show that the wear resistance of Al-SiC particles can be improved further by addition of graphite particles to these composites. However, the content and proportion of the two types of the particles are to be optimized by further investigations. ■

Specimens for metallography were taken from the castings and polished in a conventional manner. The specimens were observed in unetched condition under optical microscope for distribution of particles and porosity.

Evaluation of physical and mechanical propertiesThe density of the composites was measured by method of water displacement. Hardness of the base alloy and the composites was measured in a Brinell hardness testing machine with 500 kg load and 5 mm steel ball indenter

To evaluate the wear resistance of the composites and the base alloy, pin-on-disc type wear testing machine (Cameron Plint Tribology Ltd, UK) was used under dry sliding condition. Cylindrical test specimens of 7.95 mm dia., 53 mm length were pressed over a steel disc at 1 bar pressure over 80 mm test track and the specimens slided over the disc at a sliding velocity of 2512 cm/min. The weight loss of the specimens was measured at an interval of 125 m sliding distance.

Results and discussionThe optical micrographs of the base alloy and the composites are shown in Fig. 2 (a) to (d). The SiC particles are uniformly distributed in the matrix. In case of hybrid composites, the SiC particles are relatively coarser and the finer graphite particles are distributed around the SiC particles. This type of well distribution was achieved by taking care during the production stage of the composites. Before addition of the particles into the Al alloy melt, the two types of the particles were not mixed. Rather, the graphite particles were added into the melt first, since the graphite particles have lower wettability by Al melt and the density of the graphite particles is lower than that of SiC. After complete addition of the graphite particles, the SiC particles were incorporated. By this approach, the particles were uniformly distributed in the matrix and the graphite particles were not attached to the coarser SiC particles.

The density of the base alloy and the composites are presented in Table 3. The density of the base alloy is 2.6g/cc. Due to incorporation of SiC particles of higher density (3.2 g/cc), the density of the Al-SiC composite is higher (2.605 g/cc). On the

other hand, the density of the hybrid composites is lower, as the density of graphite is even lower than that of the base alloy (2.4 g/cc). Additional factor that has reduced the density of the hybrid composites is the presence of porosity in the matrix. The composites in the present work have been produced by vortex method, where the chance of incorporation of air along with the particles is very high. The entrapped air exists in the matrix as porosity. The graphite particles are porous and relatively less wettable by liquid Al than SiC. Hence on incorporation of these particles into Al melt, the air inside these pores expand in volume and get mixed with the melt Higher porosity has also contributed to the lower density of the hybrid composites.

Composite No. Density (g/cc) Hardness (BHN)

0 2.600 104

1 2.604 104

2 2.528 72

3 2.440 53Table 3. Density and Hardness of the Base Alloy and the Composites

The hardness of the base alloy and the composites are presented in Table 3. The hardness of the base alloy and the Al-SiC particle composite are same. It has been reported that the Al-SiC particles composites possess higher hardness than base Al alloy due to much higher hardness of SiC particles than Al alloy. From the hardness data of the base alloy and the Al-SiC particle composite, it can be inferred that the improvement in hardness of the composite due to SiC particle hardening is equal to the deterioration of hardness of the composite due to existence of porosity in the matrix. In case of hybrid composites, the hardness has reduced gradually with the increase in wt % of graphite particles. As discussed earlier, the porosity is higher in composites with graphite particles. Moreover, the graphite particles are softer than Al alloy and the particle-matrix bonding is poorer than SiC. Hence the hardness of the hybrid composites has decreased gradually with the increase in wt % of graphite particles.

The wear loss data of the base alloy and the composites

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REFERENCES

1) D. L. Davidson, Metallurgical Transactions, Vol.22A (1991) pp.113-123.

2) B. K. Prasad and T. K. Dan, Journal of Materials Science Letters, Vol.10 (1991) pp.1412-1414.

3) G. Ramani, R. M. Pillai, B. C. Pai and K. G. Satyanarayana, Journal of Materials Science Letters, Vol.12 (1993) pp.1117-1119.

4) J. Zhang, R. J. Perez and E. J. Lavernia, Acta Metallurgica et Materialia, Vol.42 (1994) pp.395-409.

5) R. Gùrler, Journal of Materials Science Letters, Vol.18 (1999) pp.553-554.

6) R. A. Saravanan, J. M. Lee and S. B. Kang, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, Vol.30A (1999) pp.2523-2538.

7) M. Gui, S. B. Kang and J. M. Lee, Journal of Materials Science, Vol. 35 (2000) pp.4749-4762.

8) S. Das, S. V. Prasad and T. R. Ramachandran, Materials science and Engineering, Vol.A138 (1991) pp.123-132.

9) N. saka, N. K. Szeto and T. Erturk, Wear, Vol.157 (1992) pp.339-359.

10) P. K. Rohatgi, S. Ray and Y. Liu, International Materials Review, Vol.37 (1992) pp.129-148.

11) W. Amesand A. T. Alpas, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions, Vol.26A (1995) pp.85-98.

12) S. Suresha and B. K. Sridhara, Materials and Design, Vol.31 (2010) pp.1804-1812.

13) S. Suresha and B. K. Sridhara, Materials and Design, Vol.31 (2010) pp.4470-4477.

14) P. C. Maity, S. C. Panigrahi and P. N. Chakraborty, Scripta Metallurgica et. Materialia, Vol. 28 (1993) pp. 549-552.

15) P. C. Maity, S. C. Panigrahi and P. N. Chakraborty, Materials Letters, Vol. 20 (1994) pp.93-97.

16) P.C. Maity, S.C. Panigrahi and P.N. Chakraborty, Journal of Materials Science, Vol.31, (1996) pp. 6377-6382.

AFTER COMPLETE ADDITION OF THE GRAPHITE PARTICLES, THE SiC PARTICLES WERE INCORPORATED. BY THIS APPROACH, THE PARTICLES WERE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED IN THE MATRIX AND THE GRAPHITE PARTICLES WERE NOT ATTACHED TO THE COARSER SIC PARTICLES.


EVENTS

The 13th World Conference on Investment CastingWhen: 15-18 April 2012Where: Kyoto International Conference Center – JapanSummary: The 13th World Conference on Investment Casting will be co-hosted by Japan Foundry Society Inc. (JFS), European Investment Casters’ Federation Society (EICF), Investment Casting Institute (ICI), and Cast Metals Federation (CMF). We hope that this conference will receive many participants that are the makers, the suppliers and the end users of investment casting all over the world.Web: http://www.foundry.jp/wcic/index_e.html

Metal Metallurgy China 2012When: 9-12 MayWhere: China International Exhibition Center (New Venue), Beijing – ChinaSummary: China has become the most important engine for global economic growth. Foreign investors are showing a great interest in the Chinese market. China absorbed over $100 billion overseas investments in 2010. Beijing’s international influence also levelled and attracted over $6.3 billion in overseas funds. In 2011, China kicked off its Five-Year Plan (2011-2015). One of its targets is to speed up the construction & renovation of high speed rail networks, expressways, power grid and reservoir & irrigation systems. Great emphasis will be put on, and strict measures will be adopted for environmental protection, energy & resources saving, low carbon generation and scrap metal recycling to maintain the sustainable development of the metal and metallurgy industry and the whole economy at large. Take part in Metal + Metallurgy China 2012, and take advantage of this ideal platform to achieve greater Chinese market penetration.MCT is proud to be an official sponsor of Metal Metallurgy China 2012.Web: http://www.mm-china.com

ALUMINIUM CHINAWhen: 6-8 June 2012Where: SNIEC- Shanghai, New International Expo Centre – Shanghai, ChinaSummary: The international meeting place for producers, processors, suppliers of technologies, buyers, designers and engineers from the entire aluminium industry. The Yangtze River Delta region and Shanghai in particular, is a location where a huge number of aluminium consumers converge. At the 2011 event, 11,282 visitors attended.Web: http://www.aluminiumchina.com/en/home/

Techno 4When: 8-10 June 2012Where: CODISSIA Trade Fair Complex – Coimbatore, IndiaSummary: Technology gets a focused platform for the 2nd time at Techno 4. Covering four varied sectors of the engineering industry including foundry, medium & light engineering, motors & rotating devices, ancillary equipments for pumps & valves. Techno 4 has become a major happening trade fair for the focussed sectors and is growing to be bigger and better with each hosting.Web: http://www.techno4india.com/index.html

13th China (Guangzhou) Die Casting Foundry & Industrial Furnace ExhibitionWhen: 19-21 June 2012Where: China Import & Export Fair Pazhou Complex - Guangzhou, ChinaSummary: China (Guangzhou) Die Casting Foundry & Industrial Furnace Exhibition will provide efficient, multi-faceted exchanges and cooperation platforms for business interaction.Email: [email protected]

FLOW-3d European Users ConferenceWhen: 25-26 June 2012Where: NH Muenchen Deutscher Kaiser - Munich, GermanySummary: The conference is open to FLOW-3D, FLOW-3D Cast and FLOW-3D/MP users and other persons throughout Europe who are interested in FLOW-3D. The meeting will feature user presentations from a variety of industrial and research applications as well as the latest developments for FLOW-3D presented by Flow Science representatives. Free advanced training geared towards hydraulics and casting users will be offered Wednesday, June 27, 2012 at the Technische Universität München. Web: http://www.flow3d.com/events/euc/12-flow-3d- european-users-conference.html

AMTS – Automotive, Manufacturing, Technology & Materials ShowWhen: 22-24 August 2012Where: Shanghai New International Expo Center – Shanghai, ChinaSummary: The leading regional trade fair for Automotive Manufacturing Technology, assemblies and production technologies. Leading specialists discuss the industry’s most important topics – future knowledge directly from the source.Web: http://www.shanghaiamts.com/en/index.asp

ALUMINIUM INDIAWhen: 3-5 October 2012Where: Bombay Exhibition Centre - Mumbai, IndiaSummary: The Indian market for aluminium is booming and is forecasting further growth in coming years. With Indian producers expanding their capacities, new players entering and the current increasing demand for high quality products the Indian industry is gearing up to adopt state of the art technology & latest equipments to meet quality challenges.Web: www.aluminium-messe.com/aluminium_india _131.html

ALUMINIUM 2012When: 9-11 October 2012Where: Messe Düsseldorf - GermanySummary: ALUMINIUM is the world’s leading trade show and B2B-meeting place for the aluminium industry. It brings together high-calibre buyers, manufacturers, processors and suppliers. In Düsseldorf innovative products, the latest technology and services from primary aluminium production to semi-finished and finished products will be showcased.Web: http://www.aluminium-messe.com

National AFI Conference 2012When: 21-25 October 2012Where: Crowne Plaza – Coogee, Sydney – AustraliaSummary: Trade Displays and general sponsorship will be available. Floor plans are currently being drawn up. The committee will be in touch with perspective exhibitors and sponsors in the coming months. Topics up for discussion include: Foundry Management issues, Government & regulatory issues, Employment and training, Carbon Tax. More information will be available in the coming months.Web: A Facebook site has been set up so you can “Follow us at Foundry Business”. Email: [email protected] ■

MCT is proud to be offi cial sponsor of Metal + Metallurgy China 2012

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Ductile iron gradesuctile iron is not a single material but is part of a group of materials which can be produced to have a wide range of properties through control of the

microstructure. The common defining characteristic of this group of materials is the graphite morphology. In ductile irons the graphite is in the form of spherical nodules rather than flakes (as in grey iron), thus inhibiting the creation of cracks and providing the enhanced ductility that gives the alloy its name. The formation of nodules is achieved by addition of nodularising elements, most commonly magnesium into the melt.

Besides the requirement that the graphite be in a spheroidal form, the ferrite and pearlite ratios can be controlled through alloying, cooling rate control or post-casting heat treatment to vary the relative amounts pearlite and ferrite from 0% pearlite and 100% ferrite, to 100% pearlite and 0% ferrite. The control of the pearlite and ferrite ratio manipulates the tensile, yield and elongation characteristics of the ductile iron to produce numerous standard grades of the material. Figure 1 shows the microstructure of a predominantly pearlitic grade of ductile iron and figure 2 shows the microstructure of a ferritic ductile iron.

Primary elements in ductile IronThe primary elements in ductile irons are generally considered to be carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorous, sulphur and magnesium.

CarbonWhile the carbon content in commercial ductile iron ranges from less than 3% to over 4%, it is more common for carbon to be within a range of 3.4% and 3.9%. As a general rule, the carbon equivalent has little effect on the mechanical properties of ductile iron. For this reason there is a tendency to use high carbon equivalent irons since this improves fluidity and reduces shrinkage tendency.

A combination of high carbon content and low solidification cooling rate can result in graphite floatation and the presence of degenerate graphite. For these reasons, it is necessary to adjust carbon equivalent according to section size. For thin sections (less than 12mm) a carbon equivalent of 4.6% is recommended, for intermediate sections (12 to 40mm) a carbon equivalent of 4.45% may be more appropriate whilst for heavy sections (greater than 50mm) it may be necessary to limit carbon equivalent to 4.3%.

SiliconTypical silicon contents in ductile irons range from 1.80% to 2.80% although there are applications for lower and substantially higher levels. Some oxidation resistant alloys contain up to 6% silicon.

Silicon is a potent graphitiser, decreasing the stability of eutectic and pearlitic carbide. Silicon hardens and strengthens ferrite particularly in the annealed condition.

A potential adverse effect of increasing silicon in ferritic ductile irons is the raising of the ductile brittle impact transition temperature. For the low-temperature impact grades silicon contents are generally kept within a range of 1.7% to 2.2%.

ManganeseManganese is a pearlite stabilising element; however, it is also a moderately strong carbide promoter tending to form chill carbides in thin sections and intercellular carbides in heavy sections.

In as-cast ferritic grades and thin sections in any grade, it is preferable to maintain manganese below about 0.2%. Higher levels may be tolerated in heavier section pearlitic grades.

PhosphorusWhilst phosphorus must be considered as an undesirable element, it is present in most charge materials used in ductile iron production. The element forms a low melting point iron phosphide which segregates to cell boundaries resulting in deterioration in elongation and impact properties. It may also cause an increase in porosity.

Sulphur and magnesiumWhen magnesium is added to molten iron it acts to deoxidize and desulphurise the melt thereafter cause the graphite to precipitate and grow in a spheroidal form. If the base iron and treatment are not properly controlled, excessive oxygen and/or sulphur can consume the magnesium leaving an insufficient residual to spheroidise the graphite.

Excessively high magnesium contents tend to promote carbides.Since sulphur readily combines with magnesium it has no effect

on the matrix structure, however, high levels in the base iron are undesirable since magnesium yield is reduced.

Common alloying elements in ductile ironDuctile iron is commonly alloyed at moderate levels for:● Promotion of pearlite● Enhancing elevated temperature properties

Pearlite promoting elementsPearlite promoting elements generally work by one of two fundamentally different mechanisms. One mechanism is by

segregation of certain elements to the graphite/matrix phase boundary during solidification. These elements effectively act as barriers which inhibit diffusion of carbon from the matrix to the graphite spheroid. The second mechanism is by retarding the onset of the eutectoid transformation and decreasing the rate of diffusion of carbon in ferrite.

Most trace elements found in ductile irons have some pearlite stabilising effect, the potency of eight common elements are ranked in decreasing order in the following table.

Element Relative pearlite promoting effect

Sn 39.00

Mo 7.90

P 5.60

Cu 4.90

Ti 4.40

Mn 0.44

Ni & Cr 0.37

Of these elements, pearlite promotion by either Mo or Ni is too expensive and the use of P, Ti, Mn and Cr is definitely advised against.

Tin and copper are most commonly used to stabiles pearlite in ductile iron. The pearlite promotion effect by the two elements is additive with tin being about ten times stronger than that of copper.

Tin additions in excess of about 0.07% can cause the iron to be embrittled due to the precipitation of tin to the grain boundaries.

Copper is widely used in amounts from about 0.2% to 1.5% depending on the amount of pearlite required, the section size, and the levels of other pearlite stabilizing elements.

Enhanced elevated temperature propertiesMolybdenum is particularly useful in increasing elevated temperature tensile strength, stress-rupture and creep strength and thermal fatigue resistance and is added in amounts up to 2% for this purpose. Nickel acts in a similar manner and often accompanies molybdenum alloying. ■

Primary elements in ductile ironJ. F. Meredith, Casting Solutions Pty Ltd

Figure. 1. Pearlitic ductile iron Figure. 2 Ferritic ductile iron

D

REFERENCES

Ductile Iron Handbook – American Foundrymen’s Society Inc, 1993

QIT Literature

Metallurgy and Production of Grey and Ductile Irons – BCIRA, Alvechurch, Birmingham, UK


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virtual foundry is easier and safer to fit out than a real foundry. It takes less energy and is much cheaper. Consider a virtual bronze foundry (the term “bronze

foundry” is preferable to “brass foundry” as brass is usually “worked,” while it is bronze that is usually “cast”). Assume that the bronze foundry is producing bathroom, kitchen and garden fittings, like different designs of faucets and hose bibs, cocks and valves, etc. Assume further that the production is about 1½-1¾ tonnes of finished castings per 8-hour day, six days a week; equivalent to about ten tonnes of finished castings per week. Finally, assume that the foundry is mechanized where feasible and is equipped with crucible-type melting units and is ready for operation. Then the next problem would be with the metal charge to be melted and this depends on the end products.

Desired casting compositionsThe target compositions for fittings and hardware and their applications are as follows:

Metal charge for the foundryThe supply of the metal to be used as raw material greatly determines the success and viability of the operation. The choice would be between any of the following types that are available in the market, besides the home-scrap generated in-plant, like gates and risers, machining chips and turnings.Composition ingots. As the name implies, these are available in the base composition of the metal casting desired and are more expensive than ordinary scrap. They are ready to charge into the furnace, melt, and come out with the desired composition. There is no need for a spectrometer to check the composition. Ingots are supplied by the secondary ingot-maker according to the base composition the foundry desires, as per the table above. Heavy scraps. These are scrap bronze metal parts and they come in an assortment of compositions. These include the home-scrap generated by the foundry in the form of gates, risers, chips and

turnings. The foundry has to be equipped with a spectrometer in order to determine and be sure of the resultant composition of the melt. This requirement more than offsets the higher price of composition ingots as spectrometers are expensive pieces of equipment.Copper wire and cable scraps. This would be the best scrap available as scrap copper wires and cables are made of almost pure copper. Melting would thus be like melting from virgin metal where the foundry could make its own composition. The downside here is that the recovery – i.e., good castings as a percentage of the total scrap metal melted – is very low, due to excessive oxidation of the wires while melting (because of the high surface area to mass ratio) while also introducing too much gas in the melt. In such a case, it is good practice melting the scrap wires and cables and pouring these into ingot molds at the lowest temperature possible – much like the way an ingot supplier would do it – and make “composition ingots” or secondary ingots. This would come out cheaper than melting the wire scrap and pouring the melt directly into castings. There is

an inherent advantage in secondary ingots, too, as the second time the metal is melted as ingots absorbs very much less gas from the atmosphere (now because of the higher mass to surface area ratio) requiring much less deoxidizers before pouring giving resultant castings containing hardly any gas porosities.

Secondary ingotsOne of the first important decisions to make when making a casting is what composition to use. Having decided on the composition, the question then arises, “Should the foundry make up the alloy with virgin metals and, if so, should the metal be cast into ingots before making the casting, or should the ingot be purchased from a reputable secondary metal ingot-maker?”

Good foundry practice dictates that the melting process be carried out in two stages: (1) the re-melted metal scraps are poured into ingots, then (2) the ingots are re-melted to pour the castings. This is the most economical way of doing it. So, if a reputable ingot-

maker is available, foundries usually do not resort to making the ingot themselves. The business of the foundry is to make castings, not metal. However, foundry economics shows that a small section of the foundry could be designated to make the secondary metal ingots that the foundry makes into castings. This will then be the secondary ingot maker.

A. secondary ingot-makingThere are two principal categories of scrap which are generally identified as “processing scrap.”

The first is made up of generated metal scraps in metal processing shops, like turnings, borings, punchings, trimmings, sprues, gates, risers, and spilled metal.

The second consists of that recovered from used or worn-out products. Salvaging metal from this second type of scrap can be a very complex process in terms of sorting so as to keep the various types of metals separated. However, scrap metals recovered from machinery and other manufactured articles can be of the highest quality; besides the fact that the cost of recovery is much less than that of producing virgin metal.

It is often said that there are two types of “mines” from which metals are produced: (1) those mines below the ground that yield ores for metal production; and (2) another form of “mine” above the ground that is a vast source of scrap metal for recovery or recycling. Note the energy savings in Table 1 below caused by tapping the secondary metal resource, rather than the primary metal resource.

Identification of the various metals in a scrap pile is not an easy task. Lack of proper identification is the source of metal contamination in the melt. A major problem in any scrap program, therefore, is control of composition; thus, the process of scrap recycling is called “making metal.”

Quality-wise, properly made secondary metal is equivalent and closely comparable to primary, or “virgin,” metal. Properly made composition ingots of secondary metal are much easier and more convenient to use in the foundry than virgin metal ingots. Furthermore, the foundry does not need to own a chemical laboratory to assure itself of the composition of its castings. A third

advantage is the satisfactory exclusion of gas-holes in the castings due to the second re-melting done on the metal before pouring the castings.

B. Economics of Secondary Ingot-Making In-Plant (in Philippine pesos)The cost of making secondary ingots solely from scrap metals is presented in the following Table 2:

Bronze scrap, purchased P57.00 x 602 kgs. P34,314

Cuprex 53.90 x 3.5 “ 189

Eliminal 2 116.05 x 3.0 “ 348

Diesel oil 7.00 x 112 ltrs. 784

Labor: Melting 4 men x P16.225 x 4.33 hrs. 281

Casting 5 men x P16.225 x 1.67 “ 135

TOTAL P36,051Table 2. Cost of producing commercial secondary ingots from purchased scrap

● Production: 574 kgs. good ingot-castings, with 95% shop yield.● Unit cost: P62.81 /kg. (which is 10.2 % higher than the scrap cost

of P57.00 /kg.) (Probable selling price is P78.51 at 25% mark-up)If the foundry operates its own machine shop, the cost of making

secondary ingots from purchased scrap metals and the home machine shop-generated machining chips (that are cheaper) is presented in the following analysis shown in Table 3:

Bronze scrap, purchased P57.00 x 150 kgs. P 8,550

Bronze chips from machine shop 34.20 x 452 “ 15,458

Cuprex 53.90 x 3.5 “ 189

Eliminal 2 116.05 x 3.0 “ 348

Diesel oil 7.00 x 112 ltrs. 784

Labor: Melting 4 men x P16.225 x 4.33 hrs. 281

Casting 5 men x P16.225 x 1.67 “ 135

TOTAL P25,745Table 3. Cost of producing secondary ingots “in-house” from purchased scrap and the shop’s own machining chips

● Production: 574 kgs. good ingot-castings, with 95% shop yield.● Unit cost: P44.85 /kg. (which is 21 % lower than the scrap cost

of P57.00 /kg.) NOTE: Actual data from Libra Engine Parts Manufacturing Co., Inc.

C. Economics of bronze casting production using composition ingotsAssume that the cost of purchased scrap is P57.00/kg. and commercial composition ingots cost P78.51/kg. In order to show the economics behind the choice of using purchased commercial secondary metal ingots for making castings, the

Metal for a virtual bronze foundry

A

By Prof. John H. D. Bautista, PEE, RMetE, MBA; Technical Consultant, Phil. Metalcasting Association., Inc.

Alloy Cu% Sn% Pb% Zn% Stensile, psi Application

Leaded Red Brass 85 5 5 5 35,000 Low pressure valves and fittings

Leaded Yellow Brass 71 1 3 25 35,000 Plumbing goods, hardware

High-leaded Tin Bronze 80 10 10 0 25,000 General bearings

Tin Bronze (Gun metal) 80 10 0 2 45,000 General, requiring high quality

MetalEnergy, GJ/t Percent

SavingsPrimary from Ore

Secondary from Scrap

Energy Savings

Magnesium 372 10 362 97.3

Aluminium 352 13 340 96.6

Nickel 150 16 134 89.3

Copper 116 19 97 83.6

Zinc 68 19 49 72.1

Iron 33 14 19 57.6

Lead 28 10 18 64.3Table 1. Unit energy used for the production of primary and secondary metalsSource: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, 1985, Table 2, page 31-5.


Back to the

comparative costs of production using scrap metal vs. using commercial secondary metal (or composition) ingots is shown in the Table 4.

The corresponding material balance and production parameters are as follows:

From the foregoing it can be seen that the use of secondary metal ingots increases the shop yield thereby affecting the unit cost of production. But the more important aspect is that the quality of the castings is improved in such a manner that the

foundry can confidently attest to the chemical composition of its castings and guarantee metal specifications and properties, and it can do this without having to put up its own chemical laboratory. Thus, castings qualify and become “exportable” because their specifications are known.

Now, as we all know, there are three elements that are needed in order to qualify as a world-class castings exporter. These are quality, price, and delivery time. The elements of quality and price for internationally acceptable castings can easily be met by the use of secondary metal ingots as raw material. The third element of delivery time thus remains as the only problem of foundry management in order to qualify as a supplier to the world market.

The data in the foregoing analysis belongs to past years’ operations under Philippine conditions; however, the conclusion that is based on relative advantages is still valid today and is reliable. You can update the data using your own domestic current prices and you will get to the same conclusion. Note further that the comparison was based on purchased secondary ingots; so that, with the foundry making its own secondary ingots the consequent costs would be much lower for the secondary ingots; only a spectrometer would be needed. So consider the economics well.

As a final word regarding non-ferrous metalcasting, this is one case wherein the obvious is not true and that things are not always what they seem — making castings directly from re-melted metal scrap is not, repeat not, the most economical way of doing it. ■

Using crap Using Ingots

Raw materials:Purchased scrap P57.00 x 590 kgs. P33,630 P44,595

Composition ingots 78.51 x 568 “ P44,595

Copper wire 65.00 x 20 “ 1,300

Zinc ingots 59.00 x 2 “ P33,630 118 P46,013

Manufacturing supplies: Cuprex 1B P53.90 x 5 kgs. 270 270

Eliminal 2 116.05 x 3 « 348 348

Feedol 1 50.05 x 2 « 100 100

DS tubes 60.50 x 12 pcs. 726 1,444 726 1,444Fuel:Diesel oil P7.00 x 112 ltrs 784 784 784 784Direct labor:Melting 4 men x P16.225/hr. x 4.66 hrs. 302 302

Casting 5 men x P16.225/hr. x 2.33 hrs. 189 491 189 491TOTAL COSTS P36,349 P48,732

Table 4. Comparative costs scrap vs purchased composition ingots (In the production of 85-5-5-5 bronze castings for water faucets.)

Using Scrap

Using Ingots

Material balance:Metal charged a) @ 8%

melting loss590 kgs. 590 kgs.

Molten metal b) @ 3% melting loss

543 “

@ 82% mold yield

572 “

Gross castings a) @ 20% rejects (ave.)

445 “ 469 “

Net good castings b) @ 3% “ (ave.)

356 “ 455 “

Production parameters:Shop yield 60 % 77 %Unit Cost P102.10 /kg. P107.10 /kg. Composition Unknown 85-5-5-5 Lead content * Unknown 5 % Quality Not

exportableExportable

* Lead is poisonous and should not exceed 8% in bronze castings used for water fittings, as in the case of the ounce metal, 85-5-5-5, used for water faucets.

REFERENCES(a) Harold Roast, Cast Bronze (b) Metals Handbook, Desk Edition, 1985 (c) Libra Engine Parts Manufacturing Co., Inc.

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