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(AB)UK TextJOB NO:E7-05129 TITLE:ANIMALS WORLD

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First published in 2009 by Orpheus Books Ltd., 6 Church Green, Witney, Oxfordshire OX28 4AW England

www.orpheusbooks.com

Copyright © 2009 Orpheus Books Ltd

Created and produced by Orpheus Books Ltd

Text Claire Aston

Consultant Steve Parker BSc Scientific Fellow of the Zoological Society

Illustrators Susanna Addario, Mike Atkinson, Graham Austin, Andrew Beckett, Martin Camm, Ferruccio

Cucchiarini, Malcolm Ellis, Elisabetta Ferrero, Giuliano Fornari, Ian Jackson, Steve Kirk, Steve Noon, Nicki

Palin, Andie Peck, Bryan Poole, Alessandro Rabatti, Eric Robson, Claudia Saraceni, Peter David Scott, Ivan Stalio,

Colin Woolf, David Wright

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permissionof the copyright owner.

ISBN 978 1 905473 42 7

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

Printed and bound in Singapore

B I R D S

24 BIRDSCharacteristics of birds • Bird family tree

26 THE RISE OF BIRDSDescent from dinosaurs • Prehistoric birds

28 BIRD FAMILIES IRatites • Penguins • Waterfowl • Birds of prey • Owls • Seabirds

30 BIRD FAMILIES IIBee-eaters and kingfishers • Storks and herons • Hummingbirds and swifts •Cuckoos • Perching birds

32 INDEX

CONTENTSI N V E R T E B R A T E S

4 INSECTS ICharacteristics of insects • Butterflies and moths

6 INSECTS IIDragonflies • Cockroaches • Grashoppers •Mantises • Stick and leaf insects • Bugs • Termites

8 INSECTS IIIBeetles • Fleas • Flies • Ants, bees and wasps

10 ARACHNIDSSpiders • Scorpions

11 MYRIAPODSCentipedes and millipedes

F I S H

12 FISH ICharacteristics of fish • Sharks and rays

14 FISH IIBony fish

A M P H I B I A N S A N D

R E P T I L E S

16 AMPHIBIANSCharacteristics of amphibians • Salamanders and newts • Frogs and toads

18 REPTILESCharacteristics of reptiles • Age of Reptiles

20 LIZARDS

21 SNAKES

22 TURTLES AND TORTOISES

23 CROCODILIANS AND TUATARA

C O N T E N T S C O N T E N T S

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B U T T E R F L I E S A N D M OT H SButterflies and moths are a group of flyinginsects, with wings that are covered withtiny, overlapping scales. These scales givebutterflies and moths their bright coloursand striking markings. Most butterflies andmoths have coloured scales. Others havescales that reflect the light to give animpression of colour.The colours and patterns of butterflies and

moths are used to attract mates, forcamouflage, and also to deter predators.Large spots that look like the eyes of a largeanimal, or bright colours to warn that thebutterfly or moth is poisonous, help theseinsects to avoid being eaten.

The Hercules mothcaterpillar (right) lives inthe rainforests ofAustralia and SoutheastAsia. It grows up to 17centimetres in lengthbefore it pupates. Thecaterpillar has spikes onits back to deterpredators. When itbecomes an adult mothit is still a giant. Itswingspan can measureover 30 centimetres—larger than some birds.

Butterflies generally fly during thedaytime. They are usually more brightly-coloured than moths and have club-likeantennae. Most moths are night-flyers, andhave feathery antennae. Adult butterflies andmoths have a long, hollow tongue called aproboscis. They use it to probe insideflowers and suck up nectar.Butterfly and moth larvae are called

caterpillars. They feed on leaves until theyhave grown large enough to pupate. Thenthey spin a protective cocoon of silk aroundtheir bodies, inside which they completelychange their structure, and finally emerge asadults (see opposite). Some may migrate towarmer climates when winter comes,returning to breed and lay eggs.

I N V E R T E B R A T E S

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INSECTS I

INSECTS are invertebrates, animals thatdo not have backbones. Insects belong toa large group of invertebrates known asarthropods. Other members of this groupinclude centipedes, spiders and scorpions,woodlice, crabs and shrimps. Instead ofhaving an internal skeleton, arthropods havea hard outer skeleton. This is made of alight, strong material called chitin, thatsupports and protects their soft inner parts.

All insects have six legs and a bodydivided into three sections: the head, thoraxand abdomen. The chitin covering the legsis jointed to allow the insect to move easily.Insects have a pair of antennae on theirheads which they use to smell, touch andpick up sound vibrations. Most insects alsohave one or two pairs of wings. Insects have two kinds of eyes: simple

eyes, that detect changes in light, andcompound eyes. The compound eyes aremade up of thousands of tiny units, each ofwhich sends an image to the insect’s brain.

All insects (above) breathethrough tiny holes in their sideswhich are connected to anetwork of tubes (yellow). Theirlong heart (red) pumps bloodaround the internal organs.

A butterfly lays its eggs (1). Thecaterpillar hatches and feeds (2)before pupating (3). A new adultemerges from the pupa (4).

The feathery antennae of thiscecropia moth give it anexcellent sense of smell.

Wing scales astiny as specks ofdust give this butterflyits many colours.

Mantises hatchfrom a mass ofeggs as tinyreplica adults.

This means that insects have good, all-roundvision, and are able to sense movements andjudge distances very accurately. After mating, a female insect lays her

eggs. The young are usually left to hatchand fend for themselves. Some insects, suchas bugs or grasshoppers, look like tiny adultswhen they hatch. As they grow, they shedtheir hard outer skeleton several times, aftera new one has grown underneath. Other insects, such as butterflies or bees,

hatch out as larvae (caterpillars or grubs).They shed their skin several times as theygrow. Then they develop a protectivecoating inside which they pupate (changeinto their adult form).


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Close-up view ofscales

Heart andblood system

Brain andnervoussystem

Breathingsystem

Digestiveorgans

Reproductiveorgans

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Some insects are plant-eaters, others arecarnivorous, feeding on other insects orsmall animals. The mantis is a formidablepredator. It sits, camouflaged and completelymotionless, waiting for its prey to approach.Then the mantis strikes, grasping the preybetween its sharp, spiny front legs beforebringing it up to its jaws.

If threateneditself, a mantismay flutter awayor spread itswings and strikeout with its frontlegs at itsattacker.

Cockroach

Soldiertermite

Shield bugs (right)are also known as stink

bugs, because they producea foul-smelling liquid from glands

in their abdomen if attacked.

Stick and leaf insects are also masters ofdisguise, although their camouflage is usedto hide from predators rather than forhunting. They live in trees, feeding onvegetation. They are coloured green orbrown, and look very similar to twigs orleaves. They even sway from side to side ifthe tree is moved by the breeze.Bugs differ from other insects because

they have long, beak-like mouthpartsinstead of biting jaws. They use them topierce their food and suck up the liquidcontents. Most feed on plant juices, butsome hunt and feed on other animals. Carnivorous bugs either suck the blood

of their victims or inject saliva into theirbodies, liquefying the insides so they can besucked out. Many live in water, eitherunderwater or skipping across the thin filmof the surface on their long legs. They grasptheir prey with their forelegs in a similarway to a mantis.

Termites live in colonies that maynumber several million. They build large,complex nests underground or in deadtrees. In hot, dry climates, termites buildhollow mounds over the nest (below),allowing cool air to circulate. Inside the nestlie the large king and even larger queen, herswollen body full of eggs (inset). Soldiertermites protect the colony from attack byenemy ants. Worker termites find food, feedthe others and look after the young.


Stick insect

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INSECTS II

THERE ARE more kinds of insects inthe world than all other animals put

together. They live in every environmentapart from the oceans. Some are pests,eating crops or spreading diseases, whileothers are vital to the survival of plants andanimals. Many insects spread pollen betweenplants, helping them to reproduce. They arealso prey for many animals, so are animportant part of the food chain. Insects can run at speed, jump incredible

distances, swim and fly. Dragonflies areamong the best flyers. They are able to fly atspeeds of over 50 kilometres per hour, carryout split-second changes of pace anddirection, hover and even fly backwards.Dragonflies feed on other insects, chasingthem through the air and catching themwith their legs, or plucking them off plants.Dragonflies live near rivers, streams and

ponds. Males patrol their territory and chaserivals away. Dragonfly young (nymphs) livein the water, feeding on tiny fish, tadpolesand other insects. They climb out of thewater just before they shed their skin forthe last time to become adults.

Some dragonflies sitand wait for prey toappear before dartingoff in pursuit. Theirwings cannot be foldedaway, so they arealways ready for flight.However, like allinsects, dragonflies arecold-blooded animals.They have to sit in thesun to warm up beforethey are able to fly.

Cockroaches are extremely adaptableinsects. They can live almost anywhere andmany will eat any kind of food they canfind. Some are tree-dwellers and havewings, while other, wingless kinds burrowinto the ground or hide in small spaces,coming out to feed. Some kinds are foundin houses, where they eat our food andspread germs and diseases. Some kinds of grasshoppers, known as

locusts, are also pests. They mass togetherand can eat whole cropfields. Mostgrasshoppers and crickets, however, arebetter known for their loud, chirping songs.These are usually made by the males toattract females, and are produced by rubbingboth wings, or a leg and a wing, together.


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Grasshoppers and crickets that liveabove ground have long, powerful back

legs that they use to spring to safety ifattacked. They can also deliver a powerful kick

if seized by a predator. Some of these insects arecoloured for camouflage, or have bright markings towarn predators that they have a foul taste.



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A N T S , B E E S A N D W A S P SLike termites, ants live in large colonieswith a winged queen and king, winglessworkers, and sometimes soldier ants. Theirnests have separate chambers for eggs, larvaeand sometimes even food stores.Bees nest underground or in hollow

trees and other small spaces. They feed onpollen and nectar which they collect fromflowers using their long tongues. Wasps are carnivores. Some solitary-

living wasps lay their eggs on or insidehosts, often butterfly or moth caterpillars.The larvae feed on the host as they grow,usually killing it in the process. Other waspsbuild nests from mud, or paper nests madeout of chewed-up wood. These kinds ofwasps bring their insect prey to the nest tobe fed to the grub-like larvae.Unlike a queen bee, which always has

workers in attendance, a queen wasp finds anest site by herself and raises the first broodof workers. The workers then continue thenest-building and other tasks.

The black and yellow stripes of bees andwasps are a warning sign to predators. Bothbees and wasps have a sharp, pointed stingon their abdomen which injects painfulvenom into an attacker’s skin. Honeybeesdefending their nests are able to sting onlyonce, as the act of stinging also kills them.

Honey bees live in large,colonies that may containthousands of bees. Their nestis built up out of many small,hexagonal cells made of waxproduced by the bees. Eachcompartment contains eitherlarvae, or stored food. The worker bees, which are

all female, have different tasksto do throughout their shortlives. They build the networkof wax cells (honeycomb),guard the nest and attack anyintruders. They go out tocollect pollen and nectar andbring it back to the nest. Thenthey “chew” the nectar until itturns into sticky honey. This isthen stored in cells as food forthe winter. The workers also feed and

look after the queen bee andthe larvae. Most of the larvaewill become workers. Somewill be new queens, one ofwhich will take over the nest.Others will be males, ordrones. They do not work, butone will mate with the queen.

The tarantula hawk wasphas a 12-cm wingspan.The female hunts bird-eating spiders, paralysingthem with her sting.


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INSECTS III

THE LARGEST and most successfulgroup of insects are the beetles. All

beetles have two pairs of wings, but onlythe back pair are used for flying. The frontwings, called the elytra, form a hard,protective case. This folds over the fragileback wings when the beetle is on theground. As the beetle takes off, the elytraopen. Some beetles do not fly at all, so theirelytra are fused together.The hard elytra are good protection

against predators. Many beetles also haveother methods of defence, such as squirting

poisonous chemicals at their attackers, orstartling them with loud noises.Beetles hatch from their eggs as grub-like

larvae. They grow and then pupate,emerging as fully-grown adults. Some plant-eating beetle larvae are legless grubs, whilepredatory beetle larvae have large jaws andlegs which they use to catch their prey.

The hugeHerculesbeetle reaches18 cm in length.

Fleas live on or near the bodies ofanimals, feeding on their blood and so oftenspreading diseases from one animal toanother. Fleas carried on the bodies of ratswere responsible for the plague in the 14thcentury, known as the Black Death. Fleashave a powerful “trigger” in their hind legsthat allows them to travel over 100 timestheir own length in a single leap.Some flies also feed on blood, biting

animals and humans and spreading disease.However, most flies are very useful insects.Many help to pollinate flowers by feedingon nectar and pollen, while others arescavengers. They actually help to keep ourenvironment clean and healthy, by feedingon dung or rotting material such as deadplants and animals.

Flies have only one pair ofwings. They are able to fly athigh speed with great agility.Using the gripping pads ontheir feet, they can even walkupside down. The mosquito(right), a kind of fly, has long,sharp mouthparts to pierce theskin of its victims and feed ontheir blood.

Fleas (left) can leap over100 times their ownlength, and go withoutfood for several months.

Ladybird

Army ants march in wide columnsthrough the rainforest, killing andeating any animal that cannot getout of their way.


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Larva Pollen Queen

Worker

Cell containinghoney

Drone



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S C O R P I O N SScorpions have a sharp sting on the end oftheir tail-like abdomen that injects poisoninto their prey. It is also used for defence.Like other arachnids, scorpions have anextra pair of “limbs” either side of theirjaws. These form large pincers for thescorpion to grasp its prey. After hatching,young scorpions climb up their mother’spincers on to her back, where they arecarried until they shed their skins for thefirst time and become independent.

Scorpions (below)hold their stingscurved over theirbacks. Some kinds ofscorpion have a stingthat is deadly tohumans.

Centipedes have two legsper body segment. Theyscuttle along on theirlong, outward-stretchinglegs. Their bodies wavefrom side to side as theymove. Some kinds ofcentipedes have spinyrear legs for defence,while other, slower-moving kinds may bepoisonous to eat. Thesekinds are often brightly-coloured as a warning topredators.

Millipedes have four legs perbody segment. Their manysets of legs move in aco-ordinated, wave-like action.

MYRIAPODS

MYRIAPODS are a group ofarthropods that includes centipedes

and millipedes. Myriapods have long bodiesmade up of segments, and as many as 200pairs of legs. They must live in dark, dampplaces because their bodies easily dry out.Millipedes have short, strong legs for

burrowing through soil or dead leaves. Mostfeed on plant material, chewing with theirstrong jaws. Centipedes are carnivorouspredators. Most have longer legs than themillipedes, and can scuttle at great speedafter their prey. They use the large “poison-claws” on their heads to capture andparalyse their prey before eating it.


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ARACHNIDS

SPIDERS and scorpions are arachnids.They differ from insects because theyhave two, rather than three, body sections,eight legs instead of six, and no antennae orwings. Most arachnids also have eightsimple eyes and no compound eyes. Theyrely more on sound than sight. Most havebristles on their legs that are sensitive tovibrations in the air or through the ground.Arachnids feed by piercing their prey

with their sharp fangs, paralysing or killingit. Their saliva turns the body tissues of theprey into liquid that can then be sucked up.

Spiders are carnivores, feeding mainly oninsects and other spiders. Many spiders usewebs to catch their prey. Any insect thatflies into a web is caught in the strands,which are often sticky. As the insectstruggles to free itself, the spider, sitting atthe edge of the web, feels the vibrations andcomes to claim its prey. It avoids becomingcaught in the threads itself by walking onthe claw-like tips of its feet.

Spiders’ webs are made from strands ofsilk, a strong, stretchy material that isproduced inside the spider’s abdomen. Itdraws out the silk with its legs andstretches it into an intricate web.

Spiders that do not spinwebs either chase downor ambush their prey.Many, such as thejumping spiders, havemuch sharper eyesightthan other arachnids.Bird-eating spiders

(right), are the largestkind in the world. Theycan have a leg span aswide as a dinner plate!Bird-eating spiders chasetheir prey through theundergrowth of tropicalforests, then rear up andstrike with their huge,powerful fangs.

Silk is used by the spider for many otherpurposes besides forming webs. It can be asafety line when jumping, be woven into asac by a female to hold her eggs, or used towrap up prey before feeding.All spiders have poisonous venom, which

they use to paralyse or kill their prey. Some,such as the black widow spider (below), areso poisonous that they can kill humans.


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Sharks have large, razor-sharp teeth,which are set in rows. If the shark loses atooth during feeding, a new one comesforward in the mouth to take its place. Mostsharks feed on fish or squid, but the largersharks, such as the great white, also eatturtles and large mammals such as seals.They slam into their prey, tearing out hugechunks of flesh. Despite their fearsomereputation, only the largest of the predatorysharks, such as the tiger shark or the greatwhite shark, are dangerous to humans.

R AY SRays, and their relatives the skates, arecartilaginous fish with flat bodies and oftenlong, narrow tails. Their gills and mouths areon their undersides. They have large, wing-like fins that they flap as they swim, makingthem look as if they are flying through thewater. Rays feed on fish and shellfish nearthe sea bed. Sometimes they hide in thesand to ambush passing prey.

Like sharks, a few kinds of rays can bedangerous. Torpedo rays can give off apowerful electric shock, while a jab fromthe venomous spine on a stingray’s tail cankill a human. Unlike sharks, however, raysdo not see humans as prey.Chimaeras are a group of cartilaginous

fish with long bodies and tails. They includethe rabbitfish, a bottom-dwelling fish withlarge eyes and a venomous spine on itsdorsal fin.

F I S H

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FISH I

FISH are vertebrates (animals withbackbones). They live in water all thetime. Most kinds cannot survive out ofwater, because they do not have lungs tobreathe air. Instead, they take in oxygenfrom the water using gills in their heads. Fish have hairless, streamlined bodies with

fins and a tail. Many have a protective layerof over lapping scales. Fish are cold-bloodedanimals, so their body temperature dependson their surroundings. Some species have aspecial substance in their blood to stopthem freezing in cold waters.

Fish move by flexing the muscles alongtheir bodies in a wave-like motion. The finshelp to balance and steer the fish while thetail can be used for propulsion. The stream-lined shape of most fish, as well as a coatingof slimy mucus on their bodies, helps themto swim easily through the water.Most fish lay vast numbers of eggs at

once, which they leave to hatch out ontheir own. Newly-hatched fish are perfect,tiny replicas of their parents. A few kinds offish, such as sharks, carry their eggs insidetheir bodies, and give birth to live young. Fish were the first vertebrates to evolve,

millions of years ago. One of the oldesttypes alive today is the coelacanth, fossils ofwhich date back 90 million years.

To breathe, fish open theirmouths, and take inwater that contains

oxygen.

Cookiecutter shark

Coelacanth

The sawshark (right)uses its long snout todig up small creaturesfrom the sea bed.

Rabbitfish

Stingray

Manta ray

The great whiteshark lives in the surface

waters of the open ocean. It can measure6 m in length and its teeth can be 7 cm long.

As the water passes outover the gills, tiny blood

vessels filter out theoxygen.

There are two main groups of fish, thecartilaginous fish and the bony fish.Cartilaginous fish include sharks, rays andchimaeras. Most are found only in the seasand oceans. Cartilaginous fish have skeletonsmade of soft cartilage. Instead of flat,overlapping scales, they have tiny, pointed,tooth-like scales. Their gills can be openedand closed, but, unlike the bony fish, usuallydo not have protective flaps covering them.Cartilaginous fish must keep moving all thetime, to stay afloat in the water.

S H A R K SSharks are mostly predators, although thelargest kinds of all, the whale shark and thebasking shark, feed only on plankton, whichthey filter from the water using a part oftheir gills. Unlike bony fish, most of whichhave good vision, sharks rely on smell tohunt their prey. Sharks can detect a singledrop of blood in a huge volume of water.They also have sensors on their bodies thatcan pick up tiny electrical signals producedby the movements of their prey.

F I S H

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Seahorses rely on camouflage to keepthemselves safe, while angelfish stay nearclumps of seaweed or rocks. Some fish hidein the stinging tentacles of sea anemones.

Several kinds of fish have protective armourmade of fused scales, while others havesharp spines. Bright colours are often awarning signal to predators. The markingsof the lionfish warn that its long, sharpspines are poisonous. Other fish inflate theirbodies suddenly to startle an attacker.

Most fish have a familiar streamlinedbody shape, but several kinds look verydifferent. Eels have long bodies with narrowdorsal fins that do not stick out from theirbodies like those of other fish. Seahorseslive in shallow waters and swim upright.They grasp on to seaweed with their tails toavoid being swept away by the current.Many ocean-living fish are found close to

the surface, where there is warmth and lightand tiny plants, called plankton, to eat.Small plankton-eating fish may be prey forlarger fish.

Fewer fish live in the deeper, darkerwaters. The oarfish lives between 300 and600 metres down. With its ribbon-like bodyand red “mane”, it may be the sea monsterdescribed in old sea legends. Some deep-living fish travel up through the water tohunt, while others feed on scraps of foodthat drift down from the surface. Somedeep-living fish are able to make their ownsmall lights to attract prey towards theirgaping mouths.

F I S H

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FISH II

FORMING a much larger group thanthe cartilaginous fish, bony fish haveskeletons made of bone. Their bodies areusually covered with overlapping scales.They also have gas-filled swim bladdersinside their bodies that allow them to stayafloat even when they are not moving.

Some bony fish live in fresh water (riversand lakes), while others live in the seas andoceans. Many feed on plant material, butsome are carnivorous. Among the largestpredators are the barracudas, which strike atgreat speed with their powerful jaws. Evenlarger is the blue marlin, which can be overfour metres in length. Probably the mostextraordinary of the large bony fish is theocean sunfish, or mola mola. Its round bodycan be as large as a small car, and it “rows”itself through the water using its fins.

Most bony fish have good eyesight, andcan see in colour. Their eyes are on the sidesof their heads, giving them a wide field ofvision. Some kinds of bottom-dwelling fishhave eyes that point upwards, to spotpredators or prey above them. Fish such assalmon, which are preyed upon by manyother animals, swim in large groups forprotection in the same way as some animals,for example, cattle, herd together on land.

Flying fish (right)leap out of thewater to escapefrom predators.

The mandarinfish (left)and the angelfish (right)are both coral reef fish.

Seahorses liveamong coraland seagrasses. Theyswim along inan uprightposition.

Pacific salmon

European eel

Stonefish

Lionfish

Barracuda

Oceansunfish

Blue marlin

Oarfish

Thornyseahorse

Dolphinfish

F I S H

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F R O G S A N D T O A D SFrogs and toads have short, tail-less bodiesand long hind legs. Frogs are usuallysmooth-skinned. They spend most of theirtime in water. Their very long legs andstreamlined bodies mean that they can makehuge leaps and swim quickly. Toads haveshorter legs, fatter bodies and lumpier skin.They live mostly on land, in dark, dampplaces to keep their skins moist and cool.Toads crawl or hop rather than leap.

Tree frogs (above right) have pads on theirtoes that act like suckers, to cling on toshiny leaves. Some kinds of tree frog caneven walk upside down. The Surinam toad(right) has a flat, square body. It carries itseggs on its back until they hatch.

The bright colours of this fire-bellied toad (left) warn

predators of its nasty taste.If threatened, the toad

will twist itself sothat its colourfulbelly can beseen fromabove.

Poison-arrow frog tadpoles hatchon land and are then carried towater on their parent’s back (left).The poison from a poison-arrowfrog’s skin is used by rainforestpeoples to coat the tips of arrowsand darts for hunting. Just a tinyamount can be deadly to animalsand even humans.

Both frogs and toads usually lay theirjelly-like eggs (spawn) in water, oftenreturning to the same pond or lake yearafter year to breed. Some tree frogs lay theireggs inside a foam “nest” on an overhangingbranch, so that when the tadpoles hatch,they will fall into the water. Many frogs andtoads leave their eggs to hatch on theirown. Others carry them on their backs tokeep them safe. Mouth-brooding frogs holdtheir tadpoles in a throat sac, until theyjump out as tiny frogs.Frog and toad tadpoles mostly feed on

water plants or filter algae from the water.As adults, however, they are carnivorous,feeding on insects, snails or worms. Thelarger frogs and toads will also eat fish, otherfrogs, and even small mammals.In hot climates, toads and frogs burrow

underground to avoid the heat of the day.Frogs that live in colder climates oftenspend winter in hibernation at the bottomof ponds, breathing through their skin.

A M P H I B I A N S

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AMPHIBIANS

AMPHIBIANS are a small group ofcold-blooded, vertebrate animals. They

include two main groups: the salamandersand newts, and the frogs and toads. Theword “amphibian” means “double life”.Most amphibians spend the first part oftheir lives underwater, taking in oxygenfrom the water through gills, like fish. Theiradult lives, however, are spent on land,breathing air through lungs. They return tothe water to lay their eggs.

Most amphibians have four limbs. Onlythe salamanders and newts have tails. Allamphibians have moist skin, through whichthey can “breathe in” oxygen in the water.They can also take in or lose water fromtheir bodies through their skin. Becausethey need to keep their skin moist, mostamphibians spend much of their time incool, damp conditions. Many live in or nearwater, even as adults.

Frog tadpoles hatch from jelly-like eggs(1). At first, the tadpole breathes throughgills and uses its tail to swim (2).Gradually its legs emerge and it developslungs (3). Finally, it loses its tail (4).

Amphibians undergo metamorphosis, achange in the body from young to adult.The most obvious change in salamandersand newts is that they lose their featherygills and develop lungs. Frogs and toadschange from plant-eating tadpoles withgills, a tail and no legs, to carnivorous, tail-less adults with lungs and long legs.

Many amphibians can produce bad-tasting or poisonous substances fromtheir skins to deter predators. Brightlycoloured skin such as on this bluesalamander (below) is a warning sign.If attacked, some salamanders andnewts will lash out with their heads ortails, where their poison glands arelocated. Others suddenly freeze,hoping to confuse their attackers.

Amphibians were the firstvertebrates to live on land morethan 300 million years ago. Theywere descended from fish thatmoved on to land and developedlungs. Early amphibians lookedquite similar to salamanders.Some were huge, reaching fourmetres in length. They fed on fish,insects and other invertebrates.Like all amphibians, they had toreturn to water to lay their eggs.

A M P H I B I A N S

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S A L A M A N D E R S A N D N E W T SSalamanders and newts are long-bodiedamphibians with long tails. They are oftennocturnal, and are all carnivorous. They feedon insects, worms, slugs and snails, and theyoung also prey on frog tadpoles. Somesalamanders live in water all the time, andseveral even keep their gills into adulthood.Others live on land but return to the waterto lay their eggs. Newts will travel severalkilometres to return to the breeding pondswhere they grew up.

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Some air-breathing fishdeveloped legs ratherthan fins, allowingthem to move aroundon land more easily.They became the firstfour-legged animals,the amphibians.Ichthyostega (right)was an earlyamphibian. It crawledthrough the warm,swampy forests ofGreenland about 360million years ago.

Hylonomus (above) wasone of the earliestreptiles. Only 20 cmlong, it lived 320million years ago inCanada. Unlike the amphibians,Hylonomus had waterproof skin. It alsolaid waterproof eggs that would notdry up on land, unlike those of theamphibians. This meant that it couldbreed wherever it wanted to on land.

T H E A G E O F D I N O S A U R SThe period from 250 million to 65 millionyears ago is known as the Mesozoic Era.During this time, a new group of reptiles,the dinosaurs, emerged. They held their legsstraight beneath their bodies, rather thansprawling out to the sides like other reptiles.For about 150 million years the dinosaurs

were the only large land animals. Theyranged in size from the chicken-sizedCompsognathus to the 14-metre-tallBrachiosaurus. Some were slow, four-leggedplant-eaters, while others ran swiftly on twolegs. A few kinds were terrifying predators.Many of the plant-eaters lived in herds likemodern-day cattle or horses, while thesmaller predators hunted in packs, as hyenasand wild dogs do today. The dinosaurs all died out quite suddenly,

but no-one knows why. Perhaps a hugeasteroid hit the Earth, and a dust cloudplunged the Earth into cold darkness.

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REPTILES

REPTILES are cold-blooded, vertebrateanimals that have a dry, scaly skin. The

skin is made of one continuous sheet, ratherthan individual scales as in fish. Watercannot pass out through their skin, unlikethat of amphibians. This means that reptilesdo not need to keep their skin moist.Reptiles moult regularly, shedding their skinwhen a new one has grown underneath. Because they are cold-blooded animals,

reptiles need to bask in the sun to raisetheir body temperature before they are ableto move about in search of food. However,they do not need to eat as much food as thewarm-blooded birds and mammals, so areable to survive more easily in harsh desertenvironments. Most reptiles lay eggs, eithersoft and leathery, or hard-shelled. Some givebirth to live young. Reptiles do not care fortheir young after hatching or birth.

Reptiles are descended from the earlyamphibians (see page 16). The first reptileswere probably small, lizard-like creatures.Unlike the amphibians, they did not have tostay close to water to keep moist and laytheir eggs.They were able to live moreeasily on land. The lizards, turtles andtortoises and the crocodilians (crocodilesand alligators), appeared during the TriassicPeriod, about 250 million years ago. Snakesevolved later, about 135 million years ago.Some modern-day reptiles have hardlychanged since the time of the dinosaurs.

Eusthenopteron was an ancestor of theamphibians and reptiles. It was a fish thathad lungs and used its fins as legs.

Reptiles of the Amazon rainforest.In this scene from 150 million years ago, aherd of huge plant-eating dinosaurs isthreatened by a pack of hungry predators.The adults try to protect their young byusing their bulk and their whip-like tails.

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KEY1 Green anole2 Green iguana3 Anaconda

4 Arrau turtle5 Spectacled

cayman

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SNAKES

SNAKES are a group of reptiles that havelong, narrow bodies and tails, and nolimbs. Their ancestors, however, were four-legged, lizard-like creatures. Some snakeshave two tiny lumps on their bodies—theremains of the hind legs of these ancestors.Snakes have no eyelids. Instead, their eyeshave a permanent, transparent covering.

Snakes have many more bones in theirspines than other animals. They move byflexing their belly muscles, which areattached to their many ribs. As they move,most snakes curve their bodies into a seriesof S-shapes, giving them greater speed.Most snakes lay eggs, and a few kinds will

guard them from predators until they hatch.There are some snakes, such as sea snakes(below), that give birth to live young. Youngsnakes are left to survive on their own.

Because of their many bones, strongmuscles and flexible joints, snakes areable to move at speed, burrow andswim, despite having no limbs. Somesnakes such as this python (right)can even climb trees. It gripsthe tree trunk or branchwith its neck or tail thenpulls the rest of its bodyup or down.

All snakes are carnivores. Some kinds eatsmall animals such as snails or worms, butmany feed on large prey such as frogs, birdsand mammals. Snakes have special looselyhinged jaws that can open extremely wideto take large prey. Their skin can alsostretch. They swallow their prey whole,using their sharp teeth to pull it into thethroat, and their muscles to squeeze it intothe stomach. A snake may need to hunt andfeed only every few weeks or even months.Some snakes have good vision, but most

rely on special senses to hunt their prey.Like lizards, snakes are able to collect“tastes” from the air or ground by flickingout their forked tongues. Some kinds ofsnakes also have heat sensors on their headsthat help them to locate live prey accurately,even at night.

The blunt-headedtree snake has bigeyes to help it seekout its prey.

Large prey takes a long time toswallow, so it must be killed first.Some snakes coil around theirprey, squeezing it to death.Others, such as the king cobra(below), have poison glands. Asthey strike, the poison runs downtheir fangs and into the wound.Snakes also bite in defence, andmany can kill humans.

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LIZARDS

LIZARDS are mostly quite small, quick-moving reptiles. They have a thick, scaly,and usually smooth skin. Most lizards havefour legs and a tail, though some kinds arelegless. They have long tongues that theyflick in and out to “taste” the air or ground,to pick up information about theirsurroundings. Geckos also use their tonguesto clean their permanently closed, trans -parent eyelids, while chameleons shoottheirs out to catch insects.Lizards have a special receptor on their

heads that is sensitive to light. This isconnected to the brain, and may act as a“third eye”, giving the lizard informationabout the patterns of day and night.

Lizards are mostly land-dwellers, living allover the world except in polar regions.Some are burrowing animals, while manylive in trees. Chameleons and some iguanashave prehensile tails to help them climb.Geckos have tiny ridges on their toes andcan even walk upside down. Some lizards,such as skinks, are good swimmers and willdive into water to escape from predators.

The Komodo dragon is found onseveral Indonesian islands.

Almost all lizards are meat-eaters, feedingon insects, birds, small mammals and otherreptiles. The largest lizard, the Komododragon, can reach three metres in length. Itis a powerful predator, and can kill largemammals such as cattle. It has even beenknown to attack and kill humans.

Lizards lay their eggs in warm, dampholes. Most female lizards take no interest intheir eggs after laying them, but a few kindsguard the eggs until they hatch.The smaller lizards have many predators.

They defend themselves with camouflage,or by running away, climbing trees or evenplaying dead. Several species are able tobreak off their own tails, to confuse anattacker while they run away. The tail has aspecial “weak point” that can be snappedwithout harming the lizard. A new tail willgrow in its place.

The green iguana (above) isfound in the forests of Central andSouth America. In spite of its size(up to 2 metres in length), it is anagile, tree-dwelling lizard. It alsoswims easily in the forest rivers. Ithas a crest of comblike spinesrunning all the way down its bodyfrom head to tail.

Chameleons (left) can changecolour to blend in with theirbackground. They sit motionlesson a branch, until an insectapproaches. In a split second,they flick out their long stickytongues to catch their prey.

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CROCODILIANS ANDTUATARA

CROCODILIANS are meat-eatingreptiles that spend much of their time

in water. They include crocodiles andalligators, and also the gharial, which has along, narrow snout. Crocodilians use theirlong tails to swim, but can also run at speedon land. Most species live in fresh waterrivers and lakes, especially tropical swamps.A few, such as the saltwater crocodile, live insea estuaries.

Crocodilians feed on a wide range ofprey, including fish, turtles, birds, andmammals. The largest crocodiles, which cangrow to more than seven metres long, willeven kill deer and cattle. They lie in thewater, waiting for their prey to come downto the water to drink. Then they lunge outwith their powerful jaws, dragging theirprey into the water to drown.Crocodilians can lie with their bodies

almost completely hidden underwater,because their eyes and nostrils are on top oftheir heads. They also have a transparent“third eyelid” which closes to protect theireyes when they submerge. They can closeoff part of their throat to avoid swallowingwater while feeding.Like all reptiles, crocodiles and alligators

lay their eggs on land. Some kinds, such asthe Nile crocodile, dig holes into whichthey lay their eggs, covering them over withsoil to keep them warm. Others build nestsof plant material. They will guard their eggsand defend their young.The tuatara is the only member of an

ancient group of reptiles that lived on Eartheven before the dinosaurs. Lizard-like inshape, the tuatara lives in burrows on smallislands off New Zealand. It basks in the sunduring the day, and feeds at night, huntinginsects, worms and small lizards. Like turtles and tortoises, the tuatara is

very long-lived. It becomes an adult at 20years old, and may live for over 120 years.

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TURTLES ANDTORTOISES

THE MAIN characteristic that setsturtles and tortoises apart from other

reptiles is their shell. It is made of bonefused to the skeleton, and covers both theback and belly. For extra protection, theshell is covered with thick, horny scales. Ifthreatened, most turtles and tortoises areable to draw their heads and necksbackwards into their shells.Turtles and tortoises do not have teeth.

Instead they have a sharp, horny, beak-likemouth. They are mostly plant-eaters, butsome kinds also feed on insects, fish, snailsand even small mammals and birds.

The red-eared sliderturtle is found in quietponds and rivers in theUnited States.

The tuatara has a crest ofskin along its back. Ifalarmed, the malecan raise it as a

threat.

The leatherback turtlehas no shell, but a thick,leathery skin embeddedwith tiny bony plates.

A crocodile’s lower teeth fitinto notches in the upperjaw. One pair is visiblewhen its mouth is closed. Inthe alligators (above), theteeth fit inside the mouthand cannot be seen.

Nile crocodile

Turtles and tortoises are some of thelongest-lived of all vertebrate animals.Some kinds of turtles can live for upto 70 years, while some tortoisesare known to live for more than100 years. Giant tortoises(right) are among thelongest-lived. Severalkinds are found in theGalapagos islands offthe coast of Ecuador.These huge creaturescan measure up to1.2 metres inlength. Some kindshave a high,arched shellopening thatallows them tostretch up totall plants.

Tortoises are found on land. They havestumpy, scaly legs with short toes. Tortoisesmove slowly, relying on their high-domed,heavy shells to protect them from predators.Turtles live in the water, some in theoceans, others in freshwater rivers andponds. Most have webbed feet, but someocean turtles spend so much time in thewater that they have developed paddle-likeflippers that allow them to swim at speed. All turtles and tortoises breed and lay

eggs on land. Some large sea turtles can layover 100 eggs at once, returning to thesame beaches every year. They dig holes inthe sand, lay their eggs and then cover themover. Then they return to the water. Afterhatching, the young must dig their way tothe surface. Many newly-hatched turtles arekilled by predators as they make their wayfrom the beach to the sea.

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UK Text (AB)

KEY1 Cassowaries, emus, kiwis,

ostriches, rheas2 Ducks, geese, swans3 Chickens, grouse,

pheasants, quails, turkeys4 Penguins5 Grebes6 Divers

11 PERCHING BIRDSAntbirds, birds ofparadise, buntings, crows,dippers, finches, larks,mocking birds, orioles,pipits, sparrows, sunbirds,swallows, thrushes, tits,wagtails, warblers, wrens

12 Bee-eaters, hoopoes,hornbills, kingfishers

13 Honey-guides, jacamars,toucans, woodpeckers

14 Owls15 Eagles, falcons, hawks,

Old World vultures,ospreys, secretary birds

16 Auks, avocets, gulls,oystercatchers, plovers,sandpipers, skuas,snipes, terns

17 Bustards, cranes, rails18 Pigeons, sandgrouse19 Bitterns, flamingoes,

herons,ibises,spoon bills,storks

20 New Worldvultures

21 Cuckoos,hoatzins,parrots,roadrunners,turacos

This illustration showsa representative of eachof the groups of birdfamilies flying along theline of its own “branch”of the bird family tree.The key (above) givessome examples of birdspecies found in eachgroup.

7 Boobies, cormorants,frigatebirds, gannets,pelicans

8 Albatrosses, petrels,shearwaters

9 Hummingbirds, swifts10 Frogmouths, nightjars,

potoos

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BIRDS

THERE ARE almost 9000 species ofbirds in the world today. Birds are

warm-blooded, vertebrate animals with fourlimbs, two of which are adapted into wings.They have a toothless beak and a coveringof feathers over their bodies and heads(apart from the bald-headed vultures). Thefeathers close to the skin are soft and fluffyfor warmth, while long, stiff outer feathershelp birds to gain height, steer and controlspeed when flying. Birds have light, hollowbones to reduce their weight in the air.Birds lay hard-shelled eggs, usually several

at a time. After mating, the male and femaleoften work together to build a nest ready toreceive the eggs. Nests can be cup-likestructures made of mud, grass and twigs,holes in trees, or even burrows under -ground. One parent usually sits on the eggsto keep them warm, while the othercollects food. After hatching, most birds feedand protect their young until they are oldenough to leave the nest.Because of their ability to fly at speed for

long distances, some kinds of birds are ableto migrate to warmer climates as winterapproaches. They return to their breedingareas in spring, as food becomes plentiful.

Birds have differentshaped beaks accordingto the food they eat. Thefour birds pictured (left)all have very specializedbeak shapes. Theflamingo stands inshallow water with itshead upside down,filtering out tiny plantsand animals from thewater. The scarlet ibisuses its long, narrowbeak to stab at fish.Vultures have strong,hooked beaks for tearingmeat. Their heads arebald to reduce the needfor cleaning after theyhave been feeding oncarrion. The macaw usesits powerful beak tocrack open hard seeds.

Mallards have webbed feet for swimming,while jacanas have long toes to spreadtheir weight as they walk on floating lilypads. Wood peckers hold on to trees withtheir strong claws. Ospreys have spikes ontheir toes to grip on to slippery fish.

Mallard

Flamingo

Scarlet ibis

Vulture

Macaw

Jacana

Woodpecker

1 Emu

2 Snow goose3 Red grouse

4 Rockhopper penguin

7 Great frigatebird

8 Wandering albatross

9 Black swift10 European nightjar

11 Goldfinch

12 African pygmykingfisher

13 Toco toucan

14 Barn owl

15 American bald eagle

16 Arctic tern

17 Whooping crane

18 Wood pigeon

19 White stork

20 Andean condor

21 Purple crowned lorikeet

Osprey

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5 Great crested grebe

6 Great northerndiver


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Archaeopteryx emerged in the late JurassicPeriod, about 150 million years ago.Following Archaeopteryx came small flyingbirds such as Sinornis, which had shorter,more bird-like tails than Archaeopteryx. Upuntil the end of the Cretaceous Period, 65million years ago, most birds still had teeth.These were useful for feeding on fish andinsects, their main prey. Ichthyornis andHesperornis were among the first marinebirds and fed on fish, swooping over thewaves like gulls or diving from rocks.At the end of the Cretaceous Period, the

dinosaurs, along with many other reptilesdied out, but many birds and mammalssurvived. A wide variety of different kindsof birds appeared, and by Eocene times, 50million years ago, all the bird groups weknow today had emerged.

After the dinosaurs died out, some birdsbecame large predators. Some kinds stoodalmost three metres tall. They wereflightless, their small wings acting only tobalance their heavy bodies. Ferocious meat-eaters, such as Andalgalornis and Diatryma,probably crushed mammals such as small,early horses in their powerful jaws. Otherbirds, such as Argentavis, a vulture with aseven-metre wingspan, were scavengers.Some kinds of birds have become extinct

quite recently, due to the arrival of humansinto their habitats. They were hunted forfood, or preyed upon by rats, cats and dogswhich the humans brought with them. Twogroups of large, flightless birds, the elephantbirds of Madagascar and the moas of NewZealand, were completely wiped out withinjust a few hundred years.

Turkey-sized dodos once livedon the island of Mauritius.Slow-moving and flightless,they were easy to kill for foodby 16th-century sailors. Thelast dodo was killed in 1681.Passenger pigeons were oncethe commonest birds in NorthAmerica until they were seenas pests and hunted toextinction by 1900.

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THE RISE OF BIRDS

THE ANCESTORS of birds wereclearly reptiles—birds still have scaly

legs, and they lay hard-shelled eggs. In fact,it is now known that birds are actually theliving descendants of the dinosaurs.Like the dinosaurs, early birds had teeth,

fingers and a long, bony tail, but they alsohad small wings and a few feathers. Theymay have used their wings to glide fromtree to tree, or to give them extra speedwhen escaping from predators on theground. Gradually, their body structuresdeveloped so that they could lift themselvesinto the air and fly.

This scale illustration shows some species of early birds, (aswell as more recent species), all of which are now extinct.Some have modern-day relatives that may look very different.

CompsognathusFeathered theropod Archaeopteryx

Ichthyornis

Human being(to scale)

Archaeopteryx

Hesperornis

Odontopteryx

Presbyornis

Diatryma

Compsognathus

Archaeopteryx

Neocathartes

Palaelodus

Sinornis

Limnofregata

Osteodontornis

Argentavis

Aepyornis(Elephant bird)Andalgalornis

Dinornismaximus(Giant moa)

Emeus crassus

Passengerpigeon

Dodo

Greatauk

Diatryma is related to the long-legged cranes, whilePalaelodus and Osteodontornis are relatives of modern-daywading birds, and gliding seabirds such as the albatross.

Andalgalornis (left) had tinywings and bone-crushing jaws.

A flightless seabird, the great auk was hunted by sailors forits meat, eggs and oily fat. It finally became extinct in 1844.

The chicken-sizedArchaeopteryx is one ofthe earliest knownanimals that can becalled a bird.Archaeopteryx wascovered with feathers andwas probably able to fly.However, its skeletonwas discovered to bealmost identical tothat of the smalltheropod (meat-eating) dinosaurCompsognathus.

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Birds of prey include eagles, falcons,hawks and vultures. They are all meat-eatingbirds, with sharp, hooked beaks and strongtalons. They swoop down through the air,often at very high speeds, on to theirprey—small mammals, birds, reptiles, insectsor fish. Most birds of prey, especially thevultures, also eat carrion. Birds of prey haveexcellent long-distance vision, and can spotpotential prey from several kilometres away.

Though they are also hunting birds withstrong beaks and talons, owls are acompletely separate group to the birds ofprey. Owls have flat faces with forward-facing eyes. Many kinds hunt in dim lightor darkness. Their disc-like faces “collect”sound and direct it towards the ears, givingthem exceptional hearing to locate theirprey. Their feathers are soft, allowing themto fly almost completely silently, taking theirprey by surprise.

Like all owls, the eagle owl(left) has large eyes whichare fixed in its head, andcannot be moved in theirsockets. In order to get agood field of vision, owlsmust twist their very flexiblenecks. They can turn theirheads all the way round inorder to look backwards.

In a vertical dive, or stoop,peregrine falcons (left)

can reach speedsof over 200

km/h.

Seabirds spend much of their time in ornear the water, feeding on fish or squid.Some kinds, such as cormorants or gannets,dive into the water from the air, or fromhigh rocks. Albatrosses skim over thesurface, scooping up food. Many seabirdsgather together in colonies on cliffs to laytheir eggs. Albatrosses and petrels only comeon to land to breed. The rest of their livesare spent gliding on currents of air.

Turkeys (left), chickens, pheasants, grouseand partridges are among the birds knownas gamebirds. They have short wings andare ungainly flyers, most being unable

to fly for long periods. They feedon seeds, fruits and inver -tebrates. Many kinds of

gamebirds are bredor hunted byhumans for

food.

The red-tailed tropicbird feeds in tropicalocean waters, plunging down into thewater to grab its prey.

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BIRD FAMILIES I

OVER MILLIONS of years, the abilityto fly has enabled birds to escape from

predators, and therefore to increase innumber and variety. Every kind of bird hasalso adapted to survive in a particularhabitat. In any one group of birds there maybe several different families, all lookingquite different from each other.The ratites include the ostrich, rhea,

emu, cassowary and kiwi. They are all birdsthat have lost the ability to fly, because of alack of natural predators, or because theyhave developed another means of defence.Some ratites are tall, long-necked birds thatlive in wide open spaces. They use theirgood eyesight to spot predators, and theirlong strong legs to run away at top speed.Ostriches can reach 65 kilometres per hour. Kiwis are much smaller birds, with hair-

like feathers. They live in thick under -growth, using their excellent senses of smelland hearing to detect predators, and theirsharp claws for defence.

Cassowaries (right) searchfor fruit, berries and seedsin the dense rainforest ofAustralia and SoutheastAsia. They use the hornyridge, or casque, on theirhead to break open a pathbefore them.

Penguins are also flightless birds. Mostlive on cold, southern coastlines, such asAntarctica. Clumsy on land, in the waterpenguins are graceful and fast. Their stiff,flipper-like wings pull them through thewater in pursuit of fish and squid. Theybreed in large colonies on land or on ice.

Waterfowl (ducks, geese and swans) alsofeed in the water, as do grebes and divers,though these are mostly fresh water birds.They swim along the surface with theirfeet, which are often webbed. Their feathersare coated with a waterproof substance thattraps air and keeps the birds afloat. Duckstip upside down to feed, while grebes anddivers plunge completely underwater. Thesebirds feed on fish, invertebrates and plants.

Ducks and geese are among the fastestbirds in level flight. Species such as thered-breasted merganser (below), a seaduck, can fly at speeds of 100 km/h. Toconserve energy on long journeys, such asduring migration, geese and swans oftenfly in a “V” formation. The air movementcreated by the wingbeats of each birdgives extra lift to its neighbours.

To keep warm in icy waters,penguins have several layers

of dense feathers, and athick layer of fat under

their skins. Whenstanding on ice, theirspecial circulatory

systems stop their feetfrom freezing by

keeping heat insidethe blood vessels,so preventing itfrom being lostthrough the skin.

Emperorpenguin

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P E R C H I N G B I R D SWith over 5000 species, the perching birdsare the largest group of birds. They range insize from the tiny blue tit or wren to thelarge raven. They are land-living birds, withfour unwebbed toes, three pointing forwardand one backward. Most feed on seeds orinsects, but some eat fruit or nectar. Manysmall perching birds fly in a boundingmotion to save energy, flapping and closingtheir wings alternately.

Although lyrebirds (right) are notclassed as songbirds, they areable to mimic perfectly the callsof other birds.

Snow buntings breed in the icyArctic, then move south inwinter. They build theirnests among rocks.Males are almostcompletelywhite insummer.

Bird ofparadise

Europeanswallow

Most perching birds also belong to a sub-group called the songbirds. Though otherbirds can make short, simple calls, songbirdshave extra muscles in their voiceboxes,allowing them to produce complex patternsof notes. Songs are used by males toestablish territories and warn off intruders,as well as to attract females. Each speciesmay have a large number of song variations,with birds from different areas having theirown “accents”. Young songbirds learn songsfrom their parents and other adults.

Most perching birds construct nests intrees or hedges, where their young will besafe from predators. The young are bornnaked, blind and helpless. They need to bekept warm and fed by their parents untilthey are old enough to fledge (leave thenest). Other birds such as ducks, gulls orgamebirds, that lay their eggs in moreexposed places, hatch out as fully-featheredyoung that can feed themselves almoststraight away. Many songbirds, like other groups of

birds, migrate to warmer places in thewinter when food becomes scarce. Theyfeed heavily before migration, laying downstores of fat for fuel on their long journeys.They return in the spring to breed, whenthere is a plentiful supply of food forthemselves and their young.

Willow warblersmay travel fromSiberia down to

Africa during theirlong migration.

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BIRD FAMILIES II

MANY BIRDS have beautiful coloursor feather displays. In many species, it

is the males that are brightly coloured, toattract females. Females are duller in colour,for camouflage while nesting. Camouflage isalso used by both sexes of some birds toavoid predators, or to hunt more effectively.

Bee-eaters and kingfishers are smallbirds, often with jewel-like colours. As theirname suggests, bee-eaters feed on bees,wasps and other insects. Before swallowingtheir prey, they crush the sting by smashingit on a branch. Kingfishers sit on branchesover stretches of water, diving in to catchsmall fish in their beaks.The long-legged storks and herons also

feed on fish, though some large storks arecarrion-eaters. Most storks and herons arewading birds, standing in the shallows andsnapping up fish in their long beaks. Theirrelatives, the flamingos, get their pink colourfrom the tiny plant and animal material inthe water on which they feed. Hummingbirds and swifts are excellent

flyers. They are small birds with long,pointed wings. Swifts can mate, feed onflying insects, and even sleep on the wing.

Hornbills are named after thebright, horny growth on theirhuge beaks. These noisybirds often feed onsnakes and scorpions.

Scarlet macaw

Many members of the cuckoo family laytheir eggs in the nest of a different species.After hatching, young cuckoos often killtheir “true” nestmates. The hoatzin isprobably related to the cuckoos. It nestsover rainforest rivers. If attacked, the youngdrop into the water, then climb back up tothe nest using sharp claws on their wings.

The parrot family includesparrots, macaws, cockatoosand budgerigars. They feedon fruits, nuts and seeds,picking them up withtheir nimble toes.Parrots can crackeven the hardestnuts in theirpowerful jaws.Many kindsare also ableto imitatehumanvoices.

Woodpeckers (right) cling to treetrunks, hammering into the bark withtheir long beak to extract insects.They also use this method to dig outnest holes. Two of their toes pointforwards and two backwards, givingthem a good grip on vertical surfaces.

The smallest hummingbirds (below)are only 5.4 cm long. Humming birdshover in front of flowers, drinkingnectar with their longbeak. They beat theirwings up to 80 timesper second.

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Aalbatrosses 25, 26, 29alligators 18, 23amphibians 16-17, 18-19anaconda 18angelfish 15anole, green 18ant, army 8antbird 25antennae 4ants 7, 9arachnids 10-11arthropods 4-11auks 25, 27avocets 25

Bbarracuda 14-15beaks 24bee-eaters 25, 30bees 4, 9beetle, Hercules 8beetles 8bird of paradise 25, 31birds 24-31evolution of 26-27

bitterns 25boobies 25budgerigars 30bugs 4, 7bunting, snow 31buntings 25burrows 45bustards 25butterflies 4-5

Ccamouflage 5, 6-7,15, 20, 30cassowaries 25, 28caterpillars 5, 9cayman, spectacled 18centipedes 4, 11chameleons 20chickens 25, 29chimaeras 12-13chitin 4cobra, king 21cockatoos 30cockroaches 6cocoons 5coelacanth 12cold-blooded 6, 12, 16, 18colonies 7, 9, 28-29condor, Andean 24cormorants 25, 29crabs 4cranes 24-25crickets 6crocodiles 18, 23crocodilians 18, 23crows 25cuckoos 25, 30

Ddinosaurs 18-19dippers 25divers 25, 28dodo 27dolphinfish 15

lizards 18, 20locusts 6lorikeet, purple crowned 24lyrebirds 31

Mmacaw 24, 30mallard 24mandarinfish 15mantis 4, 7marlin, blue 14-15Mauritius 27merganser, red-breasted 28metamorphosis 16migration 5, 24, 31millipedes 11moa, giant 27mockingbirds 25mola mola see sunfish, oceanmosquito 8moths 5myriapods 11

Nnests 7, 9, 24, 31newts 16-17nightjars 25

Ooarfish 15orioles 25osprey 24, 25ostrich 25, 28owls 25, 29oystercatchers 25

PPalaelodus 26parrots 25, 30partridges 29pelicans 25penguins 25, 28pests 6, 27petrels 25, 29pheasants 25, 29pigeons 24-25, 27pipits 25plankton 12, 15plovers 25pollination 6, 8potoos 25prehensile tails 20proboscis 5pupation 4-5, 8python 21

Rrabbitfish 13rails 25rainforest, Amazon 18rainforest, Australian 5rainforest, Southeast Asian 5ratites 28raven 31rays 12-13reptiles 18-23, 26rhea 25, 28roadrunners 25

Ssalamanders 16-17salmon 14sandgrouse 25sandpipers 25sawshark 13

dragonflies 6drones 9ducks 25, 28, 31

Eeagles 25, 29eels 14-15elephant bird (Aepyornis) 27elytra 8emu 25, 28evolution of birds 26-27 of fish 12of reptiles 18-19

Ffalcons 25, 29feathers 24, 26, 28-29, 30finches 25fins, dorsal 15, 47fish 12-15flamingo 24-25, 30fleas 8flies 8frigatebirds 25frogmouths 25frogs 16-17

GGalapagos islands 22gamebirds 29, 31gannets 25, 29geckos 20geese 25, 28gharial 23gills 12, 16, 17goldfinch 25goose, snow 25grasshoppers 4, 6grebes 25, 28grouse 25, 29gulls 25, 31

Hhawks 25, 29herons 25, 30hibernation 17hoatzin 25, 30honey 9honey-guides 25honeybees 9hoopoes 25hornbills 25, 30hummingbirds 25, 30

Iibises 24-25iguana, green 18, 20iguanas 20insects 4-9invertebrates 4-11

J Kjacamars 25jacana 24kingfishers 25, 30kiwi 25, 28Komodo dragon 20

Lladybird 8larks 25larvae 4-5, 8-9leaf insects 7lionfish 14

scavengers 8, 27scorpions 4, 10-11sea anemones 15seabirds 29seahorse, thorny 14seahorses 14-15secretary birds 25sharks 12-13shearwaters 25shrimps 4skates 13skinks 20skuas 25snakes 18, 21snipes 25songbirds 31sparrows 25spawn,frog 17toad 17

spider silk 10spiders 4, 10spoonbills 25stick insects 7stingray 13stonefish 14stork, white 24storks 25, 30sunbirds 25sunfish, ocean 14swallows 25swans 25, 28swifts 25, 30swim bladders 14

Ttadpoles 16-17tails, prehensile 20termite, soldier 7termites 7, 9tern, Arctic 25terns 25theropods 26third eye 20, 23thrushes 25tits 25, 31toads 16-17tortoises 18, 22toucans 25tropicbird, red-tailed 29tuatara 23turacos 25turkeys 25, 29turtles 18, 22

Vvenom 9, 10-11, 13, 21vertebrates 12-31vultures 24-25, 27, 29

Wwagtails 25warbler, willow 31warblers 25warm-blooded 24, 32wasps 9waterfowl 28webs 10wings, in birds 24, 26in insects 4

woodlice 4woodpecker 24, 25, 30workers 9wren 25, 31

I N D E X

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INDEXPage numbers in bold

refer to main entries.

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children˛s illustrated encyclopedia Animals...animal, or bright colours to warn that the butterﬂy or moth is poisonous, help these insects to avoid being eaten. The Hercules moth