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Child Labor
and the American
Industrial Revolution
By Dorothea Stewart
22
City Population & Child LaborCity Population & Child Labor
0.77
1.75
0.000.200.400.600.801.001.201.401.601.802.00
1815 1860 1870 1900 1916
Mill
ions
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
perc
ent
Children employed in Industry City Population
At that time: An increase in city population is considered an increase of industrial employment. Farming occupation decreased.
33
What spurred the American What spurred the American Industrial RevolutionIndustrial Revolution
Mechanized cotton textile Mechanized cotton textile
factoriesfactories
Mechanical, labor-saving devicesMechanical, labor-saving devices
Discovery of coal depositsDiscovery of coal deposits
Steam engine and electricitySteam engine and electricity
Production of American ironProduction of American iron
National transportation systemNational transportation system
44
Agents of the American Industrial Agents of the American Industrial RevolutionRevolution
All these factors are interdependent:
Without the mechanized
production a greater scale of produced items would not have been possible. The use the steam
engine made it possible to improve and enlarge machinery for higher production.
Electricity made factories independent from rivers and streams.
The expanded national transportation system ensured to satisfy the demand for lower-priced goods throughout the country.
55
Thus: Thus:
Large scale production is unavoidable.
66
IndustrializationIndustrialization
cheapcheaplaborlabor
wanted
needed
used
77
Transformation of a SocietyTransformation of a SocietyFrom farming and the boat to the From farming and the boat to the
factories:factories:
88
MigrationMigrationFarming families moving to Farming families moving to
industrial centersindustrial centersFarming that depended on one
crop was not viable
Often times, the father remained on the farm while
women and children, as less efficient farm workers, went into industrial employment.
Steady employment was more viable and lucrative than toiling on a worn out farm
99
ImmigrationImmigration
From the boat to industrial employment:
5.6
10.3
13.5
0.002.004.006.008.00
10.0012.00
14.00
Millions
1870 1900 1910
Foreign born residents
1010
LABORLABOR
CCHHIILLDD
1111
Children in the household Children in the household economyeconomy
“… the household is the locus (location) of both production and
consumption.”
In the pre-industrial society children worked side by side with their parents for the benefits of the family household. The work was controlled and determined by the parents. Family life, education and labor happened simultaneously.
1212
Children in the yeoman* economyChildren in the yeoman* economy
“… most yeoman households practiced one or more industrial
occupations in which the children invariably participated.”
Family production, apart from farming, was not only for their own consumption but also for the market or for bartering.
Children worked long hours alongside their parents in the family and household environment.
*A man holding and cultivating a small piece of land
1313
Children in the proto*-Children in the proto*-industrialization stageindustrialization stage
“… it was in this stage that the seeds for child labor were sown.”
The family was the producing entity. A merchant provided the raw material and tended to the sales on the market. The family entered an employment relationship where the children were part of. Labor though, still happened within the family household and environment.
*First stage of something,. Here : first stage of industrialization
1414
The ChangeThe Change
Think of the deadly drudgery.
Children rise at half past four, commanded by the ogre scream of
the factory whistle;
they hurry, ill fed, unkempt, unwashed, half dressed to the walls
which shut out the day
and which confine them amid the dim and dust and merciless maze of
the machines.Julia E. Johnsen
1515
Why Children?Why Children?
Employing children was thought to be a noble cause.
Work supports the development of appropriate values and ethics:“Can it be doubted that, if the crowd of little
mendicant (homeless) boys and girls who infest this edifice (Building) and assail us every day at its very thresholds, (...) begging for a cent, were employed in some manufacturing establishment, it would be better for them and the city? Those who object to the manufacturing system should recollect that constant occupation is the best security for innocence and virtue, and that idleness is the parent of vice and crime.” Senator Henry Clay, 1820
1616
And 100 years later:And 100 years later:
“The real problem in America is not child labor, but child idleness. You cannot convince me that it hurts a child either physically or morally to make him work. Where one child, in my experience, has been injured from work, ten thousand have gone to the devil because of lack of occupation.”
Senator Charles S. Thomas, 1925
1717
HoweverHowever
“If laws raised the minimum working age,
companies would have to replace children with more expensive adults and that
would reduce profitsOwner of Southern textile mill, 1910
Remember:
1818
IndustrializationIndustrialization
cheapcheaplaborlabor
wanted
needed
used
1919
Wage DifferencesWage Differences
$7.00
$1.50
$0.00
$1.00
$2.00
$3.00
$4.00
$5.00
$6.00
$7.00
Week
Adult Male Child
What was the annual profit for the company employing the child instead of the father?
$3.54
$2.34
$1.32
$0.00
$0.50
$1.00
$1.50
$2.00
$2.50
$3.00
$3.50
$4.00
Week
Male Female Child
2020
Wage DisparitiesWage Disparities
$364.00
$78.00
$0.00
$50.00
$100.00
$150.00
$200.00
$250.00
$300.00
$350.00
$400.00
Wage
Father Child
$177.84
121.68
$68.64
$0.00
$50.00
$100.00
$150.00
$200.00
Wage
Male Female Child
Gain: $286.00 per child employed instead of father
Gain: $109.20, per child employed instead of father
2121
Wage DisparitiesWage Disparities
To put it in Lewis Hine’s words:
“The object of employing children is not to train them,
but to get high profits from their
work.”
2222
Child Labor in the Family EconomyChild Labor in the Family Economy
Traditionally, the whole family worked and created a family income.
There is some evidence that fathers lived off the income of the children.
However, in most cases the child’s or children’s income was a necessity for
the family’s survival.
The availability of cheaper child labor decreased adults’ wages so that every
member of the household needed to contribute.
2323
What about School?What about School?
SchoolSchools were not available for most
working class children
SchoolParents did not recognize the future value of education over the necessary income of the present.
SchoolNor did employers give up their present profit for a better educated, i.e. more productive workforce.
SchoolSchool days and the school year were much shorter than workdays and the work year. Children would have been unattended.
School
NO
2424
The African American ExperienceThe African American Experience
The slave holder society considered
all slaves, adults and children, as
property that could be disposed of,
used, and sold as seemed fit at any
time.
2525
The African American ExperienceThe African American Experience
Slave children guaranteed the continuation of
labor supply. They learned by
working alongside adult slaves.
2626
The African American ExperienceThe African American Experience
A low life expectancy due to overworking
children was not in the interest of the slave holder.
Nevertheless, child labor in slavery was not the issue to condemn but slavery itself.
2727
After AbolitionAfter Abolition
“First thing I knowed we’d stayed on the
place free longer than we’d stayed as slaves”
Virginian freed woman
African Americans were not considered capable to work in factories and were mostly excluded from the industrial section. They remained in agriculture, domestic and personal service.
2828
Children without hope
CHILDREN
in
MillsMinesGlass FactoriesThe Streets
2929
The golf links lie so near the mill
That nearly every day
The laboring children can look
outAnd see the men at play.
Sarah N. Cleghorn
3030
Why do I pick the threads all day, Mother, Mother?
While sunshine children laugh and play, and must I work forever?
Yes, Shadow Child, the livelong day, Daughter little Daughter, your hands must pick the threads away
And feel the sunshine never.
Harriet Munroe
3131
They came home too tired to eat the food their money bought. And often they fell asleep with their clothes still on. When the five o’clock whistle blew, they went back to the mill, without having seen the sun, the light of day or anything but the mill for twenty-four hours.
…,the children fed the endless ravening hunger of the machines.
3232
They (the boys) work here, … picking away at the black coals, bending over till their little spines are curved, never saying a work all the livelong day….
Not three boys in this roomful could read or write….
They know nothing but the difference between slate and coal.Excerpt from an 1877 issue
of “The Labor Standard”.
3333
How many boys worked in the
coal mines?
9,000? 12,000 or 7,600?
More or less?
Does is really matter?
It was a large number. But the
number is not the issue.
Boys working in coal mines is the
issue.
3434
Owing to the intense darkness in the mine , I didn’t notice the chalk drawings on the door until I had developed the photographic plate. These drawings tell the tale of the boy’s loneliness underground.
Lewis Hine
A lonely job, by himself nine or ten hours a day in absolute darkness save for his little oil lamp. …
3535
At least a dozen of the carrying-in boys were probably under 16.
These little boys did not look healthy, many of them, not fit to do their all-night work in the intense heat and hurry.
They are on the walk all the time for ten hours….
Timed one boy and paced the distance; at his rate he walked a little over 20 miles per night.
Charles L. Chute
3636
Learning the Trade?
For every 100 boys under the age of sixteen that we permit to do this night work in the glass factories, not more than four stand any chance of becoming skilled tradesmen,…
At present there is no prospect whatever for the boy learning the glass trade.
Herschel Jones
3737
I would rather send my boys
straight to hell than send them by
way of the glass house.
Longtime glass factory worker
3838
Boys bought the newspapers wholesale and made their earnings through the markup – one to three cents per paper.
Most of them stayed out in the streets until they were sold out.
3939
From Rags to Riches
Street trading kids were often considered as little entrepreneurs – Horatio Alger style.
Some of them made it into middle class or even a ‘captain of industry’.
However, for one who made it there were hundreds that did not.
4040
Canneries
Department stores
Night messengers
Shrimp pickers
Oyster shuckers
AGRICULTURE
Meatpacking
Industrial Homework
And where else?
4141
Continues…Continues…
LABORLABOR
CCHHIILLD D
4242
“In general, “child labor” refers to children under 18 years old who
work in both the formal and informal sectors, in conditions that are harmful or potentially
harmful to the child. Underpayment of children for their work and other forms of
exploitation, are also included.”
New Definition of Child LaborNew Definition of Child Labor
4343
From the Factories to the FieldsFrom the Factories to the Fields
Hundreds of thousands
of children work
as hired labor in
America’s fields
and orchards. These
children are among
the least protected of
all working children
4444
“The sun is blazing on my skin its hot so hot I feel as if I am going to faint but I know I can’t stop working I feel like crying but that wont help me in anything.
I keep on picking cucumbers trying not to work hard because there is a 99% percent chance that once we are done with our fifty rows there will be another twenty to fifty more rows waiting for us. We will keep on working until we cannot see the cucumbers any more.
Sometimes I want to scream at the top of my lungs because the next day will be just the same.
I hate the fact that no one thinks we can be anything but migrant workers but I know different. That is the only thing that keeps me striving daily.”
–Veronica Rodriguez, age 15, Michigan
4545
Global Child LaborGlobal Child Labor
2008 Total Child Labor - 215,000,000
91,024,00061,826,000
62,419,000
Age 5-11 Age 12-14 Age 15-15
4646
Global Child Labor by RegionGlobal Child Labor by Region
14,125,000
65,064,000
22,473,000
113,607,000
Asia and PacificLatin America and CaribbeanSub-Saharan AfricaOther Regions
4747
Far and CloseFar and CloseSouth AmericaSouth America
Bananas
Flowers, Gold,
EmeraldsOranges, Charcoal
Tea
Fireworks
4848
Far and CloseFar and CloseCentral America & CaribbeanCentral America & Caribbean
Fireworks
Charcoal, Fireworks
Fireworks
4949
Far ad CloseFar ad CloseAfricaAfrica
Cotton
Cotton, Carpets
Cocoa, Diamonds
Charcoal
5050
Far and CloseFar and CloseAsiaAsia
Coal
Carpets, Soccer Balls,
Surgical Instruments
Carpets, Footwear, Fireworks,
Glass, Bricks
Tea, Clothing
FootwearFireworks
5151
CloseClose
Fruits and Vegetables
5252
All children should be in
school
For all references click hereFor bibliography click here
5353
ReferencesReferences
Title Slide
Background photo:
http://abscynthe.deviantart.com/art/The-Poetry-of-Cogs-173578820
Photos from left right (Photographs by Lewis Hine)
http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/ww/nclc.html
http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/lewis-hine?before=1334953813
http://www.savevid.com/video/lewis-hine-a-progressive-reformer.html
http://crooksandliars.com/david-neiwert/it-was-inevitable-new-tea-partying-r
http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/lewis-hine?before=1334953813
Slide 1
Timeline for the Industrial Revolution generated from information from:
William Dudley, (ed.), The Industrial Revolution. Opposing Viewpoints. (San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1998), 18-20. Numbers for 1870 and 1900 estimated for continuation of data series.
Numbers for child labor from:
Hugh D. Hindman, Child Labor: An American History. (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2002), 31. Child Labor has certainly started earlier than 1870. However, the US Census did not start counting industrially employed children until 1870. Ibid., 32.
Children started working in textile factories as early as 1789 as George Washington could observe himself. Rhoda Cahn and William Cahn, No Time for School. No Time for Play. The Story of Child Labor in America. (New York: Julian Messner, 1972), 21
City population as indicator for industrialization: Dudley (ed.), The Industrial Revolution, 20
5454
ReferencesReferences
Slide 3,4
Ruth Holland, Mill Child. The Story of Child Labor in America. (New York: Crowell-Collier Press,1970), 12-13
Slide 7
Farming photo from:
http://thefederalist-gary.blogspot.com/2011/09/shock-americans-are-lazy-bastards.html.
Immigration Photo
http://www.ellisisland.org/photoalbums/ellis_island_then.asp
Factory photo from:
http://senioreagles.wikispaces.com/Industrial+Revolution+Invention+Project.
Slide 8
Holland, Mill Child, 2-3
Russell, Freedman, Kids at Work. Lewis Hine and the Crusade against child labor. (New York: Clarion Books, 1994), 32
Dudley (ed.), The Industrial Revolution, 224
Slide 9
Most immigrants went straight into industrial employment after their successful immigration. Hindman, Child Labor, 23
For statistics about immigration:
Nancy S. Landale and Avery M. Guest, “Generation, Ethnicity, and Occupational Opportunity in Late 19th Century America,” American Sociological ReviewVol. 55, No. 2 (1990), 280
5555
ReferencesReferences
Slide 11
Hindman, Child Labor, 21
See ibid and Holland, Mill Child, 4
Slide 12
Hindman, Child Labor, 22
Ibid.
Holland, Mill Child, 4-7,
Sarah Horrel and Jane Humphries, “ ‘The exploitation of little Children’: Child Labor and the Family Economy in the Industrial Revolution.” Explorations in Economic History32 (1995) 486-487 (for bibliography 485-516)
Slide 13
Hindman, Child Labor, 23
Ibid.
Slide 14
Printed in: Juliet H. Mofford, (ed.), Child Labor in America. (Carlisle: Discovery Enterprises, Ltd., 1997), 5
Picture from:
http://www.businesspundit.com/the-15-most-notorious-sweatshops-of-all-time/
Slide 15
Quote from Senator Clay in:
Dudley (ed.), The Industrial Revolution, 17
5656
ReferencesReferences
Slide 16
Quote from Senator Thomas in:
Mofford (ed.), Child Labor in America, 44
Slide 17
Quote from the textile mill owner in:
Ibid.
Slide 19
$ 7.00 for the father and $ 1.50 for the child from:
Holland, Mill Child, 19
Male, female, child wages from
Dudley (ed.), The Industrial Revolution, 217
Another example states a weekly rate of $ 6.55 for the girl and $ 7.70 for the father. Mofford (ed.), Child Labor in America, 49
Slide 20
No footnotes
Slide 21
Freedman, Kids at Work, 21
5757
ReferencesReferences
Slide 22
Hindman, Child Labor, 35
Ibid., 39
Holland, Mill Child, 47
Freedman, Kids at Work, 8
Kaushik Basu and Pham Hoang Van, “The Economics of Child Labor,” The American Economic Review, Vol. 88, No. 3 (Jun., 1998), 415
Freedman, Kids at Work, 22
Slide 23
Hindman, Child Labor, 42
Slide 24-26
Ibid., 19-20 and
Slide 27
Quote from:
Patricia C. and Frederick L. Makissack, Days of Jubilee. The End of Slavery in the United States. (New York: Scholastic Press, 2003) 97
Joe William Trotter, Jr., “African Americans and the Industrial Revolution.” OAH Magazine of History, Vol. 15, No. 1, The Industrial Revolution (Fall, 2000), 20-21
Slide 29
Poem printed in: Mofford, (ed.) Child Labor in America, 7
5858
ReferencesReferencesSlide 30
The full song printed in ibid., 18
Slide 31
Quotes from:
Holland, Mill Child, 16, 17
Photo from:
http://motleynews.net/2012/02/04/historical-photos-of-child-labor-in-nc-textile-mills/
Slide 32
This quote is abbreviated. The excerpt is printed in:
Mofford, (ed.) Child Labor in America, 23-24
Photograph by Lewis Hine from
http://www.theoldphotoalbum.com/2009/05/lewis-hine-child-labor-i/
Slide 33
See Hindman, Child Labor, 94
Photograph by Lewis Hine from
http://www.shorpy.com/node/36
Slide 35
Chute was an investigator for the National Child Labor Committee.
Quote: Hindman, Child Labor, 131
Photograph by Lewis Hine from
http://argenteditions.com/carryingin-boy-alexandria-glass-factory-p-14.html
Slide 34
Quote: Freedman, Kids at Work, 51
Photograph by Lewis Hine from http://www.lewishinephotographs.com/content/vance-trapper-boy-15-years-old-has-trapped-several-years-west-va-coal-mine-75-day-10-hours-w
5959
ReferencesReferencesSlide 36
Herschel Jones was also an investigator for the National Child Labor Committee.
Quote: Hindman, Child Labor, 137
Slide 37
Freedman, Kids at Work, 57
Photograph by Lewis Hine from
http://argenteditions.com/typical-glass-works-boy-indiana-night-shift-p-13.html
Slide 38
Hindman, Child Labor, 229
Photograph by Lewis Hine from
http://obviousmag.org/en/archives/2009/09/child_labour_america.html
Slide 39
Hindman, Child Labor, 215, 233
Photograph by Lewis Hine from
http://www.theoldphotoalbum.com/2009/05/lewis-hine-child-labor-v/
Slide 40
Hindman, Child Labor, 187-212, 214-228, 248-290
Freedman, Kids at Work, 40-45
Agriculture is emphasized because even today about half million children work in agriculture in the U.S. See footnote to slides 52 and 53
6060
ReferencesReferencesSlide 41
Hindman, Child Labor, 49
Slide 42
Ibid., 50
Slide 43
Mofford (ed.), Child Labor in America, 11
Slide 44
Hindman, Child Labor, 51-52
Slide 45
Ibid., 65 and Mofford (ed.), Child Labor in America, 13
Slide 46
Hindman, Child Labor, 65-66
Both, the Keating-Owen Act and the Child Labor Tax Act were considered unconstitutional because of the Tenth Amendment that reserves rights to the states where not particularly explained. It should be added that many employers adjusted their standards towards the Keating-Owen Act. Also, the War Labor Policies Board (WW I) had inserted a clause for federal contracts that required adaptation of labor standards to the Keating-Owen Act. Ibid., 69-70 and 72
Slide 47
Ibid., 70-74
Slide 48
Ibid., 81-84 and Mofford (ed.), Child Labor in America, 13
Slide 49
Hindman, Child Labor, 84-85
6161
ReferencesReferencesSlide 51
S.L. Bachman, “The Political Economy of Child Labor and its Impact on International Business,” Business Economics July 2000, 32 (30-41)
Slide 52
Association of Farmworkers Opportunity Programs, “Children in the Fields. An American Problem”, available from http://afop.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Children-in-the-Fields-Report-2007.pdf ; Internet; accessed 9 May 2012.
Photograph: ibid.
Slide 53
Ibid.
Slide 54
Association of Farmworkers Opportunity Programs, “Children at Work. A Glimpse into the Life of Child Farm Workers in the United States”, available from http://afop.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/NC-Blueberry-Photo-Booklet-2009.pdf; Internet; accessed 9 May 2012.
Numbers for world wide child labor
http://ilo-mirror.library.cornell.edu/public/english/dialogue/actrav/genact/child/part2_a/agric.htm
Numbers, industries and countries for child labor
Do picture per industry and name the countries and numbers
http://ziyadnews.blogspot.com/2010/05/child-labor-is-growing-concern-aroud.html
Slides 55 und 56
International Labor Office, “Global child labour developments: Measuring trends from 2004 to 2008”; Available from http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/viewProduct.do?productId=13313 ; Internet; accessed 10 May 2012
Slides 57 and 58
Child Labor Coalition, “Child Labor Coalition announces Top Ten Child Labor Stories of 2011”; available from http://stopchildlabor.org/?p=2528; Internet; accessed 10 May 2012.
6262
ReferencesReferences
Slides 59-63
Zyiadnews, “Child Labor is a growing concern around the world…”; available from http://ziyadnews.blogspot.com/2010/05/child-labor-is-growing-concern-aroud.html ; Internet; accessed 10 May 2012
All maps from www.worldatlas.com
Slide 64
Photo from http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/briefing/labour/index.htm;
6363
BibliographyBibliography
•Association of Farmworkers Opportunity Programs, “Children at Work. A Glimpse into the Life of Child Farm Workers in the United States.” Available from http://afop.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/NC-Blueberry-Photo-Booklet-2009.pdf. Internet; accessed 9 May 2012.
•Association of Farmworkers Opportunity Programs. “Children in the Fields. An American Problem.” Available from http://afop.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/Children-in-the-Fields-Report-2007.pdf. Internet; accessed 9 May 2012.
•Bachman, S.L.. “The Political Economy of Child Labor and its Impact on International Business.” Business Economics32, July (2000): 30-41
•Basu, Kaushik and Pham Hoang Van. “The Economics of Child Labor,” The American Economic Review88, No. 3 (1998): 412-427.
•Cahn, Rhoda, and William Cahn, No Time for School. No Time for Play. The Story of Child Labor in America. New York: Julian Messner, 1972.
•Child Labor Coalition. “Child Labor Coalition announces Top Ten Child Labor Stories of 2011.” Available from http://stopchildlabor.org/?p=2528. Internet; accessed 10 May 2010.
•Dudley,William, (ed.). The Industrial Revolution. Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1998.
•Freedman, Russell. Kids at Work. Lewis Hine and the Crusade against child labor. New York: Clarion Books, 1994.
•Hindman, Hugh D. Child Labor: An American History. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2002.
•Holland, Ruth. Mill Child. The Story of Child Labor in America. New York: Crowell-Collier Press,1970.
6464
BibliographyBibliography
•Horrel, Sarah, and Jane Humphries, “ ‘The exploitation of little Children’: Child Labor and the Family Economy in the Industrial Revolution.” Explorations in Economic History32 (1995): 485-516
•International Labor Office. “Global child labour developments: Measuring trends from 2004 to 2008.” Available from http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/viewProduct.do?productId=13313. Internet; accessed 10 May 2012
•Landale, Nancy S., and Avery M. Guest. “Generation, Ethnicity, and Occupational Opportunity in Late 19th Century America.” American Sociological Review55, No. 2 (1990): 280-296.
•Makissack, Patricia C., and Frederick L. Makissack. Days of Jubilee. The End of Slavery in the United States. New York: Scholastic Press, 2003.
•Mofford, Juliet H, (ed.), Child Labor in America. Carlisle: Discovery Enterprises, Ltd., 1997
•Trotter, Jr, Joe William. “African Americans and the Industrial Revolution.” OAH Magazine of History15, No. 1 (2000): 19-23.
•Zyiadnews. “Child Labor is a growing concern around the world… .” Available from http://ziyadnews.blogspot.com/2010/05/child-labor-is-growing-concern-aroud.html. Internet; accessed 10 May 2012