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Child Development
FROM CONCEPTION THROUGH THE FIRST YEAR
• Three stages of prenatal development– Germinal stage
• 0-14 days the fertilized egg (zygote) divides and attaches to the uterine wall
• Outside becomes placenta, inner part becomes embryo.
– Embryonic stage after implantation• About 2 weeks to eighth week the embryo develops. • Organs and limbs develop & testosterone is secreted in males.
– Fetal stage• After eighth week, further development of organs and systems.• Marked increase in nervous system development and brain weight.
Prenatal development
Chromosomal Aberrations
• Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
• Turner Syndrome (only 1 X Chromosome)
• Fragile X Syndrome (mutation on X Chr)
• Klinfelter Syndrome (XXY)
Down Syndrome• Individuals may have some or all of the following characteristics:
– Oblique eye fissures – Poor muscle tone – Flat nasal bridge – Single palmar fold – Protruding tongue – Short neck – White spots on the iris known as Brushfield spots – Excessive joint laxity – Congenital heart defects – Excessive space between large toe and second toe– Most have mental retardation in the mild (IQ 50–70) to moderate (IQ
35–50) range. – Can have serious abnormalities affecting any body system. – They also may have a broad head and a very round face.
Turner Syndrome• Common symptoms of Turner syndrome include:
– Short stature – Swelling of the hands and feet – Broad chest and widely-spaced nipples – Low hairline – Low-set ears – Reproductive sterility – Rudimentary ovaries and amenorrhea (absence of a menstrual period) – Increased weight, obesity – Small fingernails – Webbing of the neck – Aorta problems – Visual impairments – Ear infections and hearing loss– Some degree of cognitive deficiency
Metabolic Disorders
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH).
• This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine which is found naturally in the breast milk of mammals.
• When PAH is deficient, phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into phenylpyruvate (also known as phenylketone), which is detected in the urine.
• PAH is found on chromosome number 12. • Left untreated, this condition can cause problems with brain development, leading to
progressive mental retardation and seizures.
• PKU is one of the few genetic diseases that can be controlled by diet. A diet low in phenylalanine can be a very effective treatment.
• There is no cure. Damage done is irreversible so early detection is crucial.
Agents that cross the placenta
German measles
X-rays and other radiation
Toxic chemicals
Sexually transmitted diseases
Cigarette smoking
Alcohol and other drugs
Maternal Infections
• Viral infections in the mother– Rubella infection during the first month of pregnancy affects the
organogenesis of 50% of embryos. Infection in the third month of pregnancy still disturbs the development of 15% of fetuses. Impairments may vary and include mental retardation, microcephaly, hearing and vision impairment, congenital heart disease, and behavior problems.
– Congenital cytomegalovirus (Herper Virus) infection may result in microcephaly, hearing loss, and psychomotor retardation.
– Congenital toxoplasmosis may result in significant problems in approximately 20% of infected infants (eg, hydrocephalus, microcephaly, psychomotor retardation, vision and hearing impairment) and in milder developmental problems later in life.
– Congenital human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Studies of mothers who were HIV+. Some cases the child was characterized by microcephaly, progressive neurological deterioration, mental retardation, and behavioral problems.
Toxic Substances
• The most important of the teratogenic substances is ethanol, which is the cause of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).
• The prevalence of this syndrome varies around the world, but its
occurrence in industrialized countries is estimated to be approximately 1 in 1000 newborns.
• When used heavily during pregnancy, alcohol causes abnormalities in 3 main categories:– Dysmorphic features, which originate in the period of organogenesis.– Prenatal and postnatal growth retardation, including microcephaly.– CNS dysfunction, including mild-to-moderate mental retardation, delay
in motor development, hyperactivity, and attention deficit. The severity of the symptoms is related to the amount of alcohol ingested.
Postnatal Causes
• Infections– Bacterial and viral infections of the brain during childhood may cause meningitis and encephalitis and result
in permanent damage. • Toxic substances
– Lead poisoning is still an important cause of mental retardation in the United States. The most frequent source of lead is pica (ie, ingestion of flaking, old, lead-based paint).
• Other postnatal causes– Among childhood brain tumors are second in frequency after leukemias. – Traffic accidents, drowning, and other traumas are the most common causes of death during childhood.– Even greater is the number of children who become disabled.
• Psychosocial problems– The developmental level of a growing individual depends on the integrity of the CNS and on environmental
and psychological factors. – The importance of environmental stimulation for child development has been appreciated since research on
children in institutions showed that development was severely affected in a depriving environment, even if adequate physical care was provided.
– Severe maternal mental illness is another risk factor. Mothers with severe and chronic illness might have difficulty providing adequate care and stimulation. Maternal depression during pregnancy and postpartum has been shown to be associated with developmental delay in children at 18 months of age.
• Unknown causes– Despite detailed assessment, no cause can be identified in approximately 30% of cases of severe mental
retardation and in 50% of cases of mild mental retardation. This, of course, reflects the inadequacy of diagnostic techniques, rather than a lack of causation.
Culture and Maturation
Many aspects of development depend on customsBaby’s ability to sleep alone.
Recommendation to have babies sleep on their
back has caused many babies to skip crawling.
Attachment
A deep emotional bond that an infant develops
with its primary caretaker.
Contact comfortIn primates, the innate pleasure derived from
close physical contact.
The basis of the infant’s first attachment.
Types of Attachment
Secure A parent-infant relationship in which the baby is
secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion.
Insecure A parent-infant relationship in which the baby
clings to the parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger or apathy to reunion.
Insecure Attachment
Parenting that is abusive, neglectful,or erratic.
Child’s temperament.
Stressful circumstances in the family.
How critical are the early years?
During the first 15 months, there is an explosion of new synapses in the brain. As information is consolidated.
The brain continues developing beyond the first three years.
• Separation Anxiety Disorder should not be confused with Separation Anxiety, which occurs as "a normal stage of development for healthy, secure babies."
• Separation anxiety occurs as babies begin to understand their own selfhood—or understand that they are a separate person from their primary caregiver.
• At the same time, the concept of object permanence emerges—which is when children learn that something still exists when it is not seen or heard. As babies begin to understand that they can be separated from their primary caregiver, they do not understand that their caregiver will return, nor do they have a concept of time. This, in turn, causes a normal and healthy anxious reaction. Separation anxiety typically onsets around 8 months of age and increases until 13-15 months, when it begins to decline[5].
• [edit] See also
• Separation anxiety is a psychological condition in which an individual has excessive anxiety regarding separation from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment (like a father and mother).
• Contents• [hide]• Background • Separation Anxiety Disorder versus Separation Anxiety • See also • References • [edit] Background• Present in all age groups, adult separation anxiety disorder (affecting roughly 7% of adults) is more common than
childhood separation anxiety disorder (affecting approximately 4% of children).[1][2] Separation anxiety disorder is often characterized by some of the following symptoms:
• Recurring distress when separated from the subject of attachment (such as significant other, the father or the mother, or home)
• Persistent, excessive worrying about losing the subject of attachment • Persistent, excessive worrying that some event will lead to separation from a major attachment • Excessive fear about being alone without subject of attachment • Persistent reluctance or refusal to go to sleep without being near a major attachment figure, like a significant other
or mother • Recurrent nightmares about separation • Often, separation anxiety disorder is a symptom of a co-morbid condition. Studies show that children suffering
from separation anxiety disorder are much more likely to have ADHD, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, and other disorders later in life.[3]
