Cheraman Perumal

7/25/2019 Cheraman Perumal

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Historical Research Letter www.iiste.org

ISSN 2224-3178 (Paper) ISSN 222-!"#4 ($%li%e)

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Historical Aspects of the Legend of Cheraman Perumal of

Kodungallur in Kerala

r.Hasee%a &.

ssista%t pro*essor

Post +ra,ate eparte%t o* /co%oics' 0./.S sai college'P.&eaallr'o,%gallr'erala

/ail.eco%oicsasaigail.co

Abstract

slier o* a state i% I%,ia5s ,eep soth' erala is shape, 6 its la%,scape alost this swathe o* sol-e%chi%g

gree% will slow 6or stri,e to a lisse,-ot ale. erala is a worl, awa6 *ro the *re%96 o* elsewhere' as i*

I%,ia ha, passe, throgh the Loo:i%g +lass a%, ecoe a% altogether ore lai,-ac: place.erala which

proclais that the ose was estalishe, #!!: o* glorios raia% Sea coast a%, eaches' a la%gi, %etwor:

o* ac:waters a%, the spice a%, tea-coere, hills o* the ;ester% +hats. s rela/)' /g6pt (#42 >/)' a%, ?%isia (#7! >/) ths a:i%g it ol,est ose

a*ter the *irst oses i% Sa,i raia a%, >hi%a. ?he i%teresti%g estio% is wh6 wol, a ose e

estalishe, so *ar awa6 *ro the ,eserts where Isla was sprea,i%g@ ;ho was ehi%, it a%, ore iporta%tl6'

is the ose as ol, as it clais@

Keywords:erala'>heraa% Peral ' Prophet 0haa,

Introduction

?here is a poplar stor6 ehi%, this ose which is well :%ow% i% erala ee% to,a6. $%ce a :i%g A a

>heraa% Peral A was wal:i%g o% the alco%6 o* his palace whe% he spotte, the oo% splitti%g i%to two a%,

=oi%i%g ac: agai%. Bewil,ere,' he co%slte, a *ew astrologers' who co%*ire, that sch a% ee%t ha, i%,ee,occrre, a%, was %ot a 6stical era%ga%ore a%, it is the6 who set p the *irst oses' i%cl,i%g the

o%e at o,%gallr. ccor,i%g to the lege%,' Sara* I% 0ali:' 0ali: I% i%ar' 0ali: I% Hai' I% 0ali: a%,

their wies a%, *rie%,s were respo%sile *or estalishi%g the *irst oses at o,%gallr' olla (i% North' %ot

Dilo%)' 0arai (0ata6i)' Ca:a%r' 0a%=arr (0a%galore)' a%=ira:tt (asergo,e)' Ear*atta% (arippat)'

ah*atta% (harata)' Ca%,ari%a (Pa%tala6a%i olla) a%, >ali6ath (>hali6a %ear Be6pore)

?here is o%e thi%g to e %ote, aot >heraa% Peral. ?hat was %ot the %ae o* a particlar :i%g't a title. >heraa% was the %ae o* the ,6%ast6 o* >hera rlers a%, Peral ea%t' Fthe great o%eG. ccor,i%g

to Keralolpathi ($rigi%s o* erala)' writte% i% the 17th or 18th ce%tr6' *ollowi%g arios co%*licts i% the "th

ce%tr6' the represe%taties o* #4 settlee%ts i% erala roght the Perals *ro otsi,e erala a%, each o%e

was to rle *or 12 6ears. ?here hae ee% eheraa% Peral ase, o% what he ha, hear,.His ersio% goes as *ollowsJ ro%, #!! 6ears e*ore BarosaGs tie' there was a ight6 lor, %ae,

>hiria6 Peral' whose capital was a poplar port *or pepper tra,e. ?he 0oors who cae *or tra,e ha,


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%eros ,iscssio%s with the :i%g a%, the6 co%erte, hi to Isla. He we%t to 0ecca i% their copa%6 a%,

,ie, either there or o% the wa6 ac: the 0alaar people %eer saw their :i%g agai%. Barosa also wrote that the

si%gle :i%g,o which >heraa% Peral rle, was partitio%e, i%to three A >a%%a%ore' >alict a%, Dilo% A

with >alict hai%g the right o* coi%age. Bt pa6 atte%tio% to o%e little ,etailJ Barosa e%tio%s that this i%ci,e%t

happe%e, #!! 6ears ac: a%, %ot 87 6ears.

?he %era%ga%ore o% their wa6 to ,aGs *oot i%

>e6lo% (SeeJ How ,i, ,a reach Sri La%:a). ?he :i%g i%ite, the to his palace a%, i% what st e o%e o*

the easiest co%ersio% attepts i% the worl,' co%erte, a*ter liste%i%g to their co%ersatio%. He ,ii,e, the

:i%g,o a%, secretl6 we%t to raia with the pilgris which agrees with what Barosa wrote. ei%,,i% also

e%tio%e, that this :i%g was rler o* the la%, *ro asargo, to a%6a ari a%, gies a% iporta%t ,etail

regar,i%g the ,ate. ccor,i%g to hi' this i%ci,e%t ,i, %ot happe% ,ri%g the li*etie o* the prophet' t two

ce%tries later.

I% 1#1! >/' a%other ersio% o* this stor6 cae ot *ro a%other Portgese writer %ae, Eoas ,eBarros. Barros was a% a,i%istrator i% the Hose o* I%,ia a%, 0i%a i% Liso% a%, was respo%sile *or

,ispatchi%g arios *leets to I%,ia a%, his wor: was coplete, 6 iogo ,e >otos. ccor,i%g to his acco%t'

>hera% Pera% was a great :i%g a%, his :i%g,o was *ree%te, 6 a%6 0oors *or coerce. ccor,i%g

to Barros' these 0oors were religios *a%atics a%, co%erte, the :i%g to 0ohae,a%is. He oe, to >alict

a%, the 0oors there a,e hi eliee that he ha, to go to 0ecca to sae his sol' which he proptl6 ,i, a*ter,ii%g p his :i%g,o. ?his was the tie whe% the Portgese ha, to resort to sea o6ages to aoi, 0slico%trolle, la%, rote a%, were i% copetitio% with the 0sli tra,ers to gai% *aors with the :i%gs o* erala

*or tra,e rights. Soe o* that a%tago%is is isile i% the la%gage.

>otos the% a,,s a twist to the tale which a:es this er6 i%teresti%g. ccor,i%g to hi' the Peral

was close to the St. ?hoas >hristia%s ase, i% o,%gallr a%, wol, %ot ,o a%6thi%g withot co%slti%g the.

>otos ,rops a oshell 6 a,,i%g that he was co%erte, to their hol6 *aith' ipl6i%g that the Peral was

co%erte, to >hristia%it6 a%, %ot Isla. >otos also e%tio%s that the Peral ,ie, i% the hose o* postle St.

?hoas i% 06lapore a%, ths ,isagreei%g with the 0ecca trip.

?hs withi% a ce%tr6' 6o see the stor6 ei%g retol, to ase, o% the co%e%ie%ce o* the Portgese

who were ,oi%g e/ which is two ce%tries a*ter the ,ate

e%tio%e, o% the oar, at the >heraa% Peral Ea 0as=i,. I% 1723' the tch chaplai% >a%ter &isscher

wrote aot this stor6' with a%other twist. He agrees that >heraa% Peral was a great :i%g who ,istrite, his

:i%g,o a%, %,ertoo: a o6age. ?he =or%e6 was' Keither to the +a%ges i% *l*ille%t o* a ow or as the 0oors

sa6 to isit 0ahoet i% raia *or the prpose o* eraci%g his religio% ipl6i%g that there were ltiple

theories eheraa% Peral stor6 co%ti%e, i% the acco%ts o* tch >oa%,er &a%

,riaa% 0oe%s (1781 >/)' Cra%cis Bcha%a% (18!1 >/)' eralolpathi (17th or 18th ce%tr6) a%, +ra%thaari

(1"th ce%tr6).

?hogh there are i%or ariatio%s a%, the i%*le%ce o* local politics' the Portgese a%, 0sli

acco%ts agree o% o%e thi%gJ a :i%g *ro erala set o** to 0ecca' t this >heraa% Peral ,i, %ot trael i%

the tie perio, e%tio%e, i% the oar, otsi,e the ose. Bt' this shol, e a relatiel6 siple prole tosole. I* this i%ci,e%t ,i, happe%' the% all 6o %ee, is *igre ot who was the last >heraa% Peral a%, that is

where teple i%scriptio%s are help*l.

?here is a i%scriptio% o* &i:raa >hola ,ati%g to 1122 >/ which e%tio%s that while the Pa%,6as

too: to the +hats' the >heras too: to the sea. ?here are other statee%ts i% that i%scriptio% which hae ee%

proe% historicall6 a%, he%ce there is soe trth to the >heras ta:i%g to the sea as well. Historia%s rea, this to

ea% that the last >hera Peral' who was Raa lase:hara' le*t 6 sea. ?here is a recor, *ro a%otherteple which e%tio%s that a garla%, was o**ere, to the ,eit6 *or the e%e*it o* >heraar Raa which ea%t

that the Raa lase:hara lie, till 1122 >/.

?his poi%ts to a ,ate ch later tha% the o%es e%tio%e, 6 the Portgese a%, 0sli sorces. ?here

is ore ei,e%ce o% this *ro%t. ccor,i%g to the tra,itio% the Peral who reache, raia se%t soe esse%gers

to preach Isla i% erala who estalishe, te% oses' o* which o%e is at 0ata6i. ccor,i%g to a% i%scriptio%

*o%, at that ose' it was ilt i% 1124 >/' two 6ears a*ter the ,isappeara%ce o* >heraa% Raa lase:hara.Si%ce we :%ow the %ae o* the :i%g' it is eas6 to *i%, re*ere%ces to other :i%gs who were co%teporaries a%,

that ca% help sole the 6ster6. ?wo :i%gs e%tio%e, i% co%%ectio% with the last Peral are M,a6a &ara% o*

oltt%a, a%, aiasha o* the ?l :i%g,o. Base, o% a i%scriptio%' M,a6a &ara% has ee% ,ate, to the

earl6 12th ce%tr6 a%, the lpa i%g aiasha rle, i% the *irst hal* o* the 12th ce%tr6.

?his coplicates the %arratie. Cro the stor6 ta:i%g place i% the 8th ce%tr6' we hae oe, to the


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12th ce%tr6. Now coes a%other stor6 which throws a spa%%er i%to the wor:s. It tr%s ot that this stor6 was

:%ow% i% raia as well. I% 1882' ;illia Loga% recor,e, a% i%ci,e%t where 1 6ears ac: a a% cae *ro

raia soliciti%g *%,s *or the repair o* a ose a%, to. ?his to' locate, i% apahar i% the raia% coast

ha, a% i%scriptio% which sai, that it elo%ge, to ,l Raha% Saiiri' a :i%g o* 0alaar. ?he i%scriptio%

e%tio%s that this a% reache, i% 6ear 212 o* the Hi=era. ?he %ae i% the to loo:s li:e it was a Sathiri' t

there is %o sch recor, o* a aori% traeli%g aroa, a%, getti%g co%erte,.?here is o%e thi%g thoghJ this wasa% iporta%t ee%t i% eralaGs histor6 with the ,isi%tegratio% o* ce%tral rle a%, the *oratio% o* a%6 sall

:i%g,os. Bt was the ,isappeara%ce o* the :i%g the reaso% *or this cha%ge or was the cha%ge that happe%e,

tagge, to the ,epartre o* the :i%g@

?he >heras were %,er attac: 6 the >hola a%, Pa%,6a *orces a%, the :i%g wol, hae ee% *orce, to

a:e ,eals with Eews' 0sli a%, >hristia% tra,ers *or *i%a%cial a%, ilitar6 assista%ce ,ispleasi%g the Nairs

a%, Brahi%s. ?he ree%e wol, hae ee% a**ecte, a%, with a% %goer%ale :i%g,o' a% eas6 wa6 ot

wol, hae ee% the a,icatio% o* the thro%e. ;ith the >holas a%, Pa%,6as attac:i%g the %orth a%, soth' a%6

areas wol, hae ecoe i%,epe%,e%t o* the ce%tral power a%, the partitio% o* the la%, a6 hae ee% =st a*oral recog%itio% o* the gro%, realit6. ?he PeralGs 0ecca o6age was a s6olic tale which captre, all o*

this.

?he Brahi%ical %arratie'Keralolpathi' has a%other reaso% *or this ,epartre. Cirst' the Peral was

pset hai%g reig%e, *or a lo%g perio, the la%, which was the gi*t o* Parasraa a%, wa%te, to a:e ae%,s.

?he Perals were sppose, to rle *or 12 6ears a%, a:e wa6 *or the %ehristia%it6 a%, %ot Isla. ?here is ee% a sggestio% that it was %ot a Peral' t a aori%.

Soeties' *ro these ,i**ere%t ersio%s 6o lear% ore aot the writer a%, his politics tha% the trth' li:e a

:i%, o* Heise%ergGs %certai%t6 pri%ciple applie, to historiograph6. /e% thogh the 6ster6 is %ot sole,' it

sees that a perso% soe repte reache, 0ecca *ro 0alaar' a%, it sees clear that the i%ci,e%t ,i, %ot

happe% i% the perio, e%tio%e, i% the oar,.

>heraa% Peral' the reig%i%g i%g o* erala' with o,%gallr as its capital' o%ce eort astrologers col, %ot gie

hi a satis*actor6 ee6lo% et the Peral' he

e%tio%e, aot his ,rea. ?he6 eheraa% 0ose

elo%g to Hai Bi% 0ali: a%, his wi*e harriah.

K!"ALA # K$%&'(ALL&" )&*LI) H!"I+A(!

0sris as it was calle, i% a%cie%t ,a6s o,%gallr is o%l6 a% appe%,i< i% histor6 to,a6.lt was the cra,le o*erala cltre ce%tries ago. ati%g ac: to ee% 4!!B> it was a ira%t epori o* tra,e with /ast a%, ;est.

Pli%6 the /l,er(237" ) calle, her Pri /ori I%,iae - the ost iporta%t I%,ia% port. Phoe%icia%s'

Roa%s' +ree:s' ras' Persia% a%, >hi%ese were here i% 0siris. 0chiripatta%a' re*erre, to i% &ali:i

Raa6a%a is =st a%other poi%ter to its a%tiit6.

gsts >aesar (#3 B> 14 ) ha, ilt a teple a%, protecte, it 6 two cohorts at o,%gallr to

protect his tra,e i%terests. St. ?hoas la%,e, here i% 2 a%, Eews *leei%g Eersale i% #" *ro thepogro 6 >aesar ?its *o%, a hae% at o,%gallr. Cor ore tha% 3!!! 6ears' erala ha, a *lorishi%g

aritie tra,e. ?he ercha%ts *ro all oer the the% :%ow% worl, *loc:e, i% attracte, 6 the spices' co%,ie%ts'

=ewels a%, arios *lora a%, *a%a o* this a%cie%t la%,. /e% e*ore 8!! B> %aigators o* >hi%a a%, raia

:%ew the %atre a%, the tra,e pote%tial o* the o%soo% wi%,s. I%,ia% aritie tra,ers were si%g the o%soo%

wi%,s to reach Ba6lo% as earl6 as 7!! B>.


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?ea:woo, *ro erala has ee% i,e%ti*ie, i% the 0oo%-ttr teple o* 0esopotaia a%, i% the #th

ce%tr6 B> Palaces o* Necha,%e99ar. ?here are ,etails aot the spices o* erala i% the Hol6 oo:s o* Eews.

/t6ologists hae %otice, i%teresti%g pho%etic siilarities i% erca%tile %oe%clatre o* a%cie%t ?ail' +ree:

a%, raic wor,s. ?he 0ala6ala wor,s li:e 5arpoora5 a%, I%=i ecae >arpio% a%, +i%ger. ?he ?ail

wor, risi etaorphose, to rice (/%glish) throgh $risi (+ree:). ;illia Loga% has i,e%ti*ie, eralite

colo%ies i% raia a%, i% the Isla%, o* Secrota i% the +l* o* ,e%. Soe historia%s li:e Stroow' *o%, closesiilarities i% the social cstos o* Nairs o* erala a%, soe tries o* raia. It was aro%, "!! B> Dee%

Shea prese%te, the spices o* erala to i%g Soloo%.

?otal ase%ce o* reliale historical recor,s a:es earl6 histor6 o* erala a %,le o* 6ths a%,

lege%,s. ?he i%te%se ,6%astic strggle that eheraa% Peral.

?he /ropea% perio, (14"8-1"47) egi%s with the la%,i%g o* &asco ,e +aa at appa, %ear o9hico,e i% 14"8.

H6,erli5s i%asio% o* 0alaar i% 17## ha, tree%,os i%*le%ce i% the socio-political sce%e o* erala. ?he

reig% o* ?ip Slta% was the egi%%i%g o* the lo%g a%, tortros roa, to the epowere%t o* the coo% a%.?he *all o* 06sore i% 17"2 place, I%,ia i%to the colo%ial ha%,s a%, the erala societ6 i%to 6et a%other perio, o*

social a%, eco%oic ar: ge *orci%g Swai &ie:a%a,a (18#3-1"!2)' a ce%tr6 later' to tter his *aos

oseratio% o% erala as a l%atic as6l .?he pper caste atrocities with the co%%ia%ce o* the British were

so s**ocati%g that there were aot 3!! a%ti-British peasa%t reellio%s etwee% the *all o* ?ip (17!-17"") a%,

the 0alaar Reellio% (1"21).0alaar reellio% o* 1"21 ha, great ipact i% erala Islaic histor6 especiall6 that o* o,%gallr

0slis. ?he Mleas o* 0alaar *o%, a per*ect hae% at o,%gallr to escape police atrocities ,ri%g the

reellio%. ?he receptie i%,s o* the a**le%t 0slis o* o,%gallr aalgaate, with the progressie a%,

i%tellectal rai%s o* the Mlea create, a chai% o* ee%ts reslti%g i% the *oratio% o* a% orga%i9atio% calle,

0sli i:6a Sa%gha i% 1"23 at /ri6a,' o,%gallr. .

i:6a Sa%gha a%, its i,eologies were well accepte, 6 the co%it6. ?hs %,er the aegis o*

i:6a Sa%gha a total o* 14"7 schools were starte, i% 0sli ,oi%a%t areas o* >ochi% a%, 0alaar.?he6

re*ore, 0a,rasa s6llas a%, o,er%i9e, 0a,rasas with e%ches' ,es:s' lac: oar,s. ?he6 spplie, oo:s'

slates a%, pe%cils a%, other st,6 aterials *ree to all st,e%ts.0i,-,a6 eal at a reglar asis was starte, a%,

all these were ope% to st,e%ts o* all castes a%, cree,. ?he6 e%corage, the 0sli co%it6 to accept

goer%e%t scholarships a%, estalishe, scholarships o* their ow%. Ceale literac6 was proote, with great

ephasis. ?he6 were i%stre%tal i% estalishi%g a s6ste where raic 0%shis (teachers) were to e

appoi%te, 6 the goer%e%t i% 0sli ,oi%a%t areas. ?he reslt ha, *ar reachi%g e**ects. B6 the tie the

%atio% ecae i%,epe%,e%t the ge%eral literac6 o* 0slis o* o,%gallr was alost at par with that o* ge%eral

poplatio% a%, 0sli *eale literac6 was *ar ahea, o* the %atio%al 0sli aerage. It is i%teresti%g to %ote that

the illage o* /ri6a,' o,%gallr *ro where i:6a Sa%ga origi%ate,' has the largest %er o* 0sli la,6

,octors %ow. It is also to e %ote, that whe% o%l6 a *ew a**le%t *ailies were literate i% 0sli >o%it6' the

ge%eral a%, seclar literac6 has percolate, to the grass root leel at o,%gallr ee% at the egi%%i%g o* the

2!th ce%tr6. ?o this great achieee%t the co%it6 is i%,ete, to the isio%' corage' a%, coite%t o*

lea,ers li:e' ottaprath Seethi 0ohae, Sahi' 0a%apat %hohae, Ha=i' Ea%a Seethi Sahi a%, other

lea,ers o* i:6a Sa%gha.Ea%a 0ohae, ,raha% Sahi was a great lea,er o* Cree,o oee%t a%,

Ea%a .0. Irahi Sahi so% o* Seethi 0ohae, Sahi a%, 6o%ger rother o* Seethi Sahi was a great

parliae%taria%. r P..,l +a*oor' the *o%,er Presi,e%t o* 0./.S is also *ro o,%gallr. .

CH!"A)A' )A*I% - HI*+$".

?he $ral tra,itio% is that >heraa% Peral' whe% he was co%i%ce, o* his ii%e%t ,eath' wrote letters to his

relaties i% erala ao%g who he ha, partitio%e, his :i%g,o e*ore leai%g *or 0ecca. ?hese letters were

ha%,e, oer to his copa%io%s. *ter a while' whe% 0ali: i% i%ar cae to erala' he roght the letters

writte% 6 Peral. I% his letter he ha, as:e, his relaties to receie the earers o* the letter a%, to treat thewell. ?he rlers o* erala ho%ore, the letter a%, peritte, 0ali: I% i%ar a%, his *ellow ra 0sli

tra,ers to estalish oses at ,i**ere%t places o* erala. ?his ose at o,%gallr is the *irst to e

estalishe,. erala &6asa% %hi:tta% ?hapra% (18#4-1"13) is o* the opi%io% that a ,e*%ct B,,ha ihar

was ha%,e, oer to the %asce%t 0slis to estalish a ose there.

It is eliee, that the ose was *irst re%oate, or reco%strcte, soetie i% the 11th >e%tr6

a%, later agai% 3!! 6ears ago. ?he last re%oatio% was ,o%e i% 1"74 whe%' as a reslt o* i%crease i% thepoplatio% o* the elieers' a% e


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>oittees hae e%corage, this a%, the seclar cre,e%tials o* the ose are ,earl6 presere,. $**eri%gs o*

I*tar ,ri%g the *asti%g o%th o* Ra9a% are ei%g a,e 6 the %o%-0sli co%ities. 0a%6 %o%-0sli

,eotees are co%,cti%g &i,h6araha o* their chil,re% at the ose.

?he >heraa% E5ah 0as=i, is a ose i% 0ethala' o,%gallr ?al:' ?hrissr ,istrict i% the

I%,ia% state o* erala. ?he >heraa% 0as=i, is sai, to e the er6 *irst ose i% I%,ia' ilt i% #2" 6

0ali: l% i%ar. It is eliee, that this ose was *irst re%oate, a%, reco%strcte, i% the 11th ce%tr6 .0a%6 %o%-0slis co%,ct i%itiatio% cereo%ies to the worl, o* letters o* their chil,re% here.

Si%ce a%cie%t ties' tra,e relatio%s etwee% raia a%, the I%,ia% sco%ti%e%t were actie. /e%

e*ore Isla ha, ee% estalishe, i% raia' ra tra,ers isite, the 0alaar regio%' which was a a=or li%:

etwee% the ports o* Soth a%, Sotheast sia. ;ith the a,e%t o* Isla' the ra ercha%ts ecae carriers o*

the %ew religio% a%, the6 propagate, it whereer the6 we%t. >heraa% Peral' the >hera :i%g' we%t to raia

where he et the Prophet a%, erace, Isla a%, cha%ge, his %ae to ?a=,,i%. Cro there he ha, se%t letters

with 0ali: I% i%ar to his relaties i% erala' as:i%g the to e corteos to the latter. ccor,i%g to Br%ell he

was a co%teporar6 o* Islaic Prophet 0haa,. Belie* goes that a grop o* ras le, 6 0ali: Bi% ee%ara%, 0ali: i% Hai arrie, i% %orth erala a%, co%strcte, a 0as=i, at o,%galloor' %ai%g it a*ter their

co%teporar6 >heraa% Peral.

?he ose has a% a%cie%t oil lap which alwa6s r%s a%, which is eliee, to e ore tha% a

thosa%, 6ears ol,. People o* all religio%s ri%g oil *or the lap as o**eri%g. Li:e ost oses i% erala' this

ose allows e%tr6 *or No%-0slis.O. ?he the% presi,e%t o* I%,ia ,l ala is ao%g the %otale isitorsto this ose.

"eferences

1. ;e%tworth' Bla:e (2!13-!4-24). Bha:ti ea%,s Biograph6J >ra*ti%g the Li*e o* a ?ail Sai%t. M>

Ber:ele6.

2. httpJwww.islaicoice.co=%e.2!!4iscella%6.ht

3. Periapra%a 6 >he::i9haar' 12th ce%tr6 >/

4. Pa%%ir ?hirrai &aralar 6 &i,a% &ellai ara%a%' *irst e,%. 2!!8' Sara,a Plishers

. Cloo,' +ai% . (1""#)'An Introduction to Hinduism' >ari,ge M%iersit6 Press

#. Hilteeitel' l* (2!!2)'Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History,

and ulture"' Rotle,ge

7. 0ichaels' ari,ge M%iersit6 Press


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