Chapter – 3

CHEMICAL PROCESSES AND

APPARATUS

(A) DISTILLATION

(B) SUBLIMATION

(C) BLEACHING

(D) FERMENTATION

Chapter – 3

CHEMICAL PROCESSES AND APPARATUS

The chemical process plays a very crucial role in the formation of

chemical compounds. Different civilizations like Chinese, Arab Greek mention

various chemical processes and their application along with the apparatus used

for it, likewise the medieval Indian scientists also have discussed several

chemical processes. The Persian and Sanskrit sources of the medieval period

give considerable information about these processes. This chapter attempts to

discuss and display through diagrams. Some such chemical processes such as

distillation, sublimation, bleaching and fermentation.

(a) Distillation

Distillation (the process of heating a liquid to form vapour and then

cooling the vapour to get it back to liquid form), is a very old process dating

back to the first or second century AD. Many modern scholars including Diels,

Nevgebauer and Sarton agree that the process and apparatus of distillation of

liquids was not known in classic antiquity.1 The early Alexandrian alchemists

like Maria the Jewess, Comarius, Hermes, Cleopatra and possibly

Agathodaemon, however, invented and employed the apparatus of distillation

and sublimation among other things.2

1 . Forbes, R.J., A Short History of the Art of Distillation : From the Beginnings Upto the death of

Cellier Blumenthal, Leiden, p. 13. 2 . Ibid., p. 19.

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With the development of Arab Alchemy the interest in chemistry grew.

It led to the development of distillation for it was the best method of purifying

the chemical substances. The development of the glass industry in Iraq resulted

in better vessels and distillation apparatus for the Arab alchemists.3 Renowned

scientists Zakariyya al Razi, Jabir ibn Hayyan and Abu Abdullah al-Khwarizmi

were the prominent Arab alchemists involved in the experiments involving the

process of distillation. References to distillation in Arab alchemical literature

are numerous.4 Abu Abdullah al-Khwarizmi in his Mafatih-ul ulum (1976

A.D.) described the tripartite apparatus which consisted of the distilling flask

(qara) and the alembic, ambix or al-ambiq5 was the tube carrying the vapours

into the receiver or qabila.

The process of distillation was probably known to the ancient Indians.

P.C. Ray suggests that the three vessels (made of coarse, red, sand clay with

lime and broken bricks), excavated from the late Saka-Parthian periods at

Sirkap, insinuate that the process of distillation and condensation was known to

the ancient Indian in the first century A.D.6 Nagarjuna is said to have distilled

metallic zinc from its carbonate.7 Rasarnava mentions the distillation of alum

3 . Ibid., p. 31. 4 . Ain-us-San’ah wa Aunussa’ah (Aid to the workers and Essence of the Art) by Abdul Hakim….

Al Khawarizmi at Kathi (1034 A.D.) MS. in Raza Library, Rampur. Tr by Hidayat Husain. Zakariyya ar Razi’s Kitab Sirr al-Asrar tr. H. Hussain etc. in Mem A.S.B. VIII (6), p. 378.

5 . An alambic (from Arabic al-ambiq) is an alchemical still consisting of two retorts connected by tube. Technically, the alembic is only the upper part (the capital or still head), while the lower part is the cucurbit, but the word was often used to refer to the entire distillation apparatus. The alembic was developed circa 800 A.D. by the Arabic alchemists, Jabir ibn Hayyan, its modern descendant (used to produce alcohol) is the post still. The word as most alchemical terminology comes from the Arabic; alambiq “still” ultimately from the Greek ambix “cup”.

6 . Ray, P., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, p. 80. 7 . Ibid., p. 130.

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or Saurashtri.8 Rasa Ratna Samuccya talks of the distillation of green vitriol.9

Rasapradipa provides us a detailed process for the preparation of mineral acids

by distillation.10

There is a description of the apparatus for the purification of mercury by

sublimation and distillation in the third verse of the second chapter of

Rasahridya tantram. The dipika yantram was the apparatus used for the

process called as Adhahpatana11or downward distillation. This apparatus

consisted of “two vessels placed one over the other mouth to mouth, the neck

of the upper one sliding over that of the lower with their junctions luted with a

composition of suitable materials”.12

Ninth chapter of Rasa Ratna Samuccaya mentions three important

equipments used in the process of distillation viz. Patana yantra, Triyak patina

yantra and Dheki yantra.

The Patana yantra consisted of a pot filled with water with an inverted

pot of larger size over it. The neck of the pots were sealed with dough (made of

lime, mandur or iron oxide/rusted iron, phanita or jaggery and mahisi ksira or

buffalo milk) and the inside bottom of the upper vessel smeared with the

substance. When heated from outside the vapours of substance fall into the

water of the lower one. Thus, the process is completed13 (Fig. A)

8 . Ibid., p. 138. 9 . Ibid., p. 229. 10 . Ibid., p. 162. 11 . Rasahrdaya tantram, ed. B.V. Subbarayappa et al., INSA, New Delhi, S. 49. 12 . Ibid., p. 147. 13 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya (tr.) Damodar Joshi, INSA, New Delhi, Chapter IX, Verses, 6-8, p. 341.

Ray, P., op.cit., p. 189.

63

Figure A : Patna Yatnram

Tiryak Patana Yantra was made of a vessel with a long tube inserted in

an inclined position which enters the interior of another vessel with cold water

which acts as a receiver. The mouths of the vessels and joints are luted with

clay. The vessel with the chemicals is heated and the process of distillation

takes place which is called as tiryak patanam.14 (Fig. B).

14 . Ibid., verses, 10-12, p. 342.

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Figure B : Tiryak Patana Yantram

Dheki yantra is another important apparatus mentioned in the Rasa

Ratna Samuccaya. Two vessels are used in this apparatus. One end of a

bamboo tube is inserted just below the neck of an earthen pot consisting of

mercury. Its other end is fixed in a vessel called Kamsya samputa (made of two

bell metals vessels) containing water and both ends are sealed. Mercury when

heated starts distilling into the water through the tube and is transferred to the

Kamsya samputa.15 (Fig. C).

15 . Ibid., verses 17-19, p. 342.

Distillate receiving tube

Purified mercury

Rough Mercury

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Among the Persian sources, Ain-i-Akbari provides vivid details of the

process of liquor and perfume distillation. However, Irfan Habib, has argued

that the term Chaka nidam (lit. to fall drop by drop) used by Ziauddin Barni in

his Tarikh-i Firozshahi (written in 1357 AD) was used for distillation. He used

the dictionary Miftahul Fuzala as the term finds no mention in the dictionary of

Steingass.16

Figure C : Dheki Yantram

Ain-i Akbari gives the method of preparing arrack and its distillation

after fermentation through three ways.17 Abul Fazl’s descriptions of distillation

processes, including that of liquor distillation, seemingly avoided by earlier

writers perhaps due to the religious prohibition.

In the first method of distillation the fermented liquor is put into brass

vessels in the interior of which a cup is put so that the liquor does not flow into

it. The vessels are then covered with inverted lids fastened with clay18 and the

lid is kept cool by pouring water. The vapour reaches the cold lid, condense

16 . Irfan Habib, “Medieval Technology: Exchanges between India and the Islamic World” in IJHS,

35.3, p. 268. 17 . Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, H., vol. I, p. 74. 18 . Blochmann, I., p. 74 writes ‘Clay’ but the Persian text edited by Naval Kishore, I, p. 88 used the

word Khamir or kneaded flour.

Distillate receiving hollow tube Rough Mercury

Distilled Mercury

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and falls as arrack into the cup. Forbes identifies this method with that

employed by the Bhils.19 (Fig. D).

Cold water

Drop of alcohol

Purified alcohol

Figure D : Apparatus constructed from Abul’l Fazl’s description in the Ain-i Akbari. This apparatus is ‘Mongol’ type20

In the second method the same vessel is closed with an earthen pot

fastened with clay and field with two pipes with free ends of the jar (in cold

water) attached with them. The vapour through the pipes will enter the jars and

condense. This method is strikingly similar to the Tiryakapatana yantra

mentioned in the Rasa Ratna Samuccaya (Fig. E).

19 . Forbes, op.cit., p. 54. 20 . Cf. Irfan Habib, “Joseph Needham and the History of Indian Technology”, IJHS, 35.5 (2000), p.

268.

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Figure E : Still of the ‘Gandhara’ type21

While in the method an earthen vessel is filled with liqor and fastened to

a large spoon with a hollow handle. The end of the handle is attached to a pipe

leading into a jar and the vessel is covered with a lid filled with cold water. The

condensed arrack flows through the spoon into the jar. When distilled twice the

arrack becomes strong and is called Duatasha or twice burned.22 (Fig. F)

Figure F : Apparatus of Arab-Italian Type

21 . Ibid., p. 269. 22 . Blochmann, I, p. 74.

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Joseph Needham has examined the stills used in the above mentioned

methods as the Mongol, the Chinese and the Hellenistic types respectively.23

Irfan Habib has some reservations on the identification of the second still

which he calls Gandharan. He calls the third one as the “medieval Italian-Arab

still”. 24

Ain-i Akbari also provides information on distillation of a perfume

called Chuwa. The text defines it as “distilled wood of aloes”. Fine clay is

mixed with cotton or rice bran thrashed. This mixture is put into a small bottle

coated with clay and small piece of aloe wood is put in it. After keeping the

wood wet for a week another vessel with a hole in the middle is placed on a

three legged stand. The neck of the little bottle is inverted and passed into the

vessel by placing a cup full of water at the bottom of the vessel so that the

mouth of the bottle reaches the surface of the water. A gentle fire is ignited on

the top of the vessel. The condensed vapour of the wood of aloes is collected

from the surface of the water. It is washed with plain and rose water to remove

the odour of smoke. We are also informed that one ser of wood aloes is capable

to yield two to fifteen tolas of chuwa.25 There is a reference to a perfume

known as Barjat in the text. It is to be distilled in the same manner as chuwa26.

Bayaz-i khushbui also mentions the same process but interestingly it ascribes it

23 . Irfan Habib, “Joseph Needham and the History of Indian Technology”, in IJHS, 35, 3 (2000), p.

268. 24 . Ibid. 25 . Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, H., p. 86. 26 . Ibid., p. 80.

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to Shaikh Farid.27 Finally, it seems that the distillation apparatus in these two

later Persian text did not witness any large scale improvement over those

described in the thirteenth and fourteenth century Sanskrit alchemical texts.

(b) Sublimation

The changing of solid directly into vapours on heating, and of vapours

into solid on cooling is known as sublimation. Sublimation is little mentioned

in histories of chemical technology. The first western description of process of

obtaining metallic mercury from cinnabar by the method of sublimation is

generally attributed to Dioscorides (c. +50), who said that cinnabar was heated

on an iron sucer contained in a pot and covered by another pot.28 The natural

cinnabar was perhaps the single most important raw material used by the

Chinese alchemists but it is very much difficult to know exactly when they first

began to convert cinnabar to mercury, but Needham accepted that this process

must have been started at least during the warring states period and the first

textual mentions come form the beginning of Former Han (2nd century).29

Al-Razi (in Latin Rhazes) in his book Sirr-al Asrar gives the clear

description of sublimation30 (al-tasid) of mercury with the two methods. One

for the “Red” and other for the “white”. In subliming it, there are two secrets,

one the removal of its moistness, and the other to make it dry, so that it may be

27 . Bayaz-i Khushbui, I.O. Library 828, rotograph no. 194, CAS, Deptt. of History, A.M.U. Aligarh,

p. 9 fol a-b. 28 . Taylor, F. Sherwood, A History of Industrial Chemistry, Heinemann, London, 1957, p. 52. See

also Forbes, R.J., A Short History of the Art of Distillation, Brill, Leiden, 1948, p. 17. 29 . Needham, J., Science and Civilization in China, CUP, 1980, vol. V, part 4, p. 45. 30 . Holmyard, E.J., History of Technology, 2, 738.

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absorbent. The removal of its moisteness by either of two processes. After

triturating it with what is sublime it, heat it over a gentle fire in a phial luted

with clay and then triturate and (again) heat it, doing this 7 times till it

completely dries. Then sublime it and heat it gently and palce it in the aludel.

Over the aludel there should be an alembic of green pottery, or glass, with a

short wide spout, for the purpose of distilling all the moisture that is in the

mercury. Under (the spout) is placed a dish.

In place of this alembic, covered properly adjusted on the head of the

aludel. It should have a hole large enough for the head of a large needle to

enter. In this (hole) is placed a woolen lamp-wicks, with one end of the wick

hanging down into the dish. So that all the moisture that is in the mercury may

be distilled. Then remove it (the alembic) and replace it by the cover which

covers its top completely, and lute the joint. A better way (than using an

alembic) is to have a hole in the cover of the aludel large enough for the little

finger to enter. This hole is kept open until the substance appears in the form of

dust, either white or black, by which you learn that the moisture has come to an

end. Then the hole is closed with a properly fashioned stick bound round with a

rag.31

Jabir ibn Hayyan stated that the substances with which mercury is

sublimed are Alum, Vitriol, Sulphur, Lime (powdered) Brick, Glass, Ashes of

Gallnuts, Oak ashes…; and, of Waters, Vinegar, Water of vitriol, “Water of

31 . Cf. Syed Hossein Nasr; Science and Civilization in Islam, Suhail Academy, Lahore, 1968, pp.

270-71.

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Sal-ammoniac”, “Water of alum” and the “Water of quicklime” (and

sulphur).32

Al-Razi further gives the method of sublimation of mercury for the

“white”. He states “take of mercury that has been coagulated 1 ratl (lb), and

bruise it with an equal quantity of white alum, the like quantity of salt, and the

like quantity of ashes. Next sprinkle vinegar over it, after placing it on a [flat

stone mortar], and triturate it thoroughly for three hours a day, one hour in the

morning, one hour at noon, and one hour in the evening. Then place it in a

phial covered with clay. Close the head of the phial, and place it on hot ashes in

an oven which has just been used for bread making.

Leave it there for one night and in the morning transfer the substance to

the pot of the aludel, after (again) triturating it. Place powdered salt at the

bottom of the aludel. Adjust the alembic. Previously mentioned above the

aludel, and (thus, by heating), remove the moisture from the substance. Then

replace the alembic by a cover; and lute the joint; but first light a small fire

beneath it, till its moisture has been removed by the gentle fire. Fit the cover to

it and heat it (the aludel) for one hour with a gentle fire. Then increase the fire

to a moderate degree. Keep the fire burning 12 hours for each salt (of the

substance); and whenever the ring of the cover gets heated, stop the fire, lest

the substance that is on the shelf be spoilt and burnt. (this is continued) until the

whole has sublimed. Then bring back the sublimate to the residue, triturate, and

32 . Stapleton, R.F. et al. “Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the tenth century A.D.”, Memoires of the

Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VIII, No. 6 (1927), pp. 385-293.

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again sublime it. This is done thrice. Then take burnt bones, which are procured

from furnances, poured them thoroughly, and triturate the sublimate with an

equal quantity of these burnt bones for an hour. Sublime it in this way thrice,

adding fresh bones each time. It will come out the third time white, dead, and

absorbent. At one end of the cover there should be a hole, large enough for a

large needle to enter, in which you insert a stick, bound round with cotton.

Take this out once an hour, and drop the sublimate that is on it (onto the shelf).

When, on removing it, then see no more sublimate on it, stop the fire, and let it

(the apparatus) cool. Then collect what is on the shelf after gently breaking the

joint Moisten and soften what has collected with castor oil, and place it in a

luted phial. Place this in a pot of ashes and close the mouth of the phial with (a

piece of) wool. Burn a fire under the pot, in order to remove the moisture.

When this has occurred, seal up the mouth of the phial and heap ashes over it.

Over the ashes small pieces of charcoal are placed, by which a fire is lit on the

top. In this way the substance will coagulate in the phial like (the metal used to

make) a Chinese mirror. When this is attained, project 1 dirham of it on to 20

dirhams of copper. Then it will penetrate into it and function most effectively.33

Sublimation of camphor was also an important indigenous aromatic of

great antiquity in Chinese culture.34 The chips of camphor tree wood were

renewed twice daily, and the camphor was carried upwards in the steam to

condense like snow in the inverted earthenware jars above, whence it was

33 . Cf. Syed Hossein Nasr, op.cit., pp. 271-72. 34 . Needham, op.cit., p. 47.

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collected by hand every ten days.35 Sublimation of camphor was also carried

out in India, southeast Asia and by the Arabs. The 9th century text of Al-Kindi

contains several recipes for the purification of camphor by sublimation.36

Ain-i Akbari gives vivid reference on camphor and the detail description

of making it using sublimation process. The camphor tree is a large tree

growing in ghauts of Hindustan and in China. Camphor is collected from the

trunk and the branches during the winter. The camphor within the tree looks

like small bits of salt, that on the outside rise resin. If often flows from the tree

on the ground, and gets after sometime, solid”.37 Abul Fazl further states that

“the camphor which is made of zurumbad by mixing it with other ingredients,

is called chini or Mayyit camphor. While Zurumbad is finely pounded, and

mixed with sour cream of cow or buffalo; on the fourth day they put fresh

cream to it, and beat it with the hand till foam appears, which they take away.

With this they mix some camphor, put it into a box, and keep it for sometime in

the husks of grains or, they reduce some white stone to fine powder, mix it at

the rate of ten dirhams of it with two dirhams of wax and half a dirham of oil of

violet, or oil of Surkh gul. The wax is first melted, and then mixed with

powder, so as to form a paste. They then put it between two stones, and make it

thin and flat. When it gets cold, it looks like camphor, bits of which are mixed

35 . Ibid. 36 . Ibid., p. 49. 37 . Ain-i Akbari, op.cit. I, pp. 83-84.

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with it”. 38 Thus we find that Abul Fazl was familiar with the sublimation

process.

The simplest form of vessel for this purpose was used. Two vessels are

adjusted so that the neck of the one fits into that of the other. The junction of

the necks is luted with a composition made of lime, raw sugar, rusk of iron and

buffalo’s milk. This inverted pot is known as patna yantram39 in Sanskrit. The

other apparatus which is the modification of the above apparatus in which “the

bottom of the upper vessel is smeared with the substance, the vapour or essence

thereof condensing into the water of the lower one. Heat is applied on the top

of the upper vessel by means of the fire of dried cow dung”.40 (Fig. G)

Figure G : Adhaspatana Yantram 38 . Ibid., p. 84. 39 Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, op.cit., Chapter IX, verse, p. 40 . Ray, P., op.cit., p. 189.

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Needham accepted that the inverted pot must be considered very old and it is

surprising that the alchemists in ancient China made no use of it41, but the

Indian specially Hindu scientist perhaps used it since ancient time and that was

continued till medieval time which is frequently found in Sanskrit sources.

Another vessel used for sublimation is Dipika yantra42though this yantra

resembling with the Patna yantra.43 But in China, a vessels which made of

pottery or metal, and having removable lids are illustrated in Chinese

alchemical book what is called a ‘mercury vessel’ – hung ting in a sung book.

So we find that the medieval Indian sources give much information on

sublimation and also about apparatus.

(c) Bleaching

Bleaching is a chemical process for whitening materials. The most

important industrial uses of bleaching are in the treatment of textiles. Prior to

the application of any dye to the woven cloth, it was washed and bleached. The

bleachers belonged to a particular caste in India who washed clothes in order to

earn their livelihood. The bleachers used lime and some others local ingredients

to boil their cloth, took it to a nearby river or pound, beat it vigorously on a

stone slab with a beetle. Tavernier (1667) emphasizes the use of lemon in

bleaching cotton.44 He says the people of Kasimbazar used to bleach silken

41 . Needham, op.cit., p. 44. 42 . Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, op.cit., Chapter IX, verses 17-19, p. 342. 43 . Needham, op.cit., p. 45. 44 Tavernier, Travels in India, 1640-67 (tr.) V. Ball, London, 1889, vol. II, p. 5.

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fabrics with a lye made of the ashes of the plantain.45 A variety of soap called

Iraqi, was considered by most effective in washing clothes bright white.46

When the cloth was intended for dyeing, then khar or carbonate of soda47 was

used for bleaching. Shikarpuri used sulphur and the people of Patna used

kundri (a local root) and Abraq (mica) which gives a lustrous finishing to the

cloth, were used as bleaching agent.48 Roques in his account of the 17th century

cloth printing in India refers to “half bleaching”.49 The Beauticus MS of 1734

tells us that rice water and lime were customarily used in bleaching ordinary

cloth.50

Bleaching for permanent prints needed another process. For this

purpose, impure carbonate of soda and infusion of finely powdered myrobalan

weighing one and a quarter pounds, bahera (Terminalia ballerica) four ounces,

galls of tamarinsk articulate four ounces, bel one and a half pounds, was

prepared in castor oil. This infusion sufficed for twenty pieces of cloth

measuring five and one third yards by thirty eight inches. The cloth was dipped

in this and then dried repeatedly for many days. Finally the cloth was

smoothened preliminary to printing.51

45 . Ibid., II, p. 3. 46 . Mirat, 369 Cf. O.P. Jaggi, Science and Technology in Medieval India, vol. VII, p. 154. 47 . Ain-i Akbari, I, p. 478. 48 . Naqvi, Hameeda Khatoon, Urban Centres and Industries in Upper India (1556-1803), Asia

Publishing House, Bombay-1, 1968, p. 157. 49 . Quoted in Paul R. Schwartz, tr. Printing on Cotton at Ahmedabad in India in 1678, p. 7. 50 . Ibid., p. 10. 51 . Liotard, 132-33, Quoted in Naqvi’s book, op.cit., pp. 174-75.

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(d) Fermentation

From ancient times intoxicating drinks have been prepared with the

application of fermentation and used in India as in other parts of the world. The

Harappans two thousand years ago appear to have known the process of

alcoholic fermentation and their distillation.52 Different sources both in

Sanskrit and Persian gives the reference of this technique.

The word for the fermentation is known as kinvan in Sanskrit and

khamir in Persian. The Ramayana has four methods53 while according to

Charaka nine sources containing sugar were employed for fermentation. These

were sugarcane juice, guda (jaggery), molasses, honey, coconut water, sweet

palmyra sap and mahua flowers.54

The description of alcoholic fermentation in Kautilya’s Arthasastra55 are

also found. He gives the seven kinds of liquors described are: Medaka,

prasanna, asava, arista, maireya and madhu.

Medaka is prepared form the fermentation of rice; prasanna from the

fermentation of flour with addition of spices and the fruits of Putraka (a

species of tree in the country of kamrupa). Asava is the liquor derived from the

fermentation of sugar mixed with honey. Jaggery mixed with powder of long

52 . Mahdi Hassan, S., Distillation assembly of pottery in ancient India with a single item of special

construction, Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal, 1979, vol. 17, p. 246. 53 . Acharya, K.T., “Alcoholic Fermentation and its products in Ancient India”, IJHS, 26(2) 1999, p.

124. 54 . Ibid. 55 . Shama Sastry, R., Kautilya’s Arthasastra, Westeyan Mission Press, Mysore, 2nd ed. 1923, pp.

143-146. Kangle, R.R., The Kautilya Arthasastra 1972 (2nd ed.) Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, Repr. 1986, vol. 2, pp. 154-156. Ray, P., History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Calcutta 1956, pp. 56-57.

78

and black, pepper or with the powder of triphala (mixture of Terminalia

chebula; Terminala beleric and Phyllanthus emblica), when fermented, forms

maireya. Fermented grape juice is termed madhu. The preparation of different

kinds of arista for different diseases can be learnt from the physicians.

The liquor of sugarcane and Mahuwa were perhaps easily available

during the medieval period. The Ain-i-Akbari gives the clear information, how

to make the liquor with the method of fermentation.56 Abul Fazl said that

sugarcane was used for the preparation of intoxication liquor, but brown sugar

was better for this purpose.57 There were various ways preparing it, but he

gives the only one method which is as follows :

“Babul58 bark mining it at the rate of ten sers to one man of sugarcane,

and put three times as much water over it, then take large jars fill them with the

mixture, and put them into the ground, surrounding them with dry dung from

seven to ten days are required to produce fermentation. It is a sign of

perfection, when it has a sweet, but a stringent taste. When the liquor is too be

strong, they again put to the mixture some brown sugar, and sometimes even

drugs and perfumes, as ambergris, camphor etc. They also let meat dissolve in

it. This beverage, when strained may be used, but it is mostly employed for the

preparation of arrak”.59 The these arrak after fermentation were distilled with

three methods60 which I have already discussed above (under distillation).

56 . Ain-i Akbari (tr.) Blochmann, H., p. 73. 57 . Ibid. 58 . A species of acaic, the kikar of the Punjab. 59 . Ain-i Akbari, op.cit., p. 73. 60 . Joseph Needham mentioned these methods as the Mongol, the Chinese and Hellenistic types

respectively.

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Further this text gives the information of Mahuwa’s liquor. “The Mahua

tree resembles the mango tree; its wood is used for building purposes. The

fruit, which is also called Gilaunda, yields an intoxicating liquor”.61

The most common and perhaps the cheapest during the medieval period

was the tari or juice of coconut palm or date which get after fermentation. Ain

gives the reference to tari as :

“The tarkul tree, and its fruit, resemble the coconut palm and its fruit.

When the stalk of a new leaf comes out of a branch, they cut off its end and

hang a vessel to it to receive the out flowing juice. The vessel will fill twice or

three times a day. The juice is called tari; when fresh it is sweet; when it is

allowed to stand for some time it turns subacid (after fementation and is

inebriating”.62

Some superior kinds of wines were imported from countries like

Portugal and Persia during the medieval time.63

Ain 25 of Ain-i Akbari provide information about bread making and

refers a kind of bread called chappati. But the other kind of breads which was

prepared by coarsely pounded flour, left to ferment for two or three days to

take a dough bread which is also prevalent in modern society perhaps this

bread was also known during the medieval India.

61 . Ain-i-Akbari, op.cit., p. 75. 62 . Ibid., p. 75. 63 . Jagg, O.P., Science and Technology in Medieval India, vol. 7, Atma Ram & Sons, 1981, Delhi,

p. 189.

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Thus, the information in the preceding pages throws light on the various

chemical processes involved. The Persian and Sanskrit sources are rich

warehouses of information on those chemical processes. Considerable amount

of material is to be found in these sources on various chemical processes such

as distillation, sublimation, bleaching and fermentation and their use for many

practical purposes.