1

Characteristics of Small and Medium Enterprises in Cambodia:

Case study of rice milling enterprises

Meas, Wat Ho

Ph.D. Student

Hokkaido University1

Abstract: This paper shows the significant role of Cambodia SMEs in the private sector and economic

development after the government adopted its new economic system; from a planned economy to a market

economy in the early 1990s. They form a majority of the country’s industrial firms. This paper reveals the

characteristics of SMEs particularly in rice milling enterprises. These findings reveal that most of the small rice

milling enterprises were established during the last 15 years by the middle aged Cambodian-Chinese owners.

Although these enterprises are important in Cambodia, we found that they have also faced financial constraint

and low competition power like SMEs in other countries.

1. Introduction

Small and medium enterprises (hereafter SMEs) have been considered by scholars to

have an important role in economic growth, employment generation and income generation.

In East Asia particularly, Harvie and Lee (2002) claimed that SMEs have played and are

increasingly playing an important role in economic development. According to Iqbal and

Urata (2002), in Japan, SMEs have played a significant role in keeping their share of

employment fairly stable during the bubble economy. While, in Korea, the role of SMEs has

experienced a dramatic transformation in the last twenty five years, and they have been

important generators of income and employment despite the general perception that Korea’s

economy is heavily dominated by large conglomerates. Like Korea, Taiwan’s SMEs shared

substantially in the country’s rapid economic growth of the past quarter century (Iqbal, Urata,

2002). In Indonesia, the contribution of SMEs to the Indonesian economy in terms of

employment generation is significant (Mitsuhiro, 2003).

The aforementioned indicates the crucial role of SMEs and it can be said that the

development of this sector is of paramount importance for any country irrespective of their

level of development. Having understood this fact, the government of Cambodia has 1 Graduate School of EconomicsKita 8, Nishi 5, Kitat-Ku, Sapporo 060-0808, JapanTel: (81)-11-716-2111Mobile: (81)-90-8373-5520E-mail: mwatho@pop.econ.hokudai.ac.jp

mwatho@yahoo.com

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promoted privatization since the changeover of the government systems from a planned

economy to a free market economy in the early 1990s. Ever since, the importance of the

private sector in Cambodia has re-emerged. According to the Ministry of Industry, Mine and

Energy (2003), about 90 per cent of Cambodia’s private sector is made up of small and

medium enterprises.

However, despite the significant role of SMEs in the economy, most research has also

recognized the difficulties and weaknesses of SMEs in most countries. Studies2 of SMEs and

their problems have concluded that they suffer from similar weaknesses in both developed

and developing countries; although, to a greater extent in the latter. The entrepreneurs who

own and manage small enterprises typically lack management skills, are forced through lack

of capital to use poor technology and lack information about new markets for their products.

The purpose of this study is to find out the importance and characteristics of

Cambodia SMEs particularly in the rice milling industry.

This study is divided into three sections. The first section is analysis of macro data on

the present state of Cambodia SMEs and the significance of Cambodia rice milling

enterprises. The second section is a case study of rice milling enterprises. Sixteen rice milling

enterprises were selected for analysis. This study is based on fieldwork carried out within the

Battambang province where the most productive paddies and numerous rice milling

enterprises are located. The third section is the summary of the findings.

2. The present state of Cambodia SMEs3and the significance of rice milling enterprises

2.1. The present state of Cambodia SMEs

The data used for this study were obtained from the Ministry of Industry, Mines and

Energy (MIME) and the Ministry of Planning (MOP). The data are available for firms of all

sizes (including those with fewer than 10 workers) only in 1993 and 2001 and are reliable for

only three variables: number of establishments, number of workers and value of production

by market price. But the data on value of production by market price are available for every

year from 1996 to 2001.

Tables 1a and 1b show that most industrial firms in Cambodia were SMEs. About 20

per cent of the 35,112 industrial firms reported by MIME and MOP in 2003 were micro

enterprises employing fewer than 10 workers, 79 per cent were small firms, 0.1 per cent were

2 Jacob Levitsky, United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).3 According to the definition set by MIME, micro enterprises employ fewer than 10 workers; small enterprisesemploy 10 to 49 workers; medium enterprises employ 50-199 workers; large firms employ 200 or more workers.

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medium-sized firms and 0.8 per cent were large firms. From 1993 to 2001, the share of micro

and medium industry groups declined whereas the share of small and large firms increased.

This reveals that since the Cambodian government adopted its privatization policy in the early

1990s many small enterprises have entered the private sector. However, Table 1c shows that

the growth rate of the number of firms was the highest for large firms which grew 51 per cent

per year followed by small firms (39 per cent), firms in micro industries (11 per cent), and

medium-sized firms (6 per cent). The high growth rate of large firms also reveals the

contribution of large firms in the private sector after the government promoted privatization.

It also shows the high possibility of future entry of large firms and expansion of small firms

into large firms as small firms grow.

SMEs employed about 62 per cent of all the industrial workers, whereas large firms

employed about 28 per cent and micro enterprises employed approximately 9 per cent in 2001

(Tables 2a and 2b). In 1993, according to Tables 2a and 2b, SMEs accounted for 59 per cent,

and micro enterprises accounted for about 27 per cent, and large firms contributed

approximately 12 per cent of all the industrial workers. These tables show that SMEs and

large firms increased while micro industries declined. However, Table 2c shows that the

growth rate of the number of person employed was the highest for large firms which were

growing at about 53 per cent per year, followed by small enterprises at 41 per cent, micro

industries at 20 per cent, and medium enterprises at 7 per cent. The high growth rate of large

firms indicate that large firms have great potential to generate a larger labour force in the

future; although, SMEs have more shares in employment than large firms. Furthermore, these

tables did not state that SMEs are more labour intensive than large firms as we can see the

growth rate of employment in large firms in Table 2c.

During 1996-2001, micro and small firms had a greater contribution to the domestic

market than medium and large firms (Tables 3a and 3b). According to Table 3b, micro and

small firms accounted for about 77 per cent, whereas medium and large firms accounted for

23 per cent in 2001. This share of micro and small firms increased gradually from 60 per cent

in 1993, while the share of medium and large firms decreased tremendously from 40 per cent

in 1993. However, the share of medium and large firms increased from 40 per cent in 1996 to

about 62 per cent in 1997 while the share of micro and small firms decreased tremendously

from 60 per cent in 1996 to about 37 per cent in 1997. Therefore, since 1997 the share of

medium and large enterprises decreased gradually while the share of micro and large

enterprises increased gradually (Table 2b). Furthermore, Table 3c shows that the highest

growth rate of production value for the domestic market was in micro and small firms. Hence,

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these tables show that micro and small enterprises have been playing an important role in the

domestic market.

2.2. The significance of rice milling enterprises

Agriculture is natural resource based and is mainly comprised of paddies, crops,

livestock, fishery, forestry, and rubber4. However, the major sub-sector in agriculture is paddy

production. Since 1960, this sector has been playing a major role in providing employment in

Cambodia and its share remains dominant among the three sectors. The share of the

agricultural sector in employment was about 77 per cent in 2001, whereas the share of

industrial sector was about 8 per cent and the service sector was 15 per cent in 2001.

However, the share of agriculture in employment has decreased from about 83 per cent in

1960 while the share of industry and service sector has increased from 4 per cent and 13 per

cent, respectively in 1960 (Tables 4a and 4b). Therefore, the agriculture sector has still

generated a tremendous amount of employment, and it shows that it is important to diversify

the economy by shifting the rural labour forces. According to Oum and Sok (2004), agro-

processing firms can contribute to shifting more rural employment to manufacturing.

According to Tables 5a and 5b, small rice milling enterprises have shown the highest

share in both the total number of industrial establishments and employment generation. In

2001, rice milling enterprises accounted for 70 per cent of 27,743 enterprises, whereas other

industry sectors accounted for about 30 per cent of the total establishment. Furthermore, the

share of rice milling enterprises in employment was about 72 per cent while the share of other

industry sectors was only about 27 per cent. This states that among the small industrial

establishments, the rice milling enterprises have been playing a dominant role in contributing

to employment more than other industry sectors.

3. Case study of rice milling enterprises

3.1. Survey site

Knowing the significance of rice milling enterprises in the industry sector, these

enterprises were selected to be a case study and the Battambang province (see Figure 2) was

chosen to be the location for field research. Battambang province is the second largest town in

terms of land area next to Kompong Cham province, and is located in the north western part

of Cambodia which is close to the Thai frontier. Furthermore, this province is located

4 Oum Sothea, Economic Institute of Cambodia (EIC).

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alongside the Tonle Sap lake region which provides a lot of natural resources that benefit the

people living there. This province has a population of approximately 800,000 people5 which

is about 7 per cent of the total population of 11.5 million people.

This province is the so-called ‘‘place for paddy production’’ in Cambodia. Compared

with other provinces, Battambang is the most productive place for paddies; therefore, there

are many rice milling enterprises located in this province. Since it is located close to Thailand,

which is one the neighbouring countries of Cambodia, it has become an economic zone for

transporting goods to and from Thailand. However, the agricultural goods and other goods

from this town are also transported to Phnom Penh city which is the capital city of Cambodia.

3.2. Definition of samples and Methodology

Although SMEs have been playing a significant role in the private sector development

and economic development of Cambodia since the early 1990s, there is no clear-cut definition

in classifying each enterprise. However, according to the definition set by MIME, the

Cambodian manufacturing sector can be divided into four segments: micro enterprises (MEs)

are those with less than 10 workers and with start-up capital of less than USD 10,000; small

enterprises (SEs) are those with 10 to 49 workers and with start-up capital of USD 10,000 to

USD 199,000; medium enterprises (MEs) employ 50 to 199 workers and with start-up capital

from USD 200,000 to less than USD 1,000,000; and large enterprises (LEs) are those with

200 worker or more and with start-up capital of more than USD 1,000,000.

However, according to the above definition, the 16 sample rice milling enterprises that

were selected for this case study fall into the category of micro enterprises and small

enterprises. All sample rice mills were registered formally at the Department of Industry,

Mines and Energy in the Battambang province. In Tables 1a and 2a, the significance of micro

and small enterprises was shown as the number of these establishments has been increasing,

and they are contributing tremendously to employment generation.

This study is based on field research in which 16 rice milling enterprises were selected

to be a case study. The owners were asked to complete a prepared questionnaire which was

accompanied by some additional interview questions. The questionnaire focused on the

attributes, business conditions and financial conditions of the samples on which the analysis

was based.

5 General population census of Cambodia 1998, Ministry of Planning 2000.

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3.3. Findings of survey

3.3.1. Attributes

Table 6 shows that there are many middle aged owners among the sample enterprises;

the oldest one is 61 years old, but the average age of the owners is 49 years old. Most of the

owners are male with the exception of Mill D which has a female owner. It is interesting to

note that most of the sample owners are Chinese-Cambodian and they previously worked as

merchants, whereas other sample owners are Cambodian and they previously work as office

workers or a teacher. This means that the previous business experience of the Chinese-

Cambodian owners in the samples may have given them the capability to run their own rice

milling enterprises. It may also reflect the history of the Chinese people who came from

mainland China to Southeast Asian countries, of which Cambodia is one, to settle initially as

merchants before expanding into other businesses. However, it is also interesting to note that

all of the owners in the samples were not highly educated. The majority of the owners have a

secondary school education. Although, the samples show that the majority of Chinese-

Cambodian owners were merchants and have more experience in business than the

Cambodian owners, further research in this area should be carried out.

3.3.2. Business condition

According to the same Table 6, firstly, we found that most of the sample enterprises

were established during the 1990s. Secondly, most of them are small rice milling enterprises

with an average of 17 workers. Thirdly, most of the sample enterprises are private enterprises

with the exception of Mill I which is a state-owned enterprise controlled by the Ministry of

Commerce.

Based on samples, Figure 1 simply shows the production and market flow of the rice

products from the paddies through to the consumers. It shows that 63 per cent of the sample

owners bought paddies directly from the farmers, whereas 37 per cent of the sample owners

purchased paddies directly from brokers. After the paddies were processed in the sample

mills, Figure 1 shows that all the samples sell their rice products locally or within the country

only, none of them have ever exported their products to an overseas market. The rice products

reach consumers through wholesalers and retailers after being transported from the sample

mills. We found that 75 per cent of rice products from the samples are sold to the market in

capital city of Phnom Penh while 23 per cent are sold within the market in Battambang

province and another 2 per cent are sold to Kompongcham province. Based on interviews

with the sample owners, their products can meet the local needs, but they can not compete on

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the international market because their product quality still needs to be improved, especially

when compared with the products from neighbouring countries such Thailand and Vietnam.

According to the samples, paddies are processed in rice milling enterprises and rice

products are produced as a result, and then the products are sold locally. After the rice milling

stage, Cambodia doesn’t seem to have a rice polishing enterprise that can produce a better

quality of its rice products in order to export them to overseas markets. In comparison,

Thailand and Vietnam have both rice milling enterprises and rice polishing enterprises that

produce and sell their products both to local and overseas markets (based on model from other

countries). Based on interviews with the samples, Cambodian rice products are sometimes

exported informally to Thailand and Vietnam, where they are further processed in rice

polishing enterprises and then exported by Thailand and Vietnam to other countries including

Cambodia. As the samples show that Cambodia doesn’t appear to have a rice polishing

enterprise, it would be important to carry out further research on Cambodian rice polishing

enterprises to determine whether they exist or not. If they exist, to what extent can they

produce and further study of their significance, characteristics and constraints.

3.3.3. Financial condition

Table 7 shows that the average amount of start-up capital of the samples is

approximately USD 100,000 and the immediate families have been playing a major role in

providing this start-up capital to most of the samples. The exception is Mill I which is a state-

owned enterprise supported by the Ministry of Commerce and Mill O which received its start-

up capital from local lenders6. From the same table, we find that the share of the banks

appears very limited in providing start-up capital to the samples when compared to the share

of the local lenders and immediate families. However, the same Table 7 shows that banks and

local lenders are playing a major role in providing additional capital as most of the samples

are facing financial constraints in their operation. Therefore, it indicates the widespread role

of local lenders in providing both start-up capital and additional capital whenever the samples

are facing financial shortages; although, the role of banks in providing additional capital to

the samples seems bigger than its role in providing start-up capital to them. Based on

interviews with the samples, they expressed that it is more convenient to get the additional

capital from the local lenders than from the banks; although, the interest rate of the local

lenders is higher than that of the banks. Although the rate of the banks is lower, there are

6 Local lenders are persons whose business is to lend money to people such as entrepreneurs without anycomplicated procedures, but with high interest rate.

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many complicated procedures for the samples. These procedures are not required to get the

additional capital from the local lenders.

4. Conclusion

Small and medium-sized enterprises in Cambodia re-emerged strongly after the

government adopted its new economic system from a planned economy to a free market

economy in the early 1990s. These enterprises have been playing an important role in the

private sector, and they form the majority of the country’s industrial firms, and they are labour

intensive. SMEs have also been playing an important role in agro-processing firms by shifting

more rural employment to manufacturing.

However, as a result of these findings, we discovered that the majority of SMEs in rice

milling, established within the last 15 years, fall into the small firm category, with an average

of 17 workers. Most of them are private enterprises owned by Chinese-Cambodian owners.

We also found that the owners of the samples are middle aged, the average being 49 years old,

and they were not highly educated. The majority of the samples started their businesses with

support from their immediate families. However, the role of local lenders is widespread in

providing additional capital, while the role of the banks is still limited. Furthermore, we also

found that the products of the samples cannot compete on the international market because the

quality of their products is still yet to be improved. The samples show that Cambodia doesn’t

appear to have a rice polishing enterprise which can produce a good standard quality of rice

products to be exported to the international markets.

This is just primary research; quantitative and qualitative research of SMEs

particularly in rice milling enterprises is needed. Further research concerning the education of

the entrepreneurs of Cambodia SMEs is also needed; with a focus the Chinese-Cambodian

entrepreneurs and Cambodian entrepreneurs and comparison of their education and roles in

economic development.

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Appendix

Table 1a Number of firms by size, 1993, 2001 (by number)Region, Whole Kingdom

Size of employment (persons)1993 2001

1-9 3,024 7,04910-49 2,000 27,74350-199 28 46>200 10 274Total 5,062 35,112Source: Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy 2003, Ministry of Planning, Statistical Year Book, 2001, 2003.

Table 1b Percentage of total enterprises, 1993, 2001 (by percentage)Region, Whole Kingdom

Size of employment (persons)1993 2001

1-9 60 2010-49 39 7950-199 0.5 0.1>200 0.2 0.8Total 100 100Source: Computed from Table 1a.

Table 1c Growth rate, 1993-2001 (by percentage)Region, Whole Kingdom

Size of employment (persons)1993-2001

1-9 1110-49 3950-199 6>200 51Total 27Source: Computed from Table 1a.

Table 2a Employment by firm size, 1993, 2001 (by number)Region, Whole Kingdom

Size of employment (persons)1993 2001

1-9 13,682 60,00010-49 24,522 400,00050-199 5,000 8,740>200 6,250 187,260Total 49,454 656,000Source: Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy, 2003, Ministry of Planning, Statistical Year Book, 2001, 2003.

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Table 2b share of employment by firm size, 1993, 2001 (by percentage)Region, Whole Kingdom

Size of employment (persons)1993 2001

1-9 27.6 9.110-49 49.6 61.050-199 10.1 1.3>200 12.6 28.5Total 100 100Source: Computed from Table 2a.

Table 2c Growth rate by firm size, 1993-2001 (by percentage)Region, Whole Kingdom

Size of employment (persons)1993-2001

1-9 20.310-49 41.750-199 7.2>200 52.9Total 38.1Source: Computed from Table 2a.

Table 3a Value of production by market price, 1996-2001 (in thousand USD)Region, Whole Kingdom 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001Domestic Market 141,885 244,981 174,812 171,623 192,914 270,852Medium and Large Firms 56,464 153,077 85,259 67,868 68,588 63,150Micro and Small Firms 85,421 91,904 89,553 103,755 124,326 207,702Source: Ministry of Planning, Statistical Yearbook, 2003.

Table 3b Share of production value by market price, 1996-2001 (by percentage)Region, Whole Kingdom 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001Domestic Market 100 100 100 100 100 100Medium and Large Firms 40 62.5 48.7 39.5 35.5 23.3Micro and Small Firms 60 37.5 51.2 60.5 64.5 76.7Source: Computed from Table 3a.

Table 3c Growth rates of production value by market price, 1996-2001 (by percentage)Region, Whole Kingdom 1996-2001Domestic Market 14Medium and Large Firms 2.2Micro and Small Firms 19.4Source: Computed from Table 3a.

Table 4a Employment by industrial sector (in thousand persons)Sector 1960 1970 1985 1990 1995 2001Agriculture 1,922 2,436 3,045 3,066 3,484 3,903Industry 99 109 132 191 244 409Services 299 394 457 676 703 763Total 2,320 2,939 3,634 3,933 4,431 5,075Source: CDRI, Cambodia’s Annual Economic Review, 2002.

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Table 4b Share of employment by industrial sector (by percentage)Sector 1960 1970 1985 1990 1995 2001

Agriculture 82.84 82.88 83.79 77.95 78.62 76.90Industry 4.30 3.70 3.63 4.85 5.50 8.06Services 12.90 13.40 12.57 17.18 15.86 15.03

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100Source: Computed from Table 4a.

Table 5a Small industrial establishment and employment by sector, 2001Sector Number of establishments Number of workersRice mill industry 19,473 290,000Other industry sectors 8,270 110,000Total 27,743 400,000Source: Ministry of Industry and Energy, 2003, Ministry of Planning, Statistical Year Book, 2003.

Table 5b Share of industrial establishment and employment by sector, 2001 (by percentage)Sector Share of establishments Share of employmentRice mill industry 70 72.5Other industry sectors 30 27.5Total 100 100Source: Computed from Table 5a.

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Table 6 Background of samplesStart-up year Business

typeNumber of

workersAge Gender Race Previous job Business

experienceEducationalbackground

Mill A 1980 Private 11 61 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 25 Secondary school

Mill B 1997 Private 10 40 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 8 Secondary school

Mill C 1990 Private 10 43 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 18 Secondary school

Mill D 1992 Private 3 56 Female Cambodian Merchant 10 No schooling

Mill E 1980 Private 25 51 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 25 Primary school

Mill F 1996 Private 10 46 Male Cambodian Office worker 9 Secondary school

Mill G 1992 Private 10 55 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 13 Secondary school

Mill H 2001 Private 15 40 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 10 High school

Mill I 1999 State-owned 18 51 Male Cambodian Officer worker 7 High school

Mill J 1994 Private 10 43 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 10 Primary school

Mill K 1990 Private 12 46 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 8 No schooling

Mill L 1993 Private 10 55 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 12 Primary school

Mill M 2000 Private 10 37 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 5 High school

Mill N 2003 Private 12 46 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 20 Primary school

Mill O 2002 Private 11 52 Male Chinese-Cambodian Merchant 30 Secondary school

Mill P 1997 Private 11 45 Male Cambodian Teacher 5 Secondary school

Source: Field research, November 2005.

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Table 7 Number of first capital, sources of first capital, and source of additional capital

Amount offirst capital (USD)

Main sources PercentageSources ofadditional

capitalPercentage

Mill A 50,000 Immediate family 100% Local lenders 100%

Mill B 15,000 Immediate family 100% Local lenders 100%

Mill C 30,000Immediate family

Banks50%50%

BanksLocal lenders

40%60%

Mill D 9,000 Immediate family 100% Local lenders 100%

Mill E 30,000Immediate family

Banks80%20%

Banks 100%

Mill F 15,000Immediate family

Relatives90%10%

Relatives 100%

Mill G 50,000 Immediate family 100% Banks 100%

Mill H 50,000 Immediate family 100% Relatives 100%

Mill I 190,000 Government 100% Government 100%

Mill J 30,000Immediate family

Local lenders40%60%

Banks 100%

Mill K 10,000 Immediate family 100% Banks 100%

Mill L 50,000Immediate family

Relatives80%20%

Local lenders 100%

Mill M 70,000 Immediate family 100% Local lenders 100%

Mill N 12,000Immediate family

Local lenders20%80%

Banks 100%

Mill O 100.000 Local lenders 100% Local lenders 100%

Mill P 100,000Immediate family

Local lenders50%50%

Local lenders 100%

Source: Field research, November 2005.

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Figure 1 Market of rice products

(Establishment based on samples) (Model from other countries)

__

63%

37%

25% 75%

Source: Field research, November 2005. Source: Institute of developing economies, 2003.

Paddies(Farmers)

Brokers

Rice millingenterprises

ProvincialMarket

Wholesalers

Retailers

Consumers

Phnom PenhMarket

Wholesalers

Retailers

Consumers

Paddies(Farmers)

Brokers

Rice millingenterprises

Rice polishingenterprises

Export to overseasmarkets through

exporting companies

Localmarkets

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Figure 2 Map of Cambodia

Source: http://www.statoids.com/lc.html

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