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UNIT 4 ECOLOGYChapters 8, 9, 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITY
Physical appearance- Species diversity- Niche structure-
SPECIES-RICH ENVIRONMENTS
Tropical rain forests
Coral reefs Deep sea Large tropical
lakes
Latitude- terrestrial communities- highest at lower latitudes
Pollution in aquatic ecosystems- species decrease with pollution
DIVERSITY IN ISOLATED ECOSYSTEM
Determined by: Immigration Extinction
THEORY OF ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY
Balance between immigration rate & extinction rate
Size of island- Distance from mainland-
SPECIES
Native- Nonnative- Indicator- Keystone-
INDICATOR SPECIES
Birds- Amphibians-
DECLINE IN INDICATOR POPULATION
Habitat loss & fragmentation Prolonged drought Pollution Increases in UV Increased incidences of parasitism Overhunting Nonnative predators/competitors &
diseases organisms
KEYSTONE ECOLOGICAL ROLES
Flying foxes- Alligators- Sharks-
Loss of keystone species = population crashed, extinctions of other species
FOUNDATION SPECIES
Species that shape communities by creating or enhancing habitats that benefit other species
African elephants-
INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION
Between species for shared or scarce resources
Consequences:
RESOURCE PARTITIONING
Scarce resources used at different times, in different ways, or in different places
Adaptations lead to specialization
PREDATION
Benefits to prey Unfit Competition Population control
Pursuit & ambush
Avoidance Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism
SUCCESSION
Primary- lifeless ground Pioneer species-
Secondary- soil or sediment remains Midsuccessional plants- Late successional plants- can tolerate
shade Facilitation- Inhibition- Tolerance-
INTERMEDIATE DISTURBANCE HYPOTHESIS
Communities that experience fairly frequent but moderate disturbances have highest biodiversity
DEALING WITH DISTURBANCES
Inertia- Constancy- Resilience-
PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE
When there is evidence that a human activity can harm our health or bring about changes in environmental conditions that can affect our economies or quality of life, we should take measures to prevent harm even if some of the cause-and-effect relationships have not been fully established scientfically
POPULATION DYNAMICS
Study how populations change in size, density, age distribution as a response to changes in environmental conditions
Population clumps indicate-
POPULATION CHANGE
Population change = [births + immigration] – [death + emigration]
BIOTIC POTENTIAL
Capacity for growth
High intrinsic rate of increase (r): -
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
Factors that limit population growth
Carrying capacity (k)-
Consequences of exceeding k-
DENSITY-DEPENDENT FACTORS
Greater effect as population density increases
Examples-
DENSITY-INDEPENDENT FACTOTS
Same effect regardless of density
Examples-
POPULATION TRENDS
Stable- Irruptive- Irregular- Cyclic-
POPULATION CONTROL
Top-down-
Bottom-up-
REPRODUCTION
Asexual- Sexual-
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
-Males do not give birth-Increased chance of errors & defects+Greater genetic diversity-Energy consumed in courtship/mating+Males help protect & train
OPPORTUNIST SPECIES
R-selected Rate Age Energy Offspring Parental care Population size
COMPETITOR SPECIES
K selected Age Offspring Development Size Parental care
DIVERSITY IN SMALL, ISOLATED POP.
Founder effect- Demographic bottle neck- Genetic drift-
METAPOPULATION
Collections of interacting local populations of a species
HUMAN MODIFICATIONS OF ECOSYSTEMS Habitats Simplifying/homogenizing natural
ecosystems NPP Pests & bacteria Elimination, introduction,
overharvesting Chemical cycling, energy flow Fossil fuels
REDUCING THAILAND’S BIRTH RATE
Government supported family planning program
High female literacy rate Increased economic role for women Advances in women’s rights Better healthcare for women & children
DEMOGRAPHY
Study of size, composition, & distribution of human populations & cause/consequences of changes in characteristics
HUMAN POPULATION SIZE
Affected by: Births Deaths Immigration Emigration Crude birth rate- live births/1000 Crude death rate- deaths/1000
ANNUAL RATE OF POPULATION CHANGE Annual rate = (birth-death) / 10
WORLD’S LARGEST POPULATIONS
1. China2. India3. United States
DOUBLING TIME
Time in years for population growing at specified rate to double its size
Rule of 70 = 70 / % growth rate = doubling time (in years)
FERTILITY
# of births that occur to an individual woman
Replacement-level fertility-
FACTORS AFFECTING BIRTH/FERTILITY RATES
Children Pensions Urbanization Women’s status; marriage age; birth
control Infant mortality rate; legal abortions Religious beliefs, traditions, cultural
norms
DECLINE OF DEATH RATE
Increased food supplies Better nutrition Advances in medicine Improved sanitation Safer water supplies
LIFE EXPECTANCY
Average # of years newborn can expect to live
Infant mortality rate-
High IMR- indicates:
U.S. IMR
Inadequate health care for poor women & their babies
Drug addiction High teenage birthrate
U.S. IMMIGRATION
41% population growth from immigration
Reducing immigration: Allow population to stabilize Reduce environmental impactOpposition Diminish role of U.S. as place of
opportunity Immigrants needed as workers
AGE STRUCTURE
Distribution of males/females in each age group
Growth predicted- large bottom =
UNDER 15
World – 30% Developed countries – 17% Developing countries – 33%
Market products/services- directed to upcoming bulge in age structure diagram
RAPID POPULATION DECLINE
-Baby bust-More elders consuming larger share of
medical care, social security fund-Decreasing working taxpayers-Increased retirement age-Cut retirement benefits-Higher taxes
-Increased legal immigration-Loss of working/trained professionals+Increased financial assistance for
education & health care+Volunteers- teachers, health-care,
social workers
AIDS- drop in life expectancy = premature deaths
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
Hypothesis that countries as they become industrialized have declines in death rates followed by declines in birth rates
Preindustrial phase- Transitional stage- Industrial stage- Postindustrial stage-
PREVENTION
Lack of skilled workers Lack of financial capital Lack of resources Rise in debt to developed countries Too little money left for improving
social, health, & environmental conditions
FAMILY PLANNING
Provides educational & clinical services that help couples choose how many children to have & when to have them
Advantages-
EMPOWERING WOMEN
Bottom-up change giving women full legal rights & opportunity to become educated & earn income outside the home
MAJOR POPULATION PLANS
Universal access to family planning services & reproductive health care
Improve health care National population policies Improve women’s status Provide more education for females Increase involvement of men in child-
rearing
Reduce poverty Reduce unsustainable production &
consumption