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Chapters 1 and 2
Introduction to Forensic Science and Crime
Scene Investigation
“In school, every period ends with a bell. Every sentence ends with a period. Every crime ends
with a sentence.”
—Stephen Wright, comedian
Forensic Science
The study and application of science to matters of law.
“Forensis” meaning forum Public place where, in Roman times,
senators and others debated and held judicial proceedings
Criminalistics vs CriminologyCriminalistics the scientific
examination of physical evidence for legal purposes.
Criminology includes the
psychological angle, studying the crime scene for motive, traits, and behavior that will help to interpret the evidence
Crime Lab—Basic Services Physical Science Unit
Chemistry Physics Geology
Biology Unit Firearms Unit Document Examination
Unit Photography Unit
Crime Lab—Optional Services
Toxicology Unit Latent Fingerprint Unit Polygraph Unit Voiceprint Analysis Unit Evidence Collection Unit
Other Forensic Science Services
Forensic Pathology Forensic Anthropology Forensic Entomology Forensic Psychiatry Forensic Odontology Forensic Engineering Cybertechnology
Major Crime Laboratories
FBI DEA ATF U.S. Postal Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Crime Lab History First police crime lab in the world
France in 1910 by Edmond Locard First police crime lab in the U.S.
1923 in Los Angeles The Scientific Crime Detection Lab
Evanston, Illinois in 1929 The first FBI crime lab opened in 1932
Major Developments in Forensic Science History
700s AD—Chinese used fingerprints to establish identity of documents and clay sculptures
~1000—Roman courts determined that bloody palm prints were used to frame a man in his brother’s murder
1149—King Richard of England introduced the idea of the coroner to investigate questionable death
1200s—A murder in China is solved when flies were attracted to invisible blood residue on a sword of a man in the community
1670—Anton Van Leeuwenhoek constructed the first high-powered microscope
1776—Paul Revere identified the body of General Joseph Warren based on the false teeth he had made for him
1784—John Toms convicted of murder on basis of torn edge of wad of paper in pistol matching a piece of paper in his pocket
Major Developments in Forensic Science History
1859—Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen developed the science of spectroscopy.
1864—Crime scene photography developed 1879—Alphonse Bertillon developed a system to identify people using
particular body measurements 1896—Edward Henry developed first classification system for
fingerprint identification 1900—Karl Landsteiner identified human blood groups 1904—Edmond Locard formulated his famous principle, “Every
contact leaves a trace.” 1922—Francis Aston developed the mass spectrometer. 1959—James Watson and Francis Crick discover the DNA double helix 1977—AFIS developed by FBI, fully automated in 1996 1984—Jeffreys developed and used first DNA tests to be applied to a
criminal case
People of Historical Significance
Edmond Locard (1877-1966)
French professor Considered the father of
criminalistics Built the world’s first forensic
laboratory in France in 1910 Locard Exchange Principle
Whenever two objects come into contact with each other, traces of each are exchanged.
Crime Scene Team A group of professional investigators, each trained in a variety of
special disciplines. Team Members
First Police Officer on the scene Medics (if necessary) Investigator(s) Medical Examiner or Representative (if necessary) Photographer and/or Field Evidence Technician Lab Experts
pathologist serologistDNA expert toxicologistforensic odontologist forensic anthropologistforensic psychologist forensic entomologistfirearm examiner bomb and arson expertdocument and handwriting experts fingerprint expert
Scientific Method(as it pertains to criminalistics)
1. Observe a problem or questioned evidence and collect objective data.
2. Consider a hypothesis or possible solution.3. Examine, test, and then analyze the
evidence.4. Determine the significance of the evidence.5. Formulate a theory based on evaluation of
the significance of the evidence
Complex Reasoning Skills
Necessary to Work Through and Solve Crimes: Deductive and Inductive Reasoning Classifying Comparing and Contrasting Problem Solving Analyzing Perspectives Constructing Support Error Analysis
Laws that Pertain to the U.S. Criminal Justice System
The U.S. Constitution Statutory Law Common Law or Case Law Civil Law Criminal Law Equity Law Administrative Law
The Bill of RightsGives individuals the right:
To be presumed innocent until proven guilty
Not to be searched unreasonably Not to be arrested without
probable cause Against unreasonable seizure of
personal property Against self-incrimination To fair questioning by police To protection from physical harm
throughout the justice process To an attorney To trial by jury To know any charges against
oneself
To cross-examine prosecution witnesses
To speak and present witnesses Not to be tried again for the same
crime Against cruel and unusual
punishment To due process To a speedy trial Against excessive bail Against excessive fines To be treated the same as others,
regardless of race, gender, religious preference, country of origin, and other personal attributes
Miranda v Arizona
In 1963, Ernesto Miranda, a 23 year old mentally disturbed man, was accused of kidnapping and raping an 18-year-old woman in Phoenix, Arizona. He was brought in for questioning, and confessed to the crime. He was not told that he did not have to speak or that he could have a lawyer present. At trial, Miranda's lawyer tried to get the confession thrown out, but the motion was denied. The case went to the Supreme Court in 1966. The Court ruled that the statements made to the police could not be used as evidence, since Mr. Miranda had not been advised of his rights.
Miranda Rights
The following is a minimal Miranda warning:
You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to speak to an attorney, and to have an attorney present during any questioning. If you cannot afford a lawyer, one will be provided for you at the government’s expense.
Types of Crimes
Infraction Misdemeanor Felony
Federal Rules of Evidence
In order for evidence to be admissible, it must be:
Probative—actually prove something
Material—address an issue that is relevant to the particular crime
Admissibility of Evidence1923 Frye v. United
States• Admissibility is determined
by:• generally accepted by the
relevant scientific community
• No guidance on reliability• Jury decides if it can be
used.
1993 Daubert v. DowAdmissibility is determined by: If theory or technique can be
tested If science has been offered for
peer review If rate of error is acceptable If the method at issue enjoys
widespread acceptance. If the opinion is relevant to the
issueThe judge decides if the evidence
can be entered into the trial.
Facets of Guilt
Try to prove:
Means—person had the ability to do the crime
Motive—person had a reason to do the crime (not necessary to prove in a court of law)
Opportunity—person can be placed at the crime
“If the Law has made you a witness, remain a man (woman) of science.
You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save.
You must bear testimony within the limits of science.”
—P.C.H. Brouardel
Types of Evidence
“You can learn a lot by just watching.”
—Yogi Berra, former New York
Yankees catcher and sage
Evidence
The difference between indirect and direct evidence
That eyewitness accounts have limitations
What is meant by physical evidence and give examples
What physical evidence can and cannot prove in court
The significance of individual and class evidence
Students will learn:
Types of EvidenceTwo general types:
Testimonial—a statement made under oath Direct evidence or Prima Facie evidence direct evidence is information that directly addresses the issue at hand. It’s not merely something
relevant. It plainly offers an answer to a specific research question. It may not provide as complete an answer as we would like. It may not even provide an accurate answer. But it specifically states something about our problem. It is then up to us to decide its veracity and its weight.
Physical—any object or material that is relevant in a crime Indirect evidence Examples: hair, fiber, fingerprints, documents, blood, soil, drugs, tool marks,
impressions, glass. Much of the information we find does not provide an explicit answer to any problem we have
defined, yet it can seem potentially relevant―This indirect evidence might support direct evidence found. It might weaken the direct evidence wanted to believe.
Reliability of EyewitnessFactors:
Nature of the offense and the situation in which the crime is observed
Characteristics of the witness Manner in which the information is retrieved
Additional factors: Witness’s prior relationship with the accused Length of time between the offense and the
identification Any prior identification or failure to identify the
defendant Any prior identification of a person other than the
defendant by the eyewitness
Eyewitness
A police composite may be developed from the witness testimony by a computer program or forensic artist.
“Perception is reality.”
As a result of the influences in eyewitness memory, physical evidence becomes critical. Faces—a composite program
by InterQuest
Value of Physical Evidence
Generally more reliable than testimonial Can prove that a crime has been committed Can corroborate or refute testimony Can link a suspect with a victim or with a crime
scene Can establish the identity of persons associated
with a crime Can allow reconstruction of events of a crime
Reconstruction
Physical Evidence is used to answer questions about:
what took place how the victim was killed number of people involved sequence of events
A forensic scientist will compare the questioned or unknown sample with a sample of known origin.
Types of Physical Evidence
Transient Evidence—temporary; easily changed or lost; usually observed by the first officer at the scene
Pattern Evidence—produced by direct contact between a person and an object or between two objects
Conditional Evidence—produced by a specific event or action; important in crime scene reconstruction and in determining the set of circumstances or sequence within a particular event
Transfer Evidence—produced by contact between person(s) or object(s), or between person(s) and person(s)
Associative Evidence—items that may associate a victim or suspect with a scene or each other; ie, personal belongings
—Lee and Labriola in Famous Cases, 2001
Examples of Transient Evidence
Odor—putrefaction, perfume, gasoline, urine, burning, explosives, cigarette or cigar smoke
Temperature—surroundings, car hood, coffee, water in a bathtub, cadaver
Imprints and indentations—footprints, teeth marks in perishable foods, tire marks on certain surfaces
Markings
Examples of Pattern Evidence
Pattern Evidence—most are in the form of imprints, indentations, striations, markings, fractures or deposits.
Clothing or article distribution
Gun powder residue Material damage Body position Tool marks Modus operandi
Blood spatter Glass fracture Fire burn pattern Furniture position Projectile trajectory Tire marks or skid marks
Examples of Conditional Evidence
Light—headlight, lighting conditions
Smoke—color, direction of travel, density, odor
Fire—color and direction of the flames, speed of spread, temperature and condition of fire
Location—of injuries or wounds, of bloodstains, of the victim’s vehicle, of weapons or cartridge cases, of broken glass
Vehicles—doors locked or unlocked, windows opened or closed, radio off or on (station), odometer mileage
Body—position, types of wounds; rigor, livor and algor mortis
Scene—condition of furniture, doors and windows, any disturbance or signs of a struggle
Classification ofEvidence by Nature
Biological—blood, semen, saliva, sweat, tears, hair, bone, tissues, urine, feces, animal material, insects, bacterial, fungal, botanical
Chemical—fibers, glass, soil, gunpowder, metal, mineral, narcotics, drugs, paper, ink, cosmetics, paint, plastic, lubricants, fertilizer
Physical—fingerprints, footprints, shoe prints, handwriting, firearms, tire marks, tool marks, typewriting
Miscellaneous—laundry marks, voice analysis, polygraph, photography, stress evaluation, psycholinguistic analysis, vehicle identification
Evidence Characteristics
Class—common to a group of objects or persons
Individual—can be identified with a particular person or a single source
Blood DNA TypingFingerprints
Class vs Individual Evidence
Which examples do you think could be individual evidence?
Forensic Investigations
Include some or all of these seven major activities
1. Recognition—ability to distinguish important evidence from unrelated material Pattern recognition Physical property observation Information analysis Field testing
2. Preservation—collection and proper preservation of evidence
Investigations3. Identification—use of scientific testing
Physical properties Chemical properties Morphological (structural) properties Biological properties Immunological properties
4. Comparison—class characteristics are measured against those of known standards or controls; if all measurements are equal, then the two samples may be considered to have come from the same source or origin.
Investigations
5. Individualization—demonstrating that the sample is unique, even among members of the same class
6. Interpretation—gives meaning to all the information
7. Reconstruction—reconstructs the events of the case Inductive and deductive logic Statistical data Pattern analysis Results of laboratory analysis
—Lee, Dr. Henry. Famous Crimes, 2001
Class vs Individual Evidence
The large piece of glass fits exactly to the bottle; it is individual evidence.
These fibers are class evidence; there is no way to determine if they came from this garment.
People in the News
Dr. Henry Lee—Chief Emeritus for Scientific Services and the former Commissioner of Public Safety for the state of Connecticut. He served as that state’s Chief Criminality from 1979 to 2000. Lee was the driving force in establishing the modern forensic lab in Connecticut. He has worked with many high profile cases including O.J. Simpson, Jon Benet Ramsey, and the “wood chipper” case. He is also seen on many of the true crime shows, including his own, “Trace Evidence: The Case Files of Dr. Henry Lee”. Learn more at his website:
www.drhenrylee.com/review.shtml
FBI Investigation
Read a case investigated by the FBI. Observe the various units of their lab and read the section: “How They Do That?”.
www.fbi.gov/kids/6th12th/investigates/investigates.htm
Chapter 2:THE CRIME SCENE
“Oh, how simple it would all have been had I been here before they came like a herd of buffalo and wallowed all over it.”
—A. Conan Doyle, in The Boscombe
Valley Mystery, 1892
CRIME SCENE
Students will learn: The steps to take when
processing a crime scene. The type of evidence that
determines what packaging should be used.
Why the chain of custody must be preserved.
Students will be able to: Isolate, record, and search for
evidence at a mock crime scene.
Collect and package evidence at a mock crime scene using to proper forensic procedures.
CORPUS DELICTI“Body of the Crime”
You must prove that a crime occurred that the person charged with the crime was responsible for the
crime
Source of Evidence Body Primary and/or Secondary Crime Scene Suspect(s)
CRIME SCENE TEAM
A group of professional investigators, each trained in a variety of special disciplines.
Team Members First Police Officer on the scene Medics (if necessary) Investigator(s) Medical Examiner (if necessary) Photographer and/or Field Evidence Technician Lab Experts
CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION
Based on the scientific method and the Locard Exchange Principle, logic and forensic techniques
Involves: Recognition—scene survey, documentation,
collection Identification—comparison testing Individualization—evaluation and interpretation Reconstruction—reporting and presenting
PROCESSING ACRIME SCENE
Isolate and secure the scene
Document the scene Search for evidence Collect and package
evidence, maintaining the chain of custody
Submit evidence to the crime lab
FIRST OFFICERON THE SCENE
A Assess the crime scene and assist those hurt
D Detain the witness
A Arrest the perpetrator
P Protect the crime
scene
T Take notes
CRIME SCENE SURVEY
Walk-through—performed by the crime scene investigator, the first officer and sometimes the lead detective
Purpose: Mentally prepare a reconstruction theory Note any transient or conditional evidence that could change over time. Note weather conditions Note points of entry or exit, as well as paths of travel within the crime
scene Record initial observations of who, what, where, when, and how Identify special needs within the crime scene for personnel, precautions
or equipment and notify superior officers or other agencies
DOCUMENTATION
Notes—date and time, description of the location, weather and environmental conditions, description of the crime, location of the evidence relative to other key points, the names of all people involved, modifications that have occurred and other relevant information
Photography—photos of scene and surroundings, mid-range to close-up photos with various angles of each piece of evidence, photos as viewed by any witnesses.
Sketches—inclusion of date, time, scale, reference points, distance measurements, names of investigators, victims, suspects, and a legend (key)
Videography—allows narration (non-subjective) to be included
SEARCH METHODS
Line or strip method—best in large, outdoor scenes Grid method—basically a double-line search; effective,
but time-consuming Zone method—most effective in houses or buildings;
teams are assigned small zones for searching Wheel or ray method—best on small, circular crime
scenes Spiral method—may move inward or outward; best used
where there are no physical barriers
CRIME SCENE SKETCH
Date: August 14, 2005 Criminalist: Ann WilsonTime: 11:35 am Location: 4358 Rockledge Dr, St. Louis, Mo.
N
COLLECTING AND PACKAGING EVIDENCE
One individual should be designated as the evidence collector to ensure that the evidence is collected, packaged, marked, sealed, and preserved in a consistent manner
Each item must be placed in a separate container, sealed, and labeled
Most fragile is collected and packaged first Different types of evidence require specific or special
collection and packaging techniques The body is the property of the coroner or medical
examiner. The collection of evidence on the body is done by that department
PACKAGING
Most items should be packaged in a primary container and then placed inside a secondary one. These are then placed inside other containers such as paper bags, plastic bags, canisters, packets and envelopes depending on the type and size of the evidence.
CHAIN OF CUSTODY
There must be a written record of all people who have had possession of an item of evidence. The evidence container must be marked for
identification The collector’s initials should be placed on the
seal If evidence is turned over to another person, the
transfer must be recorded.
CRIME SCENE RECONSTRUCTION
Stages Data collection Hypothesis formation Examination, testing and analysis Determination of the significance of
the evidence Theory formulation
INVESTIGATORS
“The wise forensic investigator will always remember that he must bring all of his life experiences and logic to find the truth. This means common sense, informed intuition, and the courage to see things as they are. Then he must speak honestly about what it adds up to.”
—Dr. Henry Lee
Chief Emeritus for Scientific Services and the
former Commissioner of Public Safety for the state of Connecticut
THE MEDICAL EXAMINER AND THE CORONER
A medical examiner is a medical doctor, usually a pathologist and is appointed by the governing body of the area. There are 400 forensic pathologists throughout the U.S.
A coroner is an elected official who usually has no special medical training. In four states, the coroner is a medical doctor.
MEDICAL EXAMINER’S RESPONSIBILITIES
Identify the deceased Establish the time and date of death Determine a medical cause of death—the injury or disease that resulted
in the person dying Determine the mechanism of death—the physiological reason that the
person died Classify the manner of death
Natural Accidental Suicide Homicide Undetermined
Notify the next of kin
THE CORPSE
“The way I see it, being dead is not terribly far off from being on a cruise ship. Most of your time is spent lying on your back. The brain has shut down. The flesh begins to soften. Nothing much new happens, and nothing is expected of you.”
—Mary Roach. Stiff. W. W. Norton & Company. 2003
PEOPLE IN THE NEWS
Dr. Michael M. Baden is a renowned pathologist and was the Chief Medical Examiner in NY City and for Suffolk County.
Dr. Baden was on the panel that investigated the assassinations of president John F. Kennedy and Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. He has been involved as an expert in forensic pathology in many cases of international interest including:
• The remains of Tsar Nicholas of Russia and his family• The Claus Von Bulow murder trial• Expert witness for the defense in the O.J. Simpson trial• Re-autopsy of Medgar Evers, Civil Rights leader• Re-examination of the Lindberg Kidnapping and murder• Autopsies of the victims of TWA Flight 800
Dr. Baden is the host of HBO’s Autopsy series and is featured on many of the crime talk shows.
MORE INFORMATION
For additional information on crime scene investigation, check out Court TV’s Crime Library:
www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/crimescene/5.html
On Michael Baden and the autopsy: www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/autopsy/1.html