ChAptEronE TheLandandPeople

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ChAptEronE

TheLandandPeople

As the jumbo jet descends from cloud cover, the attendant an-nouncesthattheplaneisonitsfinaldescentintocairointerna-tionalAirport.Asusual,thecabinisfull,notaseattospare.theoccupants include Egyptians returning from work and play over-seas,businesspersons,andalargenumberoftourists.Whetherthepassengersarelongtimeresidentsorfirst-timevisitors,thosewithwindowseatsscanthegroundtoseewhattheycanofthefabledcityanditsmarvelousantiquities.Atfirstonlysanddunesarevis-ible.theflightisinluck.WindcurrentsrequiretheplanetopassoverthegreatpyramidsofGiza.Whenthesemonumentsappear,cheers,gaspsofdelight,andmurmursbreakoutalloverthecabin.those among the passengers who have been to Egypt know thatthisviewdoesnotcomparewithseeingthestructuresforthefirsttimefromgroundlevel.yet,evenat3,000feet,theirmonumental-ityisawe-inspiring.Eventotheinveteratecairenepassengersthepuzzleofhowindividualsmorethan5,000yearsagoconstructedsuchmagnificentburialsitesarises.thoughtsofancientEgyptareineveryone’smind.

in thedrive in to the centerof the city from theairport,mo-toristspassalongtheboulevardwheretheEgyptianmilitaryholdsitsceremonialparades.AtonelocationtheyobservetheimpressivegravesiteofPresidentAnwaral-sadat.EventheuntutoredvisitorscannothelpbutberemindedoftheGizapyramids.theyservedasburialchambersforthreeofEgypt’searlyandmightypharaohs.ifthetravelersknowtheirhistoryofEgypt,theyareawarethatthecityofcairoisdottedwithmanysuchmemorialstothegreats.Almostfromthebeginningsofhumanhabitationinthenileriverbasin


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Egyptianshavememorializedtheirmostpowerfulandrespectedrul-ers,usinggrandiosemonumentstoextoltheirservicestothepeopleandtotheland.thebiggerandmoreimpressivethesites,orsothetheorygoes,themoresplendidthereignswere.

thesadattombhasevendeeperconnectionswithEgypt’spast.Across from the burial grounds are military grandstands in themiddle ofwhich is a single seat, painted in black. it is the chairthatAnwaral-sadatoccupiedwhenhewas gunneddownduringtheoctober1981militaryparade,held tocelebrate the triumphsof the october 1973 war with israel. if one also remembers thewords that the assassin, Khaled al-islambouli, announced at histrial,“ihavekilledpharaoh,”theEgyptianpastseemseverpresent.Egypt’slastthreerulers(GamalAbdelnasser,Anwaral-sadat,andHusniMubarak)havefrequentlybeencomparedwithpharaohsorotherofEgypt’searlierrulers.sadatinparticulartriedtoassociatehimself andhis actionswithEgypt’s pharaonicpast, carryinghisbatonuprightinhishandlikeapharaohcarryingthekeyoflifeanddressinginregalsplendoronhighceremonialoccasions.onecon-temporaryobservercallsthenewrulersEgypt’sneo-Mamluks.

Manyobserversstressthecontinuity,eventheunchangingna-ture, of Egypt over the millennia. they argue that climate, geog-raphy, and the unvarying routines of the nile river, cresting insummerintofloods,imposeaunitythathumaningenuitycannotalter.GeographicallyEgyptiscutofffromtheeastandwestbydes-erts,inthenorthbytheMediterranean,andinthesouthbyfiercenilerapids,calledcataracts.itsinhabitantsthereforearecrammedintoasmallbandofarable landthatthenilemakesavailabletothem,adependencethatthemostbrilliantscientistshavebeenabletochangeonlyalittle.

yet change has also been a prominent feature of Egypt’s longhistory.theperiodbreaksarepalpable.AncientEgyptianculture,lasting nearly three millennia, ultimately gave way to Greek andromanconquests. theancient languageof theEgyptians felloutofuse,andmanyofthegreatmonumentsofantiquitywereeithercoveredbysandortorndownsothattheirmaterialscouldbeusedelsewhere.thenthepolytheisticcultureoftheGreeksandromans

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gavewaytochristianity,followedbyislam,whichbroughtanewworldreligionandanewlanguage.norwasislamasingleentity,foronesetofMuslimconquerorssucceededanother.thefatimids,ashimmeringshiitedynasty,gavewaytoAyyubids,thentoMamluks,andfinallytoottomans.nextcameanewsetofforeignconquer-ors:firstthefrench,followed,afterastunninginterludeofturko-circassianrulers,bytheBritish.AlthoughcontemporariescompareEgypt’spresent-dayregimewiththepharaohsandtheMamluks,themenwhohaveruledEgyptsincethe1950sboastoftheirEgyptian-nessandassertthattheyarethefirstnative-bornsonstorulethecountrysincethepharaohs.

changeandcontinuityare,thus,hallmarksofEgypt’slonghis-tory.thesethemesarecriticaltothehistoryofEgypt.fewcountrieshavehadasmuchwrittenabouttheirpastsashasEgypt;yetonlyafewbooksofferoverviews.thedemandiseverpressing.touristsclamorforageneralguidetotherichhistoryofthecountry—onethat will allow them to set the country’s omnipresent historicalmonuments inanunderstandablenarrative.scholarsandexpertsareeagerforaworkthatwillencapsulatethehistoryofperiodsthatarenottheirspecialties.Alas,littleexists.Guidebooksabound,buttheyspecialize incertainperiodsandparticularregions.Mostareshortonhistory.thereasonsforthisgaparenothardtodiscern.inmanywaysEgypthastoorichahistory,toomanydistinctivehistori-calperiods.Eachhasitslinguistic,ethnographic,anddocumentaryrequirements,andeachhasavoluminous,highlyspecialized,andsophisticated historical literature. Egyptologists find it difficult toconversewithmodernists.Graeco-roman scholarshavemuch incommonwithislamistssincebothsetsofscholarswriteaboutthesamegeographicalentityandthesameethno-linguisticcommunity;yettheirlinguisticandhistoricaltrainingoftenkeepsthemapart.

HowmuchhasEgyptchangedoverthecenturiesandhowmuchhasitremainedthesame?formillenniatherhythmsofeverydayexistencerevolvedaroundthenile.Andtheycontinuetodosoeventodaythoughthecountryhasnotexperiencedannualnilefloodsformore thanhalf a century.does thepresenceof thenileandtherelativelynarrowbandofarablelandsurroundingthenilegive

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aunitytothehistoryofEgyptthattranscendsitsmanyhistoricalperiods?

BecauseofEgypt’sunquestionedgeographicalandstrategicim-portance,lyingatthecornerofthreecontinents(Europe,Asia,andAfrica),thelandhasattractednumerousoutsiders,oftenasinvad-ers.Hyksos,Greeks,romans,Arabs,Mamluks,ottomans,french,andBritish(somewouldnowevenaddAmericans)haveruledoverthecountry,importingtheirlanguages,theirpopulations,andtheirwaysof life.Buthoweffectivelyhave they imposed theirculturesonthemenandwomenwholivedalongsidethebanksofthenile?certainlymuchhaschangedoverthecourseofalonganddiversehistory.Hieroglyphspassedoutofexistence,nottobedeciphereduntilthenineteenthcenturythroughtheworkofmodernlinguisticscholars.Muchof thepharaonicculture that so intriguesEgypt’scontemporaryvisitorswasburiedundercenturiesofsanddeposits.it tooonlycame intoprominence through theeffortsofahardybandofscholarsknownasEgyptologists.Egyptwasoncethemostchristianterritoryinallofchristendom.ButfollowingtheArab-Muslim invasionof the seventhcenturychristianity gaveway toislam,thoughnottotally.thecopticpopulationtodayconstitutesnearly10percentofEgypt’s total, and thecoptic language,withconnections to ancient Egyptian, continues in use today, thoughconfinedtoaclericalclass.

changeisobvious.Butsoiscontinuity.Monumentalarchitec-ture,prevalentinpharaonictimes,canstillbeseeninthemonu-ments dedicated to Egypt’s modern leaders. so, too, some wouldargue,doesthecultofanall-powerfulruler,whosetaskitwasinancienttimestoensureorderandprosperityandwhoseresponsi-bilities,undernasser,sadat,andMubarak,remainmuchthesame.religionwasatthecoreofthecultureoftheancients.MuchinearlyEgyptianreligiousbeliefandpracticepassed,thoughinaradicallymodifiedform,intochristianityandislam.inaworldthatseemedreadytosidelinereligionislamhasrefusedtogiveway.Egypthasplayedacentralroleintheemergenceofaresurgentislam.changeandcontinuity,thesearethethemesofEgypt’shistoricalnarrative.theyarewritlarge.

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Peoplesandcountriesoftenowetheirnamestoforeigners.span-iards, thefirstEuropeans toarrive in theAmericas, believed thatthey had landed somewhere in East Asia. they called the nativeAmericans indians. so it was with Egypt and Egyptians. the an-cientEgyptiansreferredtotheirterritoryaskemet,theblackorar-able land, thusdistinguishing thecultivableportionof theirareafrom thedesert,which they calleddeshret, or the red soil. itwastheGreekswhocoined thewordaigyptos(Egyptian) to representthenameoftheinhabitantsofthenileriverbasinaswellastheterritoryinwhichtheylived.thisGreekwordhadanancientEgyp-tianderivation.itwasaGreekcorruptionoftheancientEgyptiannameforthepharaoniccapitalcity,Memphis:Hi-kiptah(thecastleof thegodPtah), thusestablishingatraditionofusingthenameofthecapitalcitytostandfortheentireterritoryandthepeople.Later,theArabconquerorsofEgyptcalledtheirnewcapital,locatedneartheoldpharaoniccapitalofMemphis,Misr,whichtheyalsoemployedasthetermfortheentireterritoryandwhoseinhabitantswerecalledMisriyyin,theinhabitantsofMisr.

the Nile river aNd its iMPortaNCe to egyPt

theGreekswerefascinatedwithEgypt,afascinationthatimpelledAlexander’sconquestofthecountryandmustaccountforhismany,largelysuccessfuleffortstoembraceEgyptianways.totheGreeks,especiallytothatmostaccomplishedofGreekhistoriansandtravel-ers,Herodotus,Egyptwaspairedintheirimaginationwithscythia.the Egyptians represented the most ancient and sophisticated ofpeoples in contrast to the nomadic, less sophisticated scythians.toHerodotusweowemanytruismsaboutancientEgypt,not theleastofwhichwasthatthelandwasthegiftofthenile.theEgyp-tiandescriptionsthatheofferedinhisbookThePersianWarsowedmuchtoconversationsheheldwithEgyptianpriestsinMemphis,Heliopolis,andthebesduringhisfifth-centuryBcEtravelsinthecountry.theclericsassuredhimthattheirlandwas“themostan-cientofmankind.”certainly,Herodotus’sadmirationforthepeo-pleandthelandwasunbounded.HedescribedEgyptasaterritory

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that“possessessomanywonders;norhasany[othercountry]suchanumberofworkswhichdefydescription.notonlyistheclimatedifferent from thatof the restof theworld, and the riverunlikeanyotherrivers,butthepeoplealso,inmostoftheirmannersandcustoms,exactly reverse thepracticeofmankind.”Henoted thatwomenwenttomarketswhilemenstayedathometoweavecloth.onlymenwerepriests;yetinsteadofgrowinghair,whichwasthepracticeinHerodotus’shomeland,theyshavedofftheirhair.EvenmoreperplexingtohimwasthefactthatEgyptiansateoutofdoorsandurinatedindoors.

Herodotus’s precise words about the nile are worth repeating:“the Egypt to which the Greeks go in their ships is an acquiredcountry,thegiftofthenile.”yethisacuteperceptionofthenile’scentralitytothepeopleofEgyptwasonlypartiallyright.certainly,without the nile’s life-giving waters, the vast territory of Egypt(37,540squarekilometerstoday)wouldhavebeenlittlemorethandesert, interrupted here and there by life-supporting oases. its7,500,000acresofarableland,whichtodaysupportthreegrowingseasonsayearandconstituteoneoftheworld’srichestandmostproductiveagriculturallandareas,wouldhavelainbarren.

Herodotus took the nile and its generous annual floods forgranted. in reality, the nile had not always been so beneficent.Although a great river existed for many millions of years, it wasonly12,500yearsagothattoday’sniletookshape.Earlierniles,ofwhichthereweremany,eitherbroughttoomuchwaterortoolittle.theycouldnothaveproducedthewayoflifethatEgyptianstakeforgranted.theywouldneverhavecreatedthesplendidculturesthatmarkedEgypt’slongandresplendenthistory.

thenileisthelongestriverintheworld,slightlyoutdistancingthe Amazon. it is fed by innumerable streams and rivers, but itsmostremotesourcerisesinthehillsofrwanda,some4,238milessouthofitsultimatedestination,theMediterraneansea.itstribu-taries and main branches flow through eight countries—rwanda,Burundi,tanzania,Kenya,Ethiopia,Uganda,sudan,andEgypt—en-compassingmorethanonemillionsquaremiles,nolessthanone-tenthof thewholeof theAfricancontinent.yet, fora river that

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traversessuchanimmensearea,itdeliversonlyatinyquantityofwater.comparedwiththemightyAmazonriverinsouthAmericaittransportsameretrickleofwater,carryingonly2percentofthetotalsthattheAmazonsupplies.itsvolumeisnomorethanthatofGermany’srhine,rarelythoughtofasoneofthelargeriversoftheworld.

Althoughthenilehasinnumerabletributaries,especiallyinitsdistantlocationsincentralandequatorialAfrica,threebranchesdomostofitswork.first,theAtbarariver,descendingoutofthehigh-lands of Ethiopia, carries one-seventh of the river’s total annualvolume.Aragingtorrentduringthefloodseason,whenmonsoonrainsandmeltingsnowsintheEthiopianhighlandsfillitschannel,it becomesadrybedduring thenonflood season.theBluenile,alsorisinginthehighlandsofEthiopia,wasthecriticalsourceofEgypt’sagriculturalprosperityuntilthetwentiethcentury,bringingvast quantities of silt-laden waters from the Ethiopian highlandsduringthefloodseasonanddepositingthisrichsoilinthenileval-leybasin.itcarriesfour-seventhsoftheriver’stotalcapacity,muchofitduringthefloodseason.finallycomestheWhitenile,crash-ingdownoutofLakevictoriaandmeanderingitswaynorthwardthroughthemarshlandsofthesouthernsudan,knownasthesudd,tomergewiththeBluenileatKhartoum.itcarriestheremainingtwo-seventhsofthenilewaters.it,too,iscriticaltoEgypt’sannualflood,for itprovidesasteadysourceofwateryearround,therebymoderatingthemainnileriverandkeepingthefloodwatersfrombeingviolentandunpredictable,astheysooftenareintheothermajor rivers of the world. from Khartoum to the Mediterraneansea thenileflowsona further1,600miles,withtheaidofonlyasingletributary,theAtbara,andwithoutsignificantrainfall.yetitleavesenoughwaterandrichsoiltocreate“anelongatedoasis”stretchingallthewayfromAswantotheMediterraneansea.itwasinthiselongatedoasisthattheEgyptianscreatedtheirpioneeringancientculture.

the surface of the earth undergoes radical, tectonic changesfromtimetotime.thesechangesproducenewlandmasses,createmountainsandvalleys,alterclimatesandhabitats,andchangethe

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course of rivers. one such change occurred in central Africa ap-proximatelysixmillionyearsago.theearth’scrustrosetoformtheriftvalley,causingdramaticchangesinclimate,geography,humanhabitation,andriverdirection.PreviouslythewatersofcentralandequatorialAfricahaddrained toward theredseaand thecongobasin.Anupliftedriftnotonlycreatedthehighlandsofpresent-dayEastAfricawherethefirsthominidsappearedandthegreat lakesof equatorial Africa—tanganyika, Albert, Edward, and eventuallythelargestofthemall,victoria—italsoredirectedriversystemsanddrainagepatternsnorthwardtowardEgyptandtheMediterraneansea.still,thepresent-daynilehadyettoappear.severalpre-nilesscouredoutchannelsforthemselveswithinEgyptastheyprogressedtotheMediterranean,thoughtheywerehardlytheusableriverofthe modern era. sometimes these early niles were fed by watersfromequatorialAfrica;othertimes,duringperiodsofgreataridity,thecentralAfricanconnectionwasbroken.occasionallytheniledriedupaltogether,leavingEgyptadesert,devoidofalllife.Around800,000 to 700,000 years ago, during an African wet phase, thewatersfromEthiopiaagainbrokethroughtoEgyptandturnedthenileintoamighty,thoughhighlyunpredictableriver.then12,500yearsago,duringanotherwetphase,thewatersofLakevictoria,fedbytheotherlakesofequatorialAfrica,spilledoutofitsbasinandplungednorthwardtoformtheWhitenile,whichjoinedtheBluenileatKhartoumtobecomethemainnileriveronwhichEgypt’slivelihoodsoondepended.

Mightyriversaredangerousforcesofnature.theirfloodsareof-tenunpredictable.Peoplewho residewithin theirfloodplainsputthemselves at risk. Large-scale floods can ruin crops and destroyvillages. insufficient floods produce inadequate harvests and leadtostarvation.yet,whatweoftenrefertotodayascivilizationhaditsbirthintheseriverbasins—thelocationsoftheearliest,complexsocieties.naturally,theseareasarethesubjectofintensearchaeo-logicalinquirysincetheyofferinsightstohistorians,archaeologists,anthropologists,andotherexpertsonhowhumanbeingsbecameprolific,prosperous,andthedominantspeciesontheplanet.thepeoplesresidinginthreeofthesefloodplains—thetigris-Euphrates,

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the indus, and thenile—led theway in creating theworld’sfirsturban-based,hierarchical,andcomplexsocieties.thebreakthroughstocomplex,large-scaleculturesoccurredroughlybetween7,000and5,000yearsago.WeknowlittleabouttheHarappancultureoftheindusriverbasin;itsearlyremainswereregularlycoveredupbyan-nualfloodsandnewsettlements.MesopotamiaandEgyptarebetterknown, and though the similarities in the histories of these twocentersofadvancedculture,oftenreferredtoasthecradlesofcivi-lizations,arenotable,theircontrastsareevenmorestriking.Manyofthedifferences,notsurprisingly,sprangfromtheriversthatthelocalpopulationslearnedtomaster.

themodernnileisaremarkablykindandproductiveriver,espe-ciallywhencomparedwiththetigrisandEuphrates.itsfloodsarehighlypredictable.theyarriveatthemostopportunetimeforthegrowingseasonandrequirelittlehydraulicengineering.thenile’sannualfloodcrested toward the endof the summermonthsandleftitssiltedwatersonthesoilattheverymomentthatEgyptianfarmerswerereadytoplanttheircrops.Allthatwasrequired,oncethewatershaddrainedbackintothemainnilechannel,wasforthepeasantstobroadcasttheirseedsandlivestocktotrampletheseedunderfoot.

comparethiswiththechallengesthatfacedMesopotamiancul-tivators. they were confronted with altogether more formidableproblemsthatrequiredelaboratearrangementsforcontrollingrag-ingfloodwaters.Because thetigris-Euphratesannualfloodscameattheapexofthegrowingseason,agriculturalistshadtocreateanirrigation system that would protect the crops under cultivationandalsoprovidewaterwhenthefloodwatershadreceded.first,theriverbanks needed to be heightened to ensure that water did notspillontothefieldsanddestroycrops.inaddition,MesopotamianagriculturalistsfashionedasophisticatedsetofirrigationcanalstosiphonoffthewatersoftheEuphrateswhentheywereattheirlowpointbutweremostneededontheland.Moreover,thewatersdidnotflowbackeasily intothemainriverchannel,astheniledid,withtheresultthatthelow-lyinglandsintheMesopotamiandeltawereatriskofsaltingupandbecomingunusable.

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Herodotushimselfnotedhowbenignthenilewaterswere.nodoubtheexaggeratedwhenheobservedthat“atpresent,itmustbeconfessed,they[theinhabitantsoftheEgyptiandelta]obtainthefruitsof thefieldwith less trouble thananypeople in theworld,therestofEgyptincluded,sincetheyhavenoneedtobreakupthegroundwiththeplough,nortousethehoe,nortodoanyoftheworkwhichtherestofmankindfindnecessaryiftheyaretogetacrop.Butthehusbandmanwaitstilltheriverhasofitsownaccordspreaditselfoverthefieldsandwithdrawnagaintoitsbed,andthensowshisplotofground,andaftersowing,turnshisswineintoitafterwhichhehasonlytoawaittheharvest.”

theEgyptians,too,werefulsomeintheirpraiseoftheirmightyandlife-givingriver.inwordscarvedonapyramidsomeforty-fivecenturiesago,anEgyptianpoetexclaimed:

theytremblethatbeholdthenileinfullflood.

thefieldslaughandtheriverbanksareoverflowed.

thevisageofmenisbright,andtheheartsofthegodsrejoiceth.

And some centuries later another poet also sang the river’spraises:

Praisetotheeonile,thatissuestforthfromtheearthandcomes

tonourishthedwellersinEgypt.

thatgivestdrinktothedesertplaceswhichwerefarfromwater;

hisdewitisthatfallethfromheaven.

thenileproducedanother immeasurablebenefit, leadingulti-matelytotheunityofthelandfromtheMediterraneanseatothefirstcataractorrapidsatpresent-dayAswan.notonlydiditscur-rentsflownorthward,butitswindsblewintheoppositedirection.sailors could set their sails to capture the Mediterranean breezesastheytraveledsouth;theycouldcoastunderthecurrentsoftheriverastheytravelednorth.yetunitydidnotcomeeasilyorquickly.itcameaboutthroughhard-wonstruggles,stillonlydimlyunder-stood.

theniledividesEgyptintotwoparts.thesouthernhalfofEgypt,calledUpperEgyptbecauseitcontainstheupperwatersofthenile

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inside Egypt, has a narrow floodplain, surrounded on both sidesbyhillsandmountains.itscultivablelandsstretchoutoveralongnorth-southdimension,butneverexceedtenmileseastandwestoftheriver’sbanks.Atalocationwherecaironowsitsandwherethe political center of Egypt was often found, the nile branchesout. today there are two branches, one debouching at damietta,the other at rosetta. in pharaonic times, there were many morebranches leading to the Mediterranean. northward of cairo inwhatistermedLowerEgyptexistsalargedeltaarea,stretchingatitswidestnearlytwohundredmilesfromeasttowest.formillennia,LowerEgypthasbeenthecountry’sbreadbasket.oftenitsuppliedmuchoftheeasternMediterraneanwithvitalfoodstuffs.

today’snile,tamedbyvasthydraulicworks,isalanguorousandcalmriver.tothenakedeyeithardlyseemstohaveacurrent.theonlycataractwithinEgyptitself,atAswan,nolongerproducesthevastchurning,hissing,andspittingofwatersthatoccurredduringthehighnilestatewhenfloodwaterscrashedagainstmassiverockformationsinthemainchannel.inthedaysbeforethehighdamsouthofAswanhadcutthesupplyofwatertothefirstcataract,visi-torsflockedtoAswanduringthefloodseasontowitnessthisforceofnature.foreignbusinesspersonseventuallybuilttheoldcataractHotelontheverysiteofthecataracttoensurethatvacationersandtouristscouldseethismarvelofnature.Eventoday,whenrivertur-bulencenolongerexists,thehotel,withitsturn-of-the-twentieth-centurycharmandamenities,remainsoneofthefavoritespasforthoseseekingreposefromatroubledandturbulentworld.

speakingofrepose,ifonewantstofindserenityinthehustleandbustleofcairo,takeafeluccarideonthenile.Evenatcairothenilewatersarefarfromimpressive.thedistancefromonebanktotheotherisnotgreat,afarcryfrom,say,theMississippiriver.nordothemuddywatersbeckononetogoforaswim.feluccas lookwornandinneedofrepair.nearlyallofthemhavepatchesontheirsails.Butexpertboatmennavigatethem,andasonemeandersfromtheeasttothewestbanksofthenile,onefeelsthepullofhistory.Hereare reeds like thosewhere thebabyMoseswas said tohavebeenhiddenfromthewrathofthepharaohs.overheadisthebridge

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tocairoUniversity,whereprotestersoftengatheredtoshouttheirdefianceagainsttheBritishorofficialsoftheEgyptiangovernment.Andastwilightdescendsonthecity(anditdoessowithalarmingspeed),cairo’slightsshimmerofftheriver,projectinganimageofgracefulsplendor.

The Beginnings of Human Habitation in the Nile Valley

the earliest records of human habitation in the nile valley datefrom400,000yearsago.theyconsistofflakedstonetoolsthatsug-gestthatHomoerectusdwelledinthisareaastheseearlyhominids,predecessorsofmodernmenandwomen,movedthroughtheAf-ricancontinentbeforepopulatingotherpartsoftheAfro-Eurasianlandmass. Unfortunately, no bones have been found, so our evi-dence rests entirely on the discovery of tools. Just when modernmen and women—Homo sapiens—entered the nile basin has yettobedetermined.theearliestsettlementsknownsofardatefrom7,000yearsago.theywerefoundatMerimde,ontheedgeoftheWesterndelta,andinthefayyumregionsouthwestofpresent-daycairo.Wheretheseearlyhumanscamefromisstillanopenques-tion.somescholarssuggestthattheyarrivedfromtheLibyandesertduringadrying-outphasewhenhumansflockedintoriverbasinsforsustenance.othersargueforanortheastorigin,believingthatthesepeopleenteredEgyptfromsouthwestAsia,migratingacrossthesinaiPeninsula.

intheirnewsettingHomosapiensadaptedtotherhythmsofthenilewithoutgreatdifficulty.theydividedthearablelandsintoir-rigationbasinsofquitevaryingsizes,rangingfrom1,000acresto40,000acres, inpreparation for theannualflood.cultivatorsdi-videdbasinsbymeansofsimpleearthenwallsandthenallowedthewaterswhentheyfloodedintothebasinstosoakintothesoilforaperiodlastingbetweenfortyandsixtydays,depositingnewlayersofsilt.onlythendidfarmerscutthebarriersandpermitthewaterstoflowontobasinsfurtherdownriverordrainbackintothemainnilechannel.theviewofthefloodedplainattheheightofthefloodseasonwasmagnificenttobehold.HaroldHurst,aBritishhydraulic

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engineer and part of a last generation to see the Egyptian coun-trysidewhenitwasstill fullyflooded,commented:“inthebrightsunlight and the temperateweather of the autumn inEgypt thiswasawonderfulsightwiththedeserthillsandthepyramidsinthebackground.”AllofEgypt’sarablelandlayunderwatersaveforthemoundsonwhichthevillagesnestled.Peoplemovedfromvillagetovillagebymeansofboats.(seeplate1foranartist’srenditionofthenileinflood.)

theirrigationtechnologyrequiredtotraptheannualnilefloodswassimple.Eachvillage,usuallyunderthecontroloflocalnotables,took responsibility for its own irrigation. this did lead to villagerivalriesanddisputes,someofwhichbecameviolentandproducedbitterhistories.Whatthecentralgovernmentwasneededfor,whenitfinallycameintobeingsometime5,000yearsago,wastostoreseedgrainforthenextyearandprovideemergencysuppliesoffoodstuffsifthefloodswereinadequate.thestatealsomaintainednilometers,whichwereplacedstrategicallyalongtheupperreachesoftheriverto provide advanced indications of when the floods would comeand how large they would be. A true canal system did not comeintobeinguntilthenineteenthcentury,whenEgypt’srulers,Mu-hammadAlifirstofallduringthefirsthalfofthatcenturyandtheBritishaftertheiroccupationofthecountryin1882,constructedaseriesofbarragesanddamsacrossthenilethatreplacedthebasinsystemofirrigation,largelyunchangedsincepharaonictimes,witha system of perennial irrigation. Whereas in ancient times basinirrigationhadpermittedonlyasinglegrowingseason,perennialir-rigation,whichmadenilewatersavailabletheyearround,enabledEgyptiancultivatorstotakefulladvantageofthefertilityofthesoilandtheclimatetogrowtwo,sometimesthreecropsperyear.Whatthemoderncultivatorssacrificed,however,wastheregulardepositofnewsoilcarriedinthefloodwatersfromtheEthiopianhighlands.Asaresultcultivatorsturnedtolargerandlargerquantitiesoffertil-izersastheonlywaytomaintainthefertilityandhighproductivityoftheland.

theancientEgyptianswereamongthosefirstgroupsofpeopleswhomovedfrombeinghuntersandgathererstoengageinsettled

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agricultureandhusbandry.theywerenotthefirst,however.theylearnedmanyofthetechniquesforplantingseedsandharvestingcropseitherfromthepeoplesofsouthwestAsia,usuallyregardedasthefirstsettledagriculturalistsintheworld,orfromthepeopleslivingtotheirwestinpresent-dayLibya,whoweredrivenintothenileriver basinby the growing aridity of theworld.cultivators,dependentastheywereonthenilefloods,grewonlyasingle,win-tercrop.themaincultigenswerewheat,beans,berseem(Egyptianclover),lentils,barley,andchickpeas.farmersmaintainedorchardsandvineyards,whichweretheonlylandsthatenjoyedyear-roundirrigation.theseestateshadtobewalledofffromtheflood,whichwoulddestroythetreesandvines,andwerewateredregularlyfromwellsandreservoirs.theEgyptiansalsopossesseddomesticatedani-mals,notablycattle,sheep,goats,andpigs.

Althoughthenilefloodsdidmostoftheworkinirrigatingandrenewingthesoil,Egyptiancultivatorsemployedasimpletechnol-ogytoliftriverbasinandcanalwatersontothelandwhenandasneeded.followingtheAmarnaperiodofthenewKingdom,around1200BcE,Egyptiansinventedasimpledeviceknownastheshaduf,which, using a fulcrum, lifted a water bag that enabled cultiva-tors to irrigate the lands from the springand summer low-waternile.Shadufsmade itpossible to growwinter crops, suchas cot-tonandadditionalcereals.Later,duringthePtolemaicperiodthebuffalo-drivenwaterwheel,knownasthesaqia,andtheArchime-deanscrewallowedfarmerstomakemorethanaverymodestuseofthelownilewatersthattheshadufalonehadpermitted.Egypt’svauntedagriculture,basedontwoandoccasionallythreecropsperyear,becamerealityonlyafter thepharaonicperiodhadcome toanendandafterAlexandertheGreat’sconquestofthecountryin332BcE.(seeplates2and3forillustrationsofshadufsandsaqiasinusetoday.)

Who Were the aNCieNt egyPtiaNs?

Butwhoweretheseearlyinhabitantsofthenileriverbasin?thequestion of their identity has roiled scholars and commentators.

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MuchofthedebaterevolvesaroundtheissueofwhethertheancientEgyptians were African peoples, that is to say, people with blackskinsandthephysicalfeaturesthatareprominentamongAfricanpeoplestoday.orweretheseancientmenandwomenlivingalongthebanksof thenile similar topresent-dayEgyptians,whohaveolive-coloredskins?inseveralbooks,particularlyTheAfricanOriginsofCivilization:MythorReality,thesenegalesewritercheikhAntadiopmarshaledlinguistic,literary,andartisticevidenceinsupportofthetheorythattheancientEgyptianswereblackAfricans.citingthewritingsofHerodotusonEgyptandassertingthattheimagesonthefriezesandpaintingsoftheancientEgyptiansdisplayunques-tionablyblackAfricanfeatures,diopassertedthat“ancientEgyptwasanegrocivilization,”addingthat“insteadofpresentingitselfasaninsolventdebtor,theBlackworldistheveryinitiatorofthe‘Westerncivilization’flauntedbeforeoureyestoday.”

theentryofdiopintothesacreddomainoftheEgyptologistshasspurredavigorousandinformativesetofreplies.Heretheconsen-sus is thatdiopwaswrong inclaimingthatHerodotusdescribedtheancientEgyptiansasbeingblackAfricans.Quitethecontrary,HerodotusandotherclassicalauthoritiesmadeacarefuldistinctionbetweenEgyptiansandtheblack-skinnedpeopleswholivedtothesouth,whomtheyreferredtoasEthiopians.so,too,didEgyptiancraftsmenofthetimedistinguishbetweenthemselvesandpeoplestothesouth.theydepictedthelatterinpaintings,sculptures,andmosaics as black, while portraying Egyptians as mildly dark andAsiansashavingpalerskins.scenesfromthetombsofsetiiandramsesiiiinthevalleyoftheKingsinUpperEgyptofferafullarrayofthepeopleswithwhomtheEgyptianshadcontact.inthemtheEgyptiansareshownashavingreddish-brownskins.

More recently, a scholar of chinese political thought, MartinBernal,has thrusthimself into this very samedebate.Employinga provocative title, Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of ClassicalCivilization, Bernal argues that the influence of Egypt on GreeceandthroughGreeceonWesterncivilizationwasprofoundbutthatgenerationsofWesternscholars,eagertoshowthattheWestoweditsgreatnesstoindo-EuropeanachievementsandnottoAfricanor

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semiticinfluences,deniedtheEgyptiancontributiontotheWesternexperience.Alas,Bernal’smainpoint—theindebtednessoftheWesttoEgypt—gotlostinpartbecauseoftheweaknessofhisscholarship,theheatedresponsesfromaggrievedclassicalscholars,whosteppedforward todefend theirfield, and the always present controversyoverwhethertheEgyptianswereablackAfricanpeople.

ofcourse,asmodernscholarshiphascometounderstandjusthow intermixed thepeoplesof theworld trulyareandhow littlegeneticdifferencethereisamongtheso-calledracesoftheworld,somescholarsrefusetoemployracialcategorizationsaltogether.in-stead,theyidentifypeoplesnotbyphysicalappearancesbutbylan-guages.if,infact,oneuseslanguageasthebasisofdeterminingwhotheancientEgyptianswere,theanswerisclearandunequivocal.theearlyEgyptianswereapeoplewhospokeandwrotewhatlinguisticscholarscallanAfro-AsiaticorHamitic-semiticlanguage,oneofabodyoflanguagesbasedinnorthEasternAfricaandsouthwestAsiathatnumbersamongitsbranchesBerber,chadic,Hebrew,Ethiopic,cushitic,andArabicaswellasancientEgyptian.

still,thisretreatintoidentities,basedonlanguage,seemsdeeplyunsatisfying.oneshouldnotallowracialprejudices toblindonefromtryingtoofferphysicaldescriptionsoftheancientEgyptianssincetheyexistinabundanceinpaintings,carvings,andevenforthatmatterinmummifiedremains.suchanattemptcanreasonablybemadeatthepresenttime.

roughly ten thousand years ago the growing aridity of Africacausedpeopleslivingsouth,east,andwestofthenileriverbasintoflockintoaregionwheretheycouldgrowcrops,herdlivestock,andsustaintheirtraditionalwayoflife.thus,theearliestinhabitantsofthenilevalleywereofmixedAfrican,northAfrican,andsouth-westAsianorigins.Moreover,therewerenoticeablephysicaldiffer-encesbetweenthepeopleslivinginUpperEgyptandthoselivinginthedeltainLowerEgypt.theUpperEgyptiansweresmall,hadlongnarrowskulls,darkwavyhair,andbrownskins,whilethoseofthedeltaandthosewhocongregatedaroundtheregionwherepresent-daycairoislocatedweretallerandhadbroaderskulls.

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PredyNastiC history

Alreadyby5000BcEtheEgyptianportionofthenileriverbasin,whichhadoriginallybeenonlythinlyoccupiedbyfishingandherd-ingpeoples,hadgivenwaytoaseriesoflargelyautonomousvillages.Atthistimetheinhabitantsofthisportionofthenileriverbasingavefewhintsthattheywouldbeamongthefirstcommunitiesinworldhistorytoestablishacentralpolityandadistinctiveanduni-fiedculture.Mostofthenileriverbasindwellerslivedintinyvil-lages, subsistingon thegrains that theycultivated,mainlywheatandbarley,hunting,foraging,andfishing,andtheproduceoftheirdomesticatedanimals—sheep,goats,andpigs.Asyet,theyhadnowrittenlanguage.theyprobablyspokedifferentdialectsandhadnomassiveirrigationworks.Littlestatusorwealthdifferencessetonegroupof inhabitantsoff fromanother.thevillagers,havingonlylimitedcontactwiththeirneighbors,livedinsmallmudhovels.

Withthepassageof time, thesetinyvillageswereable togrowinto important townsandeventuallybecomecult centers for theworshipoflocalgods,whowerepropitiatedinordertoensurethefecundityofthelandandprovidestabilitytothelivesofthepeoples.themovetolargervillagecommunitieswasatthisearlystagemorepronouncedinUpperEgyptthaninLowerEgypt,especiallyinthebiggerUpperEgyptiansettlementsknownasnaqadaandHierakon-polis.thesouthorUpperEgyptsustaineditsearlyadvanceoverthenorth,andultimately thecommunities living inthesouthfoundthemselvesstrongenoughtounifythewholeofthenilevalleyfromthefirstcataract,justsouthofpresent-dayAswan,totheMediter-ranean.UpperEgyptians,inadditiontohavingspawnedlargervil-lage settlements, alsohad theadvantageofaccess to themineraldepositsinthehillsoftheeasterndesertandnubia,southofthefirstcataract.

Egypt’spredynasticeradividesintoseveraldistincthistoricalpe-riods.thefirstofthese,knownastheBadrianperiod,namedafterthevillageofel-Badri,locatedinUpperEgypt,lastedroughlyfrom5500 to 4000 BcE. Little is known about these centuries except

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thattheBadrianswerefarmerswhocultivatedcropsandmanagedherds.somebelievethattheydomesticatedanimalsontheirown.if,asseemsmorelikely,theydidnot,theircontactwithculturesofsouthwestern Asia, where domesticated animals were in use, en-abledthemtoassimilatetheseskills.Manylivedintentsmadefromanimal skins.next came thenaqadaperiod, from4000 to3100BcE,takingitsnamefromthesiteofnaqadainUpperEgyptwherethe British Egyptologist flinders Petrie discovered a cemetery in1895thatcontainedmorethan3,000graves.theburialsherewereof aquite rudimentarynature, consistingof simplemats thrownover thebodiesof thedeceased,which in turnweredeposited inpits.yetthefactthatmenandwomenwereburyingtheirprogeni-tors,ratherthanexposingthemtothewildanimals,suggeststhattheseearlyhumansregardedthemselvesasdifferent,moreexalted,thantherestoftheanimalworld,perhapsevenabletosurviveintoanafterlife.Evenatthisearlydate,Egyptiansburiedthedeadonthewestbankofthenile,wherethesunset,presumablyinhopesthatlikethesun,thedead,too,wouldariseandascendintoanewlifeafterdeath.

By thenaqada iiphase, life inUpperEgypthadbecomemorecomplex.socialandoccupationalhierarchiesexisted.Aprivilegedandwealthyclassemerged.itsmembersengagedinhuntingactivi-tiesnotinordertosupportthemselvesbutasasymboloftheirrankand their prestige. some members of this group promoted long-distancetrade,asthewell-to-dosoughttoobtainluxurycommodi-ties fromafar. specializedartisansproducedwares for the restofsociety,fashioningmoreelaboratecommoditiesforthewell-to-do.thewealthyandpowerfulwerenowburiedinlarger,moreelaboratetombs.theirbodiesweresurroundedbymanyoftheverysameob-jectsofbeautyandpleasurethattheyhadenjoyedduringtheirlives.UpperEgyptatthetimehadatleastthreerelativelylargeurbancon-glomerations:naqada,knownasthegoldtown;Hierakonpolis,fur-thersouth,andAbydos,wherethenecropolisofthefirstkingswaslocated.Hierakonpoliswasthemost impressiveofthethree,pos-sessingawallthatwas9.5metersthickinplacesandinsidewhichwas an enclosed temple where scholars later found the narmer

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palette.AlthoughEgypt lackedthemagnificencethat thecitiesofsumerhadatthistime,thecityofHierakonpoliswasavirtualtwinofthegreatMesopotamiancityofUruk.indeed,artifactsfoundatHierakonpolis suggest someactualconnectionandborrowingbe-tweentheinhabitantsofthesetwolocations.Perhapsasmanyas5,000residentslivedwithinthecitywallsofHierakonpolis.

Attheendofthenaqadaiiiperiod,sometimearound3100BcE,UpperandLowerEgyptwereunited.theunificationwasnotentirelypeaceful. one major artifact of this era—the famed narmer pal-ette,discoveredin1898andnowprominentlydisplayedinacairomuseum—featuresapowerfulrulingfigure,whohavingcaughtoneofhisenemiesbythehair—unquestionablyanortherner—holdsamace over his head as he prepares to slay him. this smiting im-agebecameoneofthestandardmotifsinEgyptianrepresentationandwasintendedtodemonstratethepoweroftheruler.certainlyby3000BcEmostofthenilevalleyfromthedeltatoAswanwasunited.

theearlykingsofthefirstEgyptiandynastywereburiedatAby-dos,whileHierakonpolishadbecomeavitalcultcenterforthegodHorus.AlthoughEgypt’scitieswerenotaslargeasthoseinMeso-potamia,theterritoryhadnumerousurbancenters,theremainsofwhichhavebeencoveredupbynilefloodsandlatersettlements.Bythetimethatthefamedthirddynastyarrivedonthescene,Egyptwasaunifiedpolity.ithaddevelopedamonumentalstyleofroyalarchitectureandburieditsroyaltyinelaboratetombs.

egyPt’s history Matters

HistoriansofEgyptofallilks—Egyptologists,coptologists,papyrol-ogists,islamists,andmodernists—rarelywonderwhetherwhattheydohasrelevance.theyknowinstinctivelythatitdoes.Buttheques-tiondeservesananswer.PerhapsEgypt’splaceintheworldhistori-caldramacanbecomparedtothelegendaryappearancesofmoviecharacterforrestGump,intheoscar-winningmovieofthatsamename.forrestGump,ratherlikeEgyptandtheEgyptians,seemstoappearatallofthegreathistoricalmoments.inthecaseofEgypt,

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however,itsinhabitantsoftenassumedastarringrole.Asthenarra-tiveofthisvolumewilldemonstrate,theydidsobybeingoneofthefirstcommunitiestocreatecentralizedpolitiesandcomplexsocialhierarchies.theyalsowereinnovatorsinoneofhumankind’smostmagnificentachievements—theinventionofthealphabet.Althoughmanyofthesymbolsofhieroglyphsarepictogramsandideograms,standingforindividualwords,andothersrepresentconsonants,theEgyptianswentastepfurther,pioneeringtheintroductionofsym-bolsthatstoodpurelyforthesingleletterinanalphabet.

EquallyimportanttoworldhistorywastherolethatEgyptiancul-tivatorsplayedinsupportingsomeofhistory’sgreatempires.Aftertheancientcultureofthepharaohshadgivenway,Greekandro-manconquerorslookedtoEgypttofeedtheirlargeimperialpopula-tions.sodidlaterfatimid,Mamluk,andottomanempirebuilders.inalloftheseimperialstates,Egyptwastheempire’smostpopulousandprosperousstate.EarlychristianityowedmuchtoEgyptianre-ligiousfervor,andislamicconquerors,naturally,soughttoimplanttheirreligioninthisvitalterritory.MamlukMuslimssavedEgypt,northAfrica,andpossiblyevenWesternEuropefromtheMongolambitions of world conquest, defeating a powerful Mongol armyinsyriain1260.theworld’smodernempirebuilders—thefrench,theBritish,andtheAmericans—haveunderstoodthestrategicim-portanceofEgypt,lyingastrideEurope,Africa,andAsia,andhavewantedtoincorporateitwithintheirimperialstructures.

thereisalsoagreatparadoxinEgypt’sfabledhistory.onceEgypthadbeenunified,5,000yearsago,theterritoryanditsinhabitantsweretoenjoyanextraordinaryperiodofisolationfromtheoutsideworld thatpermitted thedwellers along thebanksof thenile topromoteadistinctivewayoflifeandaninternalunitythatlasteduninterruptedlyfor1,500years,rightdowntotheHyksosinvasionaround1500BcE. for amillenniumandahalf, thedeserts, thenilecataracts,andtheMediterraneanprovedinsuperablebarriersfromtheoutside.theyallowedtheEgyptianstoperfecttheinstitu-tionsofthepharaonicera(describedinchapters2and3)andtocreate a sense of Egyptianness that has weathered a long line of

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conquerors and foreign empire builders. in many ways, the longsweepofEgyptianhistoryisataleofhowapeoplethathadorigi-nallyestablishedaproudsenseoftheiruniquereligious,political,economic,andculturalidentityoveranearlythree-thousand-yearhistorythenstruggledtoretaintheirEgyptiannessinthefaceofalonglineofconquerors.

inhisoft-quotedEgypt’sLiberation:ThePhilosophyof theRevo-lution,Egypt’slongtimepresidentandrevolutionaryleaderGamalAbdelnasserarguedthat,historically,EgyptfunctionedwithintheorbitsofthreecirclesandthatEgypt’sroleinworldaffairswasdic-tatedbyitscentrallocationinthesesettings.thefirstofthesewasanArabcircle,butequallyimportantweretheAfricanandislamiccontexts.“itisnotwithoutsignificancethatourcountryissituatedwestofAsia,incontiguitywiththeArabstateswithwhoseexistenceourownisinterwoven.itisnotwithoutsignificance,too,thatourcountry lies innortheastAfrica,overlookingthedarkcontinent,whereinragesamosttumultuousstrugglebetweenwhitecolonizersandblack inhabitants for control of its limited resources.... Allthesearefundamentalrealitieswithdeeprootsinourliveswhichwecannot—evenifwetry—escapeorforget.”

nasserwasaformidableleader,deeplyschooledinhiscountry’shistory.intheprecedingpassagenasserspeaksoftheprimacyofge-ographyinEgyptianhistory,itsvitallocationatthecornerofAfricaandAsia.Here,too,hestressesEgypt’stieswithwhatwetodaycallthethirdworldandthatheidentifiedastheworldemergingfromEuropeancolonialism.yethisaccountishistoricallyimpoverished,asthisstudywilldemonstrate,forEgyptwasalsocompletelytiedtotheworldoftheMediterraneansea.itsinfluencesonEuropeandEurope’sinfluencesonit,soapparentatvirtuallyallstagesofthecountry’shistory, get short shrift innasser’s readingofEgyptianhistory.ButthepharaohsinfluencedtheGreeks,who,alongwiththeromans,occupiedEgyptandsankdeeprootsintotheEgyptianmentality.EgyptwasthemostchristianofcountriesuntiltheArab-Muslimconquestof the seventhcentury,afterwhich itsprimacywithin islam knew few limits. yet in the nineteenth century the

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EgyptiankhediveismailcouldproclaimthatEgypthadfinallyjoinedtheEuropean concert ofnations, andduring theBritishoccupa-tion,Egypt’s centralitywithin theBritishEmpirewasnevergain-said. identity and place in world historical events are issues writlargeinthehistoryofthismagnificentterritory.

learNiNg about egyPt iN MuseuMs

Egypthasanabundanceofworld-classmuseumsthatmakeexpe-riencing thehistoryandseeing theartifactsof thecountrya joy.Perhaps,however,first-timevisitorsshouldprepare themselvesbygoingtooneoftheirownnationalmuseums,almostallofwhichabound with artifacts from the pharaonic period. for AmericanstheMetropolitanMuseumofArt isanobviouschoice. itssuperbancientEgyptiancollectionincludesanentirewingofthemuseumdevotedtothesplendidtempleofdendur,originallybuilt80milessouthofAswaninnubiabytheromangovernorofEgyptaround15BcEandnowgloriouslyreassembledthroughthegoodofficesoftheEgyptiangovernment.theEgyptiansofferedittotheMetropolitanMuseumofArtasatokenofgratitudetoAmericantaxpayerswhosegenerosityenabledthegovernmenttosavemanymonumentsthatwouldotherwisehavebeensubmergedbytheAswanhighdamcon-structedinthe1960s.forBritonstheBritishMuseumhasanevenmoreextensivecollectionofEgyptianantiquities,toppedoffbytherosettastone,whichliterallygreetsvisitorsastheyproceedintotheroomsthathousetheEgyptianmaterials.

yet these extraordinary collections pale next to the objects ondisplayattheEgyptianMuseum,locatedrightoffthemainsquareinthecenterofcairo,insideaninspiringpinkstuccobuilding,firstopentothepublicin1902.ithasondisplaysome120,000objectswith another150,000 stored in the basement.Here, too, visitorsuponenteringencounteroneofEgypt’smostimportantartifacts—the narmer palette, already described and pictured in this chap-ter,theiconicsymbolofterritorialunity.yetfewpausebeforethenarmerpalette,soeageraretheytoreachthesecondfloor,where

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aplethoraofroomshousewhatmustbetheworld’smostopulentcollection—that of the Pharaoh tutankhamen.canonenothelpimaginewhatthetombsofother,longer-livedandmorepowerfulpharaohs must have contained if this relatively minor pharaoh’stombcontainedsuchtreasures?

cairooffersmore.thecopticMuseum,builtin1947andnewlyrefurbished,locatedinoldcairoinaresidentialareawheremanycoptslive,hasastunningcollectionofcopticart,probablythebestintheworld,aswellasfineexamplesoftextilesforwhichcopticweavers were justly famous. the Museum of islamic Art was thebrainchildoftheEgyptiankhedivetawfiqanddisplayspiecesofme-dievalislamicartthatweregatheredfromthehomes,mosques,andpalacesofcairoovertheyears.Amagnificentreplicaofawealthyottoman’shousecanbeseenintheGayerAndersonMuseum,eas-ilyvisitedafterviewingtheAhmadibntulunmosque,oneofcairo’smostmagnificent.

thereareimpressivemuseumsoutsidecairo.AlexandriahastheGraeco-romanMuseum,openedin1892bykhediveAbbas,whichdisplays beautiful tomb paintings and several busts of AlexandertheGreat.AsmallmuseumhonoringtheGreekpoetconstantinecavafy(1863–1933)existsintheflatwherehelivedduringthelasttwenty-fiveyearsofhislife,whilenotfarawayisthececilHotel,now restored to some measure of its interwar greatness, when itservedasameetingplaceforliteraryandcosmopolitanAlexandri-ans,includingtheBritishnovelistLawrencedurrell,bestknownforhisAlexandriaQuartet.finally,nottobemissedisthenewlibraryofAlexandria,openedin2002andstandingprominentlyonthecor-niche.thewallsurroundingthebuilding,madeofAswangranite,isetchedwithlettersfrommostofthelanguagesoftheworld.Atpresent,thelibrary’sholdingsarenotlarge,buttheadministrationaspirestoassembleacollectionofsome8millionbooks.

the most recent museum is the nubian Museum at Aswan.opened in 1997 and displaying many objects from nubia thatwouldotherwisehavebeensubmergedbyLakenasserbehindthehighdamofAswan,it isagem.itsarchitecture,thegardenssur-

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roundingthestructure,thelayoutofthecollection,andthebeautyanduniquenessofthenubianartifactsreflecttheskillofitsEgyp-tianarchitect,Mahmudal-Hakim,andtheloveanddevotionofthemenandwomenwhocombedtheregiontoassemblethepiecesonviewthere.

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ChAptEronE TheLandandPeople