1

NKWUO, FIDELIA AKUNNA

PG/M.Sc./09/54244

MAN-HOUR WASTAGES DUE TO ILL HEALTH AMONG

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS IN THREE SELECTED

COMMUNITIES IN ENUGU STATE

Institute for Development Studies

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS

Webmaster

2011

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

2

MAN-HOUR WASTAGES DUE TO ILL HEALTH

AMONG AGRICULTURAL WORKERS IN THREE

SELECTED COMMUNITIES IN ENUGU STATE

BY

NKWUO, FIDELIA AKUNNA

PG/M.Sc./09/54244

INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS

(UNEC) ENUGU

NOVEMBER, 2011

3

TITLE PAGE

MAN-HOUR WASTAGES DUE TO ILL HEALTH AMONG

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS IN THREE SELECTED

COMMUNITIES IN ENUGU STATE

BY

NKWUO, FIDELIA AKUNNA

PG/M.Sc./09/54244

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.Sc.) IN

DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

SUPERVISOR: UMOH, B. D.

NOVEMBER, 2011

4

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project title Man-hour wastages due to

ill-health among agricultural workers in three selected communities in

Enugu State was written by Nkwuo, Fidelia Akunna, a student of the

Institute for Development Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirement

for the Masters of Science Degree in Development Studies during the

academic year, 2009/2010 under the guidance and supervision of:

…………………………….. …………….

UMOH B.D. DATE

……………………………. ………………

PROF. OSITA OGBU DATE

Director

Institute for Development Studies

University of Nigeria (UNN)

Enugu Campus

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APPROVAL

This work was approved and carried out by Nkwuo, Fidelia Akunna

(PG/M.sc/09/54244 for the award of M.Sc. in Development Studies of the

Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus.

---------------------------------- -------------- -----------

------ UMOH, B. D. PROF. OSITA OGBU

Supervisor Director

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to God Almighty, who alone made the

impossibility possible in my life. He indeed makes a way in the

wilderness and cause waters to spring up from the desert.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to God Almighty, who alone saw me through

this Programme. In my weakness he manifested his strength!

This work would not have also been a success without the valuable

contributions of a large number of people. My profound gratitude

therefore goes to my able Supervisor, Mr. Umoh B.D. who painstakingly

went through the manuscripts, corrected and guided me patiently to the

end.

I also acknowledge the contributions of my lecturers whose lecture

notes formed a solid base for this piece of work. It shall be well with

them.

Friends and well wishers who offered me the encouragement,

solace and comfort which cushioned the effects of stress encountered in

writing this project given the short time allocated for submission, are not

forgotten.

I will not forget my darling husband and my siblings who offered

me their moral, financial and spiritual supports during this Programme.

Finally, I thank the librarians and the various authors whose works

were consulted. May the good Lord bless all for me.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page - - - - - - - - i

Certification page - - - - - - - ii

Approval - - - - - - - - iii

Dedication - - - - - - - - iv

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - v

Table of contents - - - - - - - vi

Abstract - - - - - - - - ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY - - - 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem: - - - - 5

1.3 Objectives of the Study: - - - - - 6

1.4 Research Questions: - - - - - 7

1.5 Formulation of Hypothesis - - - - 8

1.6 Study Area: - - - - - - - 9

1.7 Significance of the Study: - - - - 10

1.8 Scope of the Study: - - - - - 12

1.8 limitations of the Study: - - - - - 12

References - - - - - - - - 14

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction: - - - - - - 15

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2.2 Conceptual Analyses: - - - - - 15

2.3 Types of Illnesses suffered by the Agricultural

Workers: - - - - - - - 18

2.3.1 Pesticide Poisoning: - - - - - 18

2.3.2 Peasant Syndrome: - - - - - 20

2.3.3 Vinyl House Disease: - - - - - 21

2.3.4 Respiratory Diseases: - - - - - 22

2.3.5 Musculoskeletal Injuries/Diseases: - - - 23

2.3.6 Infectious Diseases: - - - - - 24

2.3.7 Skin Disorders/Diseases: - - - - - 24

2.3.8 Eye Injuries: - - - - - - 25

2.3.9 Snakes/Scorpion/Insect bites: - - - 26

2.3.10 Heat and Sun Exposure Disease: - - - 27

2.3.11 Psychiatric Diseases: - - - - - 27

2.4 Levels of Man-hour Wastages: - - - - 29

2.5 The Impact of Man-hour Wastages on Agricultural

Produce: - - - - - - - 32

2.6 Summary of Literature Review: - - - - 34

References - - - - - - - - 35

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design: - - - - - - 37

3.2 Area of the Study: - - - - - - 37

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3.3 Study Population: - - - - - - 38

3.4 Sample: - - - - - - - 39

3.5 Sampling Techniques: - - - - - 40

3.6 Instruments for Data Collection: - - - 41

3.7 Validation of the Instrument: - - - - 41

3.8 Reliability of the Instrument: - - - - 42

3.9 Data Collection - - - - - - 42

3.10 Method of Analysis of Data - - - - 43

3.11 Problems Encountered in the Field - - - 43

References - - - - - - - - 45

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Social/Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 46

4.2 Common Ailments among Respondents - - 54

4.3 Test of Hypotheses - - - - - 64

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

5.1 Types of Illnesses Suffered by Agricultural Workers

in the Study Communities. - - - 67

5.2 Man-hour Wastages Caused by Ill Health - 69

5.3 Man-hour Wastages and Agricultural Productivity 70

5.4 Health Facilities Available to Farmers - - 71

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CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Summary of Findings - - - - - 73

6.2 Conclusion - - - - - - - 76

6.3 Recommendations - - - - - - 77

Bibliography - - - - - - - 79

Appendix I - - - - - - - - 83

Appendix II - - - - - - - - 88

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ABSTRACT

Over the years, the rate of growth in agricultural production has

dwindled and failed to keep pace with the needs of a rapidly growing

population. It is also a common knowledge that the agricultural sector is

labour intensive and saddled with the use of crude implements which

expose the farmers to the attack of work related diseases of various

dimensions. The study sought to examine the man-hour wastage due to ill

health among agricultural workers in three selected communities in

Enugu State. The work also tried to identify types of illnesses suffered by

the agricultural workers, the burden of ill health and how these man-hour

wastages affect agricultural productivities in general. The Health

facilities available to the farmers were also examined. A total no of 388

respondents were selected, while the satisfied random sampling technique

was used to get the required sample size. Descriptive statistics which

include frequencies and percentages were used to answer the research

questions. While a one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to

test the hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis was rejected showing that

there is no difference between male and female agricultural workers in

their man-hour wastages. Findings show that majority of the crop

farmers in the study area are subsistent farmers who use crude

implements to do most of their works. It was also discovered that these

farmers suffer work related illnesses caused by the use of antiquated

crude implements as well as other illnesses which in turn cause a lot of

man hour wastages. It was also found out that there are no adequate

health facilities available for these farmers to take proper care of

themselves when they fall sick. Based on the findings, it was

recommended among other things that health facilities including mobile

clinics and modern farm implements be provided for the rural farmers

and well trained agricultural extension workers to educate them on the

proper use of pesticides.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Before the advent of the Oil boom in the country in the 70s,

agriculture had remained the mainstay of the national economy providing

a means of livelihood for over 70% of the populace and also contributing

significantly to the growth in the Gross Domestic Product (Attah, 2008).

The country depended almost entirely on agricultural production for food

and agro-industrial raw materials for foreign exchange earnings through

the commodity trade. At the time of independence, over 75% of the

country’s labour force was engaged in agriculture, which provided

gainful employment and satisfactory livelihood to over 90% of the

population (NHDS, 2008).

This trend continued until the early seventies when oil became the

single dominant source of income for Nigeria. This gave rise to a decline

in agriculture as a major source of income for the country. However, the

sector still remains the major source of domestic food items. Statistics

show that Nigeria agriculture contribute more than thirty per cent of total

Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employs about sixty percent of

labour force, accounts for over seventy percent of the non-oil exports and

provides over eighty percent of the food needs of the country (Adegboye,

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2004). Despite its importance, Nigeria agriculture has to a large extent,

not divorced itself from most of the characteristics of the peasant

economy that were present in the pre-independence period (Adewumi et

al, 2002). According to Onyenuga (1985), there is presently a shortage of

food in Nigeria. A fairly large proportion of our human population is in a

state of permanent food scarcity and starvation. Assessment of

agricultural production in Nigeria over time also reveals that the real

share of agriculture on the Gross Domestic Product declined dramatically

over the years (CBN, 2000, Jeter, 2004).

A number of factors are responsible for the downward trend in

Nigeria agricultural sector. Among which are instability of government

and policy, rural-urban migration of able-bodied youths leading to old

aged farming population in rural areas (Jetter, 2004). The consequent

mass migration of educated and able-bodied citizens to urban areas for

better life and dignified employment has resulted into the complexities of

life emanating from a poorly ordered society to the extent that streets of

some cities are disgracefully littered with beggars, sick persons and

occasionally with dead bodies. Apart from these, it is strongly believed

that man-hour wastages due to ill-health among farmers is one major

problem militating against the development of this sector and also

resulting in a decline in productivity. What then is man-hour? Man-hour

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is the time spent by workers at a specified period of work. Since time is

our perception of duration, man-hour is therefore time measured in terms

of hours spent in a work environment for a specified period usually per

day. It is an equitable free gift of nature but most irretrievably perishable

(FGN, 2010). For a man who works in his farm from 7.00a.m. to

5.00p.m., his man-hour for a day is ten hours per day and for six working

days in a week, he would have worked for sixty hours per week. If as a

result of ill-health of one kind or the other, he could attend to his farm for

two days only, he would have lost or wasted forty man-hours for that

week due to ill-health. Consequently, this would have negatively affected

his productivity for that week.

The causes of ills-health for workers in the agricultural sector are

many. This is because the bulk of agricultural workers in Nigeria is

concentrated almost exclusively on small-holder farmers whose activities

are labour intensive and are carried out in rural areas where there is little

or no health facilities to nip their illnesses on the bud. Consequently,

these farmers are highly vulnerable to illnesses of diverse dimensions

such as malaria, typhoid, guinea worm infestations and even HIV/AIDS

pandemics. Apart from these, they are also vulnerable to such work-

related illnesses such as pesticide poisoning, respiratory diseases, skin

diseases and so on (Kwan and Hyun-Sul, 2008).

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In the midst of all these, there is no doubt that there could be man-

hour wastages resulting from these illnesses in any agricultural

community selected for this study. It is therefore against this background

that this study would be carried out.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

Over the years the rate of growth in agricultural production has

declined and failed to keep pace with the needs of a rapidly growing

population. Many factors are responsible for this and they include

farmers’ poor health status without adequate healthcare and non-

availability of modern techniques of farming.

In the sector under review, many workers as well as farmers are

afflicted with diverse illnesses/diseases. These diseases include: stress,

malaria, sun burn, pesticide poisoning, respiratory diseases,

musculoskeletal diseases, whitlow, and so on. Antle and Pingali (1994)

established that poor health status reduces human capacity to work and

also result in loss of man-hours. The extent to which these illnesses

account for their absence from work is still unknown.

It is a common knowledge that rural dwellers survive mostly by

subsistence agriculture. When they take ill, obviously they will not be

able to attend to their farms. When they cannot attend to their farm

17

works because of ill-health, productivity is bound to decline. According

to Hawkers and Ruel (2006), poor health reduces income and

productivities; and further causes starvation and hunger. The extent of

decline in productivity as a result of farmers ill-health needs to be

determined and the resulting impact on nutrition status of the populace

and farmers who subsist by their work also needs to be ascertained.

It is also a common knowledge that agriculture in Nigeria is labour

intensive and saddled with the use of crude implements such as hoes,

axes, jiggers and cutlasses. The use of these implements demands a lot of

energy on the peasant farmers who are not only malnourished but who

suffer from one type of ill-health or the other without adequate

healthcare. These further expose them to the attack of work-related

diseases of various dimensions. The level of attack by work-related

diseases is yet to be determined in this work.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

The main objective of this work is to examine man-hour wastages

due to ill-health among the agricultural workers. In so doing, the

following specific objectives will be examined:

i. To identify the types of illnesses suffered by agricultural workers

in the selected communities.

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ii. To ascertain the burden of ill-health among agricultural workers.

iii. To find out how these man-hour Wastages affect agricultural

produce.

iv. To ascertain the health facilities available to the farmers in the

study area.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

The following research questions will guide the study:

i. What are the types of illnesses suffered by agricultural workers

in the study area?

ii. What is the level of man-hour wastages caused by illnesses in

those communities?

iii. How do man-hour wastages affect agricultural workers in the

selected communities?

iv. What are the health facilities available to agricultural workers in

those communities?

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1.5 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

The following hypotheses have been formulated:

1. Ho: There is no significant difference between male and female

agricultural workers in their wastages of man-hour due to ill-

health in the selected communities.

Hi: There is significant difference between male and female

agricultural workers in their man-hour wastage due to ill-health

in the selected communities.

2. Ho: There is no significant difference between man-hour wastages

caused by work-related illnesses and those of other general

illnesses in the study area.

Hi: There is significant difference between man-hour wastages

caused by work-related illnesses and those of other general

illnesses in the study area.

1.6 STUDY AREA:

This study will be carried out in three selected communities from

Enugu South Local Government Area of Enugu State. These

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communities are: Amechi, Ugwuaji and Akwuke communities

respectively. Enugu South Local Government Area is made up of eight

communities, four of which are urban communities while four are rural.

The communities are as follows: Amechi, Obeagu, Akwuke, Ugwuaji,

Uwani, Maryland, Achara Layout and Garki. The projected population of

the Local Government Area for 2001 was 182,605, while that of the

selected communities was 33,195 (NPC, 2001). Crop farmers in the

selected communities are 13,278, all of which are subsistent farmers.

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:

This study examines whether or not farmers’ absenteeism from

work due to ill-health decrease agricultural productivity in the study area.

It is hoped that the study will help to proffer solutions to agricultural

problems of Enugu South Local Government Area in particular and the

Nigerian society in general. A lot of benefits would be gained from this

work by various groups if this project is successfully completed.

Secondly, policy makers in the agricultural sector will have access

to information on types of illnesses that mostly attack agricultural

workers and the level of health facilities available in the selected

communities. This would help them make policies geared towards the

provision of health facilities and drugs capable of combating the diseases.

Also, the nagging problems of constant breakdown of the agricultural

21

workers could be pacified by adequate government intervention in the

sector.

Thirdly, agricultural workers in the selected communities and the

general public at large will also benefit because the knowledge of a

problem is a half way solution to that problem. They would have

discovered how they could combat or prevent these illnesses so as not to

occasion wastages of man-hours thereby improving the standard of living

of the populace.

Fourthly, prospective agricultural workers will have known the

occupational hazards involved in the agricultural activities in these

communities. This will help them decide whether to join them or to look

for a healthier environment to work for a living. It will also help the

farmers develop the right attitude towards farming.

Finally, future researchers in related field will use this work as a

veritable source of reference,

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study will be restricted to three communities. Samples will be

drawn from crops farmers only and issues involving availability of

healthcare facilities, modern farm implements, sicknesses/diseases

22

attacking farmers are all within the scope of this work. For time

constraint and meager resources, the researcher will not go beyond this

scope.

1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

A lot of work has been carried out in the field of agriculture, but

most of them are not related to man-hour wastages due to illness. That is

to say that there is dearth of information in the field of the study. This

problem posed a limit to the study. However, the researcher tried to solve

these problems by way of transfer of knowledge and information from

other fields. Apart from this, the selected communities being rural areas

were difficult to transverse given the poor road network and the meager

resources of the researcher. The commercial motorcyclists however were

found indispensable in this regards.

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REFERENCES

Adegboye, R. O. (2004): Agriculture and Food Security in Nigeria.

Faculty Lecture delivered at the University of Ilorin, Faculty of

Agriculture.

Adewumi, M. O. et al (2002): An Analysis of Small Rural Households in

Kwara State, Nigeria Rural Dev. 25, pp 201-211.

Attah, A. A. (2006): Banks’ Contribution to Agricultural Development;

The Central Bank of Nigeria Microfinance Newsletter

Volume 6.

Federal Government of Nigeria (2010).Specialized Mandatory Training

Programme for Federal Civil Servants, Abuja: OHCSF/OSSAP

MDGs Capacity Building Project.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008): Nigeria Demographic and Health

Survey Abuja: National Population Commission.

Jetter, H. F. (2004): How to Retrieve Nigeria’s Agricultural Sector.

Vanguard (Lagos),

http.//allafrica.com/stories/200403040476htm\.

Kwan, L. E. E. and Hyun-Sul L. I. M. (2008): “Work-Related Injuries

and Diseases of Farmers in Korea”. Industrial Health Vol.46;

pp. 424-434.

Onyenuga, V. A. (1985): Keynote Address on Agricultural Productivity.

Makinda (Ed), Agricultural Productivity In Nigeria, pp. 10-12.

24

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, attempt has been made to review books, magazines,

journal publications, articles obtained from internet and other relevant

materials relating to the subject of study. The review is organized

according to the following sub-heads:

1. The conceptual analysis.

2. Types of illnesses suffered by agricultural workers.

3. Levels of man-hour wastages.

4. The impact of man-hour wastages on agricultural produce.

5. Summary of Literature review.

2.2 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS:

According to New International Webster’s Comprehensive

Dictionary of English Language (2010), man-hour is a unit of measure

equal to the amount of work one man can do in one hour. One equal

resources given to everybody on earth is time. The difference lies on how

each man manages his own time. In America for instance, time is money,

the past is history and the present a moment to be lived and worked at to

produce a better tomorrow (Lan Fleming, 1994).Time is a wasting asset

25

and of immense value. It is the stuff life is made up of and cannot be

increased or decreased by any man. It is perishable. Farmers are great

time managers but when they fall sick, the reverse seems to be the case.

If an administrative/staff nurse falls sick, he/she can still manage to go to

work but a farmer who uses cutlasses/hoes cannot go to the farm when

sick. Man-hour is therefore time measured in terms of hours spent in a

work environment for a specified period usually per day. It is an

equitably free gift of nature but most irretrievably perishable (FGN,

2010).

Wastage as explained by the Webster’s Dictionary (2010) is that

which is lost by leakage, wear, waste and so on; cast aside as worthless or

of no practical value; worn out; discarded. It also means failure to use or

take advantage of an opportunity. Man-hour wastage due to ill-health

therefore means failure to make use of man-hours as a result of illness.

According to English Dictionary (2010), illness is the state of being

out of health or falling sick, an ailment, a sickness. The importance of

health in promoting economic development cannot be over-emphasized.

Different specialists measure health status in different ways. World

Health Organisation defines health as the state of complete physical,

mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and

infirmity. Gossman, (1972/1999) also viewed health as a durable capital

26

stock that yields an output of healthy time. Individuals inherit an initial

amount of this stock that depreciates over time and can be increased by

investment. By investing in health, household expects to increase the

stock of available healthy time which will increase the amount of time

available for earning income or for producing consumption goods

(Cropper, 1977). Health as a capital good can either improve or reduce

household’s productive ability. Poor health will result in a loss of days

worked or in reduced worker capacity, which , when family and hired

labour are not substitutes or when there are liquidity constraints, is likely

to reduce output (Antle and Pingali, 1994). For instance, prolonged

exposure to pesticides could cause cardiopulmonary problems,

neurological and hematological symptoms, and adverse eternal effects

which could significantly hamper farmer’s work capacity in the field and

reduce his management and supervision abilities (Spear, 1991). This is

more pronounced in the field of agriculture where physical strength is

most required. Agriculture according to English Dictionary is the

cultivation of the soil, the raising of food crops, breeding and raising

livestock, tilling and farming. It is the science that treats the cultivation

of the soil. Assessment of agricultural production in Nigeria over time

reveals that the real share of agriculture in the Gross Domestic Product

declined dramatically over the years (CBN, 2000, Jeter, 2004). Again, a

number of factors are responsible for the downward trend in the Nigeria

27

agricultural sector. Among which are instability of government and

policy, rural urban migration of able-bodied youths leading to old aged

farming population in rural areas, death and illness of farmers (WORDA,

2003, Adewala et al, 2004).

2.3 TYPES OF ILLNESSES SUFFERED BY THE

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS

Different kinds of illnesses attack farmers and as a result keep them

away from their respective farms. According to Cole, (2006), a study of

women farmers in mixed cropping system proved that vast majority

suffered from intense muscular fatigue, heat exhaustion, skin disorders,

forcing them to take days off from attending to their crops. It is very

difficult to understand the current status of work-related diseases in

farmers (Kwan Lee & Lim, 2008). However, various work-related

diseases occur, including pesticide poisoning, peasant syndrome, vinyl

house disease, respiratory diseases, malaria, infectious diseases, skin

diseases, musculoskeletal diseases, heat and sun burn, eye injuries,

HIV/AIDS, whitlow, stomach upset, typhoid, cuts, snake/scorpion bites,

back pain, and others. These are briefly explained below.

2.3.1 Pesticide Poisoning:

The term pesticide encompasses herbicides, fungicides, and various

other substances used to control pests. During their daily work, farmers

28

are often exposed to pesticides, which include substances that prevent,

destroy or repel pests. Because some pests have systems similar to

human system, some pesticides also can harm or kill humans. Farmers

frequently encounter pesticides through direct contact with the chemicals,

contact with pesticides residue on treated crops or equipment, and drift of

pesticides into untreated areas. They can also transport pesticides from

the fields into their homes through residue on their clothing, boots and

skin. This puts their entire family at risk, especially because pesticide

residue in the home is not degraded by the sun or rain (CDCP, 2006).

A 2006 study on farm-workers in California revealed that acute

effects of pesticides exposure include: headache, nausea, eye irritation,

muscle weakness, anxiety and shortness of breath. The study also

indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with chronic health

problems such as:

Respiratory problems

Memory disorders

Dermatologic conditions

Cancer

Depression

Neurologic deficits

Miscarriages and infertility, and

29

Birth defects

In severe cases, pesticide exposure can lead to convulsions, coma and

eventual death.

2.3.2 Peasant Syndrome:

According to Kumagai (1943), peasant syndrome refers to all the

symptoms of mental and physical impairment observed in farmers that

are related to work. The etiologies include stress and accumulated

external tension, nutritional deficiency, infection, parasites and cold

injury, and this can all result in rheumatism, hypertension,

nephrosclerosis and myocardial damage. Peasant syndrome has eight

symptoms, including shoulder stiffness, lumbago, prosthesis of the hand

or foot, nocturia, breathlessness, sleeplessness, dizziness and abdominal

discomfort (Nam, 1976).

2.3.3 Vinyl House Disease

Kim (1999), explained that most vinyl houses in Korea are small

and are built as a narrow semicircle dome and are not well ventilated, so

that farmers working in them usually have to bend their backs to work,

thus aggravating any existing condition of lumbago or arthritis.

Dehydration can also occur when farmers work in a closed and humid

environment, and these farmers are prone to catching cold when they go

30

outside into the cold immediately after working in a hot vinyl house, and

various symptoms are expressed when workers’ physiologic balance is

lost (Lee, 2006). According to Lee, fatigue is another important factor

that can contribute to the development of vinyl house disease. Symptoms

are expressed when these farmers overwork during the farming season

without sufficient nutritional intake and rest and lack of regular diet. The

vinyl house disease was so named in Japan, where farmers working

invinyl houses first complained of experiencing sweating, lumbago,

dizziness, headache, heaviness, skin itching and rashes, cold, skin

darkening, dyspnea, nausea and hemorrhoids. He further explained that

farmers who work in vinyl houses for long frequently took painkillers and

sedatives for relief of those symptoms and that these symptoms seem to

be more prevalent in women than in men.

2.3.4 Respiratory Diseases

Dust, spores, pollen, poisonous substances and gases develop

during the process of farming and the presence of these in the farming

environment could induce rhinitis, bronchial asthma, hypersensitivity

pneumonitis, pulmonary edema and chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease (Lim, 1998). Because agricultural work takes place in rural areas,

farmers are exposed to organic and mineral dusts, animal and plant dusts,

toxic gases, molds and other respiratory irritants. Farmers’ lung and

31

allergy-related disease, is caused by breathing in dust from moldy hay,

straw, corn, silage, grain or even tobacco. It is a disease of both the upper

and lower respiratory system. The disease can be a sudden attack or slow

progressive disease that can cause permanent lung damage, physical

disability and even death. Farmers who work in areas like: dusty fields

and buildings, moldy hay, grain, corn, tobacco, silos, or feed; working

around bird droppings or dust from animal hair, fur or feathers are most at

risk for respiratory illnesses.

2.3.5 Musculoskeletal Injuries/Diseases

Given the fact that farm labour consists of constant bending,

twisting, carrying heavy items, and repetitive motions/activities during

long work hours, farmworkers often experience musculoskeletal injuries

(Guilia, 2003). This disease is characterized by shoulder pain, arms, and

hands. The most common injuries that cause farmers to miss work are

sprains and strains, accounting for man-hour wastages (CDCP, 2001).

The most common musculoskeletal risk factors among farmers are

repetitive activity, bending at the waist and sequences of rapid

movements that are always made in the same order. According to a study

done in Korea, there was a prevalence of knee osteoarthritis in women

above forty years of age. Farmers complain of musculoskeletal pain with

32

the most prevalent site affected being the lumbar back, followed by the

shoulder and the upper extremities.

2.3.6 Infectious Diseases

Work-related infectious diseases due to microbes, parasites and their

toxic byproducts are prevalent in farmers. These include: parasitic

infections (which is due to soil-transmitted helminthes such as ascaris,

lumbricoides, trichuris trichiura and hook-worms appear to have

decreased significantly due to decreasing use of human waste but the

prevalence by food-transmitted parasites such as chlonorchis sinensis has

not changed and the relative proportion of these parasites remains quite

large) zoonosis, tsutsugamushi, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome,

leptospirosis, authrax, rabies and tularemia.

2.3.7 Skin Disorders/Diseases

According to the information contained in Bureau of Labour Statistics

(2004), then agriculture industry has the highest incidence of skin

diseases when compared with all other industrial sectors. Skin disorder

risk factors that are characteristic of farm work include wet working

conditions, hot and humid climates, and exposure to hazardous chemical

and plants. It is known that farmers suffer from various skin diseases due

to plants, chemical products and pesticides. The common dermatoses

33

were tinea pedis, onychomycosis, xerosis, seborrrheic keratosis,

chlosasma, pruritis, hand eczema, contact dermatitis, lentigo and

seborrheic dermatitis in order of frequency among rural residents. The

skin disease due to animals usually come from raising or handling

animals professionally, and they are mainly due to mechanical skin injury

by animals, allergic reaction to animals’ hair, secretions and excretions,

and skin injury due to animal poison. Among the major zoonoses are

many skin diseases. Apart from the transmission of the skin diseases

themselves, there are many cases in which pathogenic microbes invade

humans through the skin after coming into contact with an animal.

2.3.8 Eye Injuries

Agricultural workers experience eye injuries and illnesses at a high

rate. They encounter multiple eye irritants in their work environments,

including dust, sand, tools, branches, allergenic agents, pesticides, wind,

sun, water, and insects. These foreign objects can cause infections,

allergic reactions, eye irritants and corneal and other eye trauma. Chronic

irritation and sun can cause cataracts, a clouding of the eye lens, and

pterygium, a growth that obstructs the cornea (Luque and John, 2007).

34

2.3.9 Snakes/Scorpion/Insect Bites

Animals and insects frequently bite farmers, with snake bites being

the most typical wound. Bites by pit vipers are the most common

occurrence since these snakes live at the base of mountains and in field

levees, and so they often come into contact with people. Pit vipers appear

in the late April and go into hibernation in mid-November, so that most

snake bites are seen in the summer time when the snakes are most active

(Yun and Chon, 2001). These people who grow or raise animals risk

being bitten by ticks, with the most typical occurrence being stings by

grain mites. In some cases, tick stings can result in Lyme disease. Other

possible bites are from mosquitoes, bees, centipedes, poisonous moths

and the paederusfuscipes and pachycondyla species (Bae, 1999).

2.3.10 Heat and Sun Exposure Disease

Farmers work under the sun’s harsh and hot rays for ten to twelve

hours a day, often with little access to shade or water. Heat stress occurs

when hot weather and muscle activity cause body heat to rise. This

condition can lead to dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, neurological

impairment, multi-organ failure, and death (Rao, 2008). In the 2005

National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS), twenty percent of the

farm-workers were reported to have no access to drinking water and cups.

35

Working under the sun also exposes farmers to long hours of ultraviolet

radiation, which puts them at a higher risk for developing skin cancer.

2.3.11 Psychiatric Diseases

Hwa-Byung (also known as Wool-Hwa-Byung) is a disease known

throughout the world and the origin is to be found inn Korean people’s

almost obsessive compulsion to hold in their anger with this internal

anger eventually turning into a disease. Many who are affected by this

disease have to live in poor conditions and yet they need to hold in their

anger. Hwa-Byung is a Korean folk syndrome that literally translates into

English as “anger syndrome” and it can be attributed to the suppression of

anger. The symptoms include: insomnia, fatigue, panic, and fear of

impending death, dysphoric affect, indigestion, anorexia, dyspnea,

palpitations, generalized aches and pains and a feeling of a mass in the

epigastrium.

The effects of diseases/illnesses such as whitlow, malaria, stomach

upset, typhoid, and other communicable diseases like chicken pox,

tuberculosis, are however, likely to have more impact on labour

availability since farmers may have to stay away from work for at least a

day for treatment. Farmers suffer from lumbago due to their bent over

posture in fields, from headaches due to carrying things on their heads

36

and from skin diseases that are the result of cutting weeds, but treatment

they often get places them at the risk for drug abuse.

2.4 LEVELS OF MAN-HOUR WASTAGES

Ill-health is said to be the commonest causes of absenteeism among

the farmers with malaria contributing 67.5% of these medical causes.

Luz and Green (1997) had indicated that medically certified absence

accounted for sixty to seventy percent of work absenteeism among

workers. Other studies have also identified the role of illness in

absenteeism among agricultural workers. It is not surprising therefore

that malaria contributed over two thirds of the reported cases of absences

due to illness among farmers. This is understandable in view of its

indemnity in Nigeria. Foster and Leighton (1995), estimated the value of

malaria-related loss in production to be between two and six percent of

Kenya’s gross domestic product and between one and five percent for

that of Nigeria. The World Health Organization estimated an equivalent

of ten working days of lost labour to malaria. Pregnant women and

children are the most vulnerable groups in malaria endemic regions and

they need care by the economically viable, who take time off and spend

their meager financial resources to provide this care. The health care

sector is also affected as it expends both financial and human resources

on this preventable illness, which is a source of huge economic burden to

37

the nation. Absenteeism has been shown to result in loss in man-hours,

productivity, finance, jobs and in the health sector, of lives.

As pointed out by the World Bank (2007), illness and death from

HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and other diseases reduce agricultural

productivity through the loss of labour, knowledge of productive adults,

and assets to cope with illness. For Lipton and Kadt (1988), the lack of

coordination of policy making between agricultural and health

undermines efforts to overcome ill health among the rural poor farmers

and gives short shift to agriculture’s role in alleviating many of the

world’s most serious health problems. Compared to non HIV positive

puckers, HIV-positive workers used between 19.9 and 11.8 more casual

leave days. On the average, sickness led to a loss of thirty-three person-

days of farming activity per year. Because a household member was ill at

critical periods of farming activity, 17.8 percent of the households

experienced output loss. HIV/AIDS pandemic results in reduction in

labour hours on agricultural activities, reduced number of working adults

in households. HIV/AIDS led to abandonment of agricultural activities,

much to the detriment of the households. It has also transformed the

households’ demographic structure by increasing the number of female

headed households and orphans. By reducing the productivity of small-

holder farming households, HIV/AIDS related morbidity and mortality

38

could limit the prospects of the nation to achieve food security, reduce

poverty and foster national economic growth and development. FAO and

UNAIDS (1999), showed that the adverse effect of HIV and AIDS on

both agricultural production and food security were more pronounced

among rural women than men. The study indicated that widows with

dependents children became entrenched in poverty as a result of socio-

economic pressures related to HIV/AIDS. Widows lost access to land,

labour, inputs, and credit, and support services. Stigmatization also

compounded their situation further, as assistance from the extended

family and the community, their main safety net, was severed.

2.5 THE IMPACT OF MAN-HOUR WASTAGES ON

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE

It needs to be emphasized that agriculture is affected by HIV/AIDS

in several ways. The most obvious is the direct drain on the agricultural

labour force, both skilled and unskilled. This occurs in two levels: firstly

as a result of the loss of the victim’s labour and secondly through labour

time dedicated to care for the sick. The pandemic has been observed to

lead to grave consequences for agricultural estates such as increased

operational costs due to increased absenteeism owing to sickness,

substantially reduced productivity and higher overtime costs as other

workers replace the sick colleagues. It is also important to note that by

striking people at their prime stage of working and parenting lives, AIDS

39

hinders knowledge and experts from being passed on to subsequent

generations. Antle and Pingali (1994) opined that poor health results in a

loss of days worked or reduced worker capacity, which, when family and

hired labour are not perfect substitutes or when there are no liquidity

constraints, is likely to reduce output. According to Spear (1991),

prolonged exposure to pesticide could cause cardiopulmonary problems,

neurological and hematological symptoms, and adverse dermal effects;

which could significantly hamper farmers’ work capacity in the field and

reduce their management and supervision abilities.

For Lipton and Dekadt (1988), the lack of coordination of policy

making between agriculture and health undermines efforts to overcome

ill-health among the rural farmers and gives short shift to agriculture’s

role in alleviating many of the world’s most serious health problems. As

pointed out by Hawkers and Ruel (2006), in agricultural communities,

poor health reduces income and productivity; further decreasing people’s

ability to address poor health and inhibiting economic development.

Oshaug and Hadded (2002) were also of the view that higher agricultural

productivity affects family earnings and nutrition, which in turn improves

labour productivity and results in better health and well-being.

Kim, et al (1997) analysed the impact of Onchocercal Skin Disease

(OSD) on productivity at a coffee plantation in South-East Ethiopia.

40

Their results revealed that permanent male employees, the core of the

plantation labour force, suffer significant losses in economic productivity

in the form of lower daily wages earned as a result of OSD. Depending

on the severity of the OSD, and controlling for such factors as age, daily

wages were ten to fifteen percent lower among those exhibiting skin-

related problems.

2.6 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

From the review, it is discovered that eminent scholars agree that

illness significantly impede agricultural efficiency.

The review also shows that there is a relationship between nutritional

quality and agricultural productivity. Work-related diseases of

farmers include: pesticide poisoning, peasant syndrome, respiratory

infections, malaria, typhoid, whitlow, sun borne diseases and many

other illnesses that keep farmers away from their farms.

The review further identified levels of man-hour wastages by

farmers and the impact of it on agricultural produce.

41

REFERENCES

Antle, J. M., and P. L. Pingali (1994): Pesticides, Productivity, and

Farmer Health: A Philippine Case Study, American Journal of

Agricultural Economics 76, pp. 418-430.

Central Bank of Nigeria (2000): Annual Report and Statement of

Accounts; pp.136.

Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (2001): Simple Solutions:

Economics for Farmworkers Available on line at

http/w.w.w.ede.gov/niosh/pdfs/01- 111.pdf Accessed Sep.5,

2008.

Cole, D. (2006): Occupational Health Hazards of Agriculture.

Understanding the Links between Agriculture and Health for

Food, Agriculture and the Environment, 2020 Focus 13,

International Food Policy Research Institute.

Earle, R. G. et al (2003):Occupational Injury and Illness among Migrant

and Seasonal Farmworkers in New York State. Pilot Study of a

New Surveillance Method, American Journal of Industrial

Medicine; pp 37-45.

FAO and UNAIDS. Sustainable Agricultural/Rural Development and

Vulnerability to AIDS Epidemic. Joint Publication, UNAIDS

Best Practice Collection.

Grossman, M. (1999).The Human Capital Model of the Demand for

Health. Journal of Political Economy; pp. 223-255.

Kim, A. A. T. and Hailu, A. (1999). Health and Labour Productivity:

Economic Impact of Onchocercal Skin Disease. Policy Research

Working Paper 1836, World Bank.

Lee, J. J. and Yang, J. H. (2006).Farmers’ Syndrome and its Risk Factors

of Vinylhouse and Non-Vinylhouse Farmers in Gyeongbuk

Province Rural Area. Korean J. Occupational Environment

Med.18, 146-155.

Lim, H. S. and Kim, D. H. (1998, Respiratory Symptoms Occurring

among Mushroom Farmers.Pp.259-689.

42

Luque, J. (2007). Implementation Evaluation of a Culturally Competent

Eye Injury Prevention Programme for Citrus Workers in a Horida

Migrant Community Progress in Community Health

Partnership 1-4, pp.359-369.

National Demographic and Health Survey (2003). National Population

Commission, Nigeria. National Population Census Report.

Oshaug, A. and Haddad (2002).Nutrition and Agriculture. A Foundation

for Development: Administrative Committee on

Coordination/Sub-Committee on Nutrition.

Spear, R. (1991):Recognised and Possible Exposure to Pesticides,

Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology: Vol.1, General

Principles. New York, Academic Press.

West African Rice Development Agency (2003).System Wide Initiative

on HIV/AIDS and Agriculture.

http/w.w.w.warda.egiar.org/swtha/linkage.htm.

43

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter explains the research methods adopted for this study.

It specifically states the research design, area of study, population, sample

and sampling method, Instrument for data collection, validation of the

instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection and

method of data analysis.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN:

For the purposes of this study the survey and descriptive research

design was adopted. This is because; the researcher sought for and

obtained data from a sample of farmers on man-hour wastages due to

illnesses in the selected communities.

3.2 AREA OF THE STUDY:

The study was carried out in three selected communities, all from

Enugu South Local Government Area. These communities are Amechi,

Ugwuaji and Akwuke. Enugu South Local Government Area is made up

of eight communities; four of which are urban communities while four

are rural. They are as follows: Amechi, Obeagu, Akwuke, Ugwuaji,

Uwani, Maryland, Achara Layout and Garki. According to National

Population Commission (2001), the projected population of the Local

44

Government Area for 2001 was 182,605, while that of the selected

communities was 33,195. Crop farmers in the selected communities are

13,278, all of which are subsistent peasant farmers.

3.3 STUDY POPULATION:

The population for the study consisted of 13,278 crop farmers who

reside and carry out their crop farming in the selected communities. They

are distributed as follows:

Community Population of farmers

Amechi 7,164

Akwuke 1,772

Ugwuaji 4,342

Total 13,278

Source: (Enugu State Agricultural Association, 2010).

3.4 SAMPLE:

The sample for the study was determined by the use of Yaro Yemeni

(1964) formular as follows:

N n = 1 + N(e)2

45

Where n = sample size

N = Population

e = Tolerable error

The sample size therefore equals:

13278

1+13278(0.05)2

= 13278

34.195

= 388.3

Sample size therefore:. = 388

3.5 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:

The researcher identified twenty clusters of farmers in the three

selected communities. These clusters allies with the villages that made

up the selected communities. While a few of the clusters cultivates yam

and cassava as single crop farmers, some cultivate only grains. A greater

majority are multiple crop formers.

By random sampling, eight clusters representing these crop types

and the villages were selected and a total of 388 crop farmers were

46

interviewed from the eight clusters. The numbers of respondents

interviewed in each community is proportionate to the number of clusters

or villages the community has. The sample distribution below shows the

details:

COMMUNITIES

CLUSTER CLUSTERS

SELECTED

SAMPLE

DRAWN

AmechiUwani 10 4 194

Ugwuaji 6 2 97

Akwuke 4 2 97

TOTAL 20 8 388

Table 1: Sample Distribution

In Amechi Uwani, two clusters got 49 questionnaires while the

other two got 48. The two clusters in Ugwuaji all got 49 questionnaires,

while those of Akwuke got 48 questionnaires each.

3.6 INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION:

A structured and closed-ended questionnaire was designed and

used for the study. The questionnaire has two sections. Section A tried

to elicit social and demographic information, while section B sought for

information that are necessary for answering the research questions. All

the items require the respondents to tick into a box to indicate a chosen

option(s).

47

3.7 VALIDATION OF THE INSTRUMENT:

The instrument was subjected to face and content validation by two

experts from the Department of Institute for Development Studies who,

independently examined the instrument and certified them as capable of

eliciting the required information.

3.8 RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT:

The instrument was tested for reliability. Twenty copies were

reproduced and administered in each of the two different but homogenous

communities. These were subsequently retrieved, presented and analysed

using correlation co-efficient analysis. The result yielded 0.85

correlations and hence the instrument was regarded as being reliable.

3.9 DATA COLLECTION

The questionnaires were personally administered between June 1 – July

by the researcher who by virtue of her origin to one of the communities,

was able to reach the respondents easily and got her questionnaires

completed. The other two communities were also within her reach as

they are not too far from her own community. The researcher had to go

round these communities several times in order to retrieve the completed

48

questionnaires. In each cluster, questionnaires were issued to crop

farmers until the required number were got.

3.10 METHOD OF ANALYSIS OF DATA

Data collected were presented in frequency tables and simple

percentage analysis was used. The following formular was used:

F x 100

n 1

Where f = frequency of response

n = sample size

For testing of the hypothesis, a one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

was used. The Ho was tested and the results of the test determined

whether the hypothesis was rejected or accepted at 0.05 level of

significance.

Decision Rule

The null hypothesis was rejected if the calculated F ratio is greater

than the table value of otherwise, it is accepted.

3.11 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE FIELD

Some of the farmers were always in the farm. The researcher had

to meet them at times in the farm. They were always unwilling to leave

49

their work and attend to the researcher notwithstanding the fact that she is

known by most of them.

A part from this, the researcher spent too much time trying to

educate the respondents on the relevance of the research before they

could listen to her. Some of them demanded for financial reward before

they could accept to complete the questionnaire. This, the researcher

could not afford but continued to persuade them until they yielded to her

request.

50

REFERENCES

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2008) Nigeria Demographic and health

Survey Abuja: National Population Commission.

Enugu State Agricultural Association (2010)

51

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

In this chapter, data are presented and analyzed to show man hour

wastages due to ill-health in three selected communities in Enugu State.

The data were gathered through the use of questionnaires administered to

three hundred and eighty-eight (388) crop farmers in the selected

communities. These were all retrieved and the analyses are based on the

data derived from it.

4.1 SOCIAL/DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF

RESPONDENTS

4.1.1 Sex Distribution of Respondents

Respondents were grouped on the basis of sex (table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents according to Sex

Respondents Freq. %

Male 220 57.7

Female 168 43.3

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.1 shows that there are more male respondents than females.

4.1.2: Age Distribution of Respondents

Respondents were grouped according to age.

52

Table 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents

Respondents Freq. %

18 – 25 years 51 13.1

26 – 45 years 83 21.4

46 – 65 years 190 49.0

66 and above years 64 16.5

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

From the above result it is seen that those between 54 years and above are

greater in number followed by those between 26 and 45 years; while

those that are above 66 and those between 25 years are in the minority.

4.1.3: Respondents’ Marital Status

Respondents were also distributed according to their marital status.

Table 4.3 Marital Status of respondents

Marital Status Freq. %

Married 210 54.1

Single 15 3.9

Divorced 28 7.2

Widow/widower 135 34.8

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

53

Table 4.3 shows that greater number of the respondents are married;

followed by widows/widowers, divorced and the singles.

4.1.4 Distribution of Respondents by Household Size

Attempts were made to categorise respondents on the basis of household

size (table 4.4).

Table 4.4: Respondents according to Household Size

No. of Respondents in Household Freq. %

One 25 6.4

Two 33 8.5

Three 128 33.0

Four 93 24.0

Five and above 109 28.1

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

From the above table, it is seen that the majority of the households are

made up of four persons while those of them that are single households

are on the minority.

54

4.1.5 Distribution of Respondents by Religion

Respondents were classified according to their religious inclinations.

Table 4.5: Response on Religion

Respondents on Religion Freq. %

Christianity 323 83.2

Islam - -

African traditional religion 65 16.8

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

The above table shows that Christians are five times more than the

Moslems in the selected communities.

4.1.6 Distribution of Respondents by Tribe

Respondents were also grouped on the basis of tribe.

Table 4.6: Distribution of Respondents by Tribe

Response on Tribe Freq. %

Igbo 388 100

Hausa - -

Yoruba - -

Others - -

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

From the above table, it is seen that all the respondents are of the Igbo

tribe.

55

4.1.7 Duration of Stay in the Community

Information on how long respondents have lived in the present

community was ascertained (table 4.7).

Table 4.7: Number of Years Lived in Present Community

No of Years Lived in Present Community Freq. %

Below 1 – 5 years 21 5.4

6 – 10 years 40 10.3

11 – 15 years 62 16.0

16 + above years 265 68.3

Total 388 100%

Source: Field work, 2011

Table 4.7 shows that 21 (5.4%) of the respondents have spent up to five

years, while 40 (10.3%) have spent between 6 – 10 years. Up to 62

(16%) of them have spent in their present community between 11 to 10

years, while 265 (68.3%) have lived there for sixteen years and above.

4.1.8 Academic Qualification of Respondents

Respondents were grouped according to their educational qualifications.

56

Table 4.8: Highest Education Acquired

Highest Education of Respondents Freq. %

No education 38 9.8

Primary 13.5 34.8

Secondary 170 43.8

Colleges/Polytechnic 26 6.7

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

The above table shows that 38 (9.8%) of the respondents are illiterates,

while 135 (34.8%) of them have acquired primary education. Secondary

education scored up to 170 (43.8%) of the respondents, while only 19

(4.9%) of them posses university education.

4.1.9 Major Occupation of Respondents

Respondents were divided according to their major occupations.

Table 4.9: Response on Major Occupation

Major Occupation of Respondents Freq. %

Farming 255 65.7

Business 31 8.0

Public servants 78 20.1

Others 24 6.2

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

57

Table 4.9 shows that 255 (65.7%) of the respondents have farming as

their major occupation, 31(8%) combine farming with business, while 78

(20%) are public servants who also engage in farming, others are 24

(6.2%) who also engage in farming.

4.1.10 Distribution of Respondents by Average Income Per Month

Table 4.10: Average Income per Month

Respondents Level of Income Per Month (N000) Freq. %

0 – 20 72 18.6

21 – 49 181 46.7

41 – 60 90 23.2

61 – 80 28 7.2

81 + above 16 4.1

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

From the above table, it is seen that 72 (18.6%) of the respondents earn

an income of up to N20,000.00, while 181(46.7%) of them earn between

N21,000.00 to N40,000.00 per month. Ninety (23.2%) earn between

N41,000.00 to N60,000.00 per month, 28 (7.2%) make up to N60,000 to

N80,000 per month. Only 16(4.1%) earn N81,000.00 and above per

month.

58

4.2 COMMON AILMENTS AMONG RESPONDENTS

4.2.1 Distribution of Respondents by Common Ailments

Experienced

Attempts were made to inquire from the respondents the commonest

ailment experienced by them.

Table 4.11: Common Ailment Experienced

S/No Work related ill-health ever

experienced (1 year)

Yes % No %

1 Muscular fatigue 358 92.3 30 7.7

2 Heat exhaustion 337 86.9 51 13.1

3 Skin disease 363 93.6 25 6.4

4 Pesticide poisoning 206 53.1 182 46.9

5 Head ache 346 89.2 42 10.8

6 Musculoskeletal disease 362 93.3 26 6.7

7 Heat and sun burn 371 95.6 17 4.4

8 Eye injuries/irritation 328 84.5 60 5.5

9 Whitlow 303 78.1 85 21.9

10 Snake/scorpion bite 296 76.3 92 23.7

11 Back pain 371 95.6 17 4.4

12 Arthritis 357 92.0 31 8.0

13 Waist pain 374 96.4 14 3.6

Source: Field Work, 2011

59

Table 4.11 shows that 358 (92.3%) of the respondents agree that

they have suffered from muscular fatigue, while 337 (86.9%) gave

positive response to heat exhaustion. Skin disease scored 363 (53.1%),

while pesticide poisoning was suffered by 206 (53.1) of the respondents.

Headache scored 346 (89.2%) while musculoskeletal disease got 362

(93.3%). Heat and sunburn got 371(95.6%) while eye injuries/irritation

have a positive response of 328 (84.5%), whitlow got 303(78.1%),

snake/scorpion bite 296 (76.3%), back pain 371(95.6%) while arthritis

and waste pain got 357(92%) and 374(96.4%) respectively of the

respondents.

4.2.2 Identification of Non-Work Related Ailments

Attempts were made to extract information of non-work related illnesses

farmers suffered within one year interval.

60

Table 4.12: Non-Work Related Ailments Suffered

S/No Non- work related ill-health ever

experienced (1 year)

Yes % No %

1 Malaria 350 90.2 38 9.8

2 Infectious diseases 290 74.7 98 25.3

3 HIV/AIDS 48 7.4 360 92.8

4 Stomach upset 373 96.1 15 3.9

5 Typhoid 368 94.8 20 5.2

6 Nausea/Vomiting 298 76.8 90 23.2

7 Cancer 0 - 388 100

8 Miscarriage/Ante-natal/Postnatal

diseases

156 40.4 212 59.8

9 Hypertension 329 84.8 59 13.2

10 Abdominal discomfort 317 81.7 71 18.3

11 Asthma 17 4.4 371 95.6

12 Pneumonia 167 43.0 221 67.0

13 Psychiatric diseases 0 0 388 100

Source: Field Work, 2011

From the above table, it is seen that 350 (90.2%) of the respondents

has ever suffered from malaria, while 290 (74.7%) gave positive response

to infectious diseases. HIV/AIDS has a positive response of 28 (7.2%)

while 373 (96.1%) of them have suffered from stomach upset. Typhoid

fever was suffered by 368 (94.8%0 while nausea/vomiting got a positive

response of 298 (76.8%) of them. Ant-natal/post-natal problems were

suffered by 156 (40.2%) of the respondents. Hypertension scored 329

61

(84.8), while abdominal discomfort scored 317(81.2%) of the

respondents. Asthma got a positive response of 17(4.4%), while

pneumonia was suffered by 167 (43.0%) of the respondents.

4.2.3 Health Facilities Patronized

Health facilities available and patronized most by the respondents were x-

rayed (table 4.13).

Table 4.13: Health Facilities Patronized by Respondents

(N – 388)

Health Facilities Patronized by

Respondents

Yes % No %

Hospital 150 38.7 238 61.3

Health centre 211 54.4 177 45.6

Maternity home 113 29.1 275 70.9

Pharmacies 80 20.6 308 79.4

Mobil clinic - - 388 100

Patent medicine stores 363 93.6 25 6.4

Traditional medicine 70 18.0 318 92.0

Traditional berth attendants 55 14.2 333 95.8

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.13 shows that 150 (38.7%) of the respondents have

patronized hospitals; 211 (54.4%) has patronized health centres.

Maternity home got 113(29.1%), while 80(20.6%) patronized

pharmacies. Patent medicine stores were patronized by 363(98.6%) of

62

the respondents; traditional medicine men were patronized by 70(18%) of

them. Only 55(14.2%) of them patronized the traditional birth attendants.

4.2.4 Number of Visits to Health Institutions

Attempts were made to get information on number of visits respondents

made to the health institutions.

Table 4.14: Last Visit to Health Institutions

N – 388

Respondents Last Visit to H/L Yes %

1 – 6 months 261 67.3

7 months – 1 year 117 30.2

1 year -1½ years 10 2.6

1½ - 2 years - -

2 + above - -

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.14 shows that 261(67.3%) of the respondents attended

health institutions for the past six months; while 117(30.2%) of them paid

their last visit to health institutions seven months to one year ago. Only

10(2.6%) of the respondents attended health institutions last for the past

one year and above.

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4.2.5 Distribution of Respondents by Period of Admission

Efforts were made to find out whether respondents were ever admitted in

a hospital (table 4.15).

Table 4.15: Period of Admission in the Hospital

Respondents’ Period of Admission Frequency %

1 – 5 days 32 8.2

6 – 10 days 53 13.7

11 – 15 days 12 3.1

16 days and above - -

None response 291 75.0

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.15 shows that 32 (8.2%) of the respondents were admitted

in hospital from one to five days, while 53(13.7%) of them stayed from

six to ten days while only 12(3.1%) of them stayed from eleven to fifteen

days.

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4.2.6 Days Spent at home During Ill-Health

Table 4.16: Duration of Stay in Hospital

Respondents’ Days at

Home while Sick

Frequency %

1 – 5 days 169 43,6

6 – 10 days 102 26.2

11 – 15 days 13 3.4

16 + above 7 1.8

None response 97 25.0

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.16 shows that 169 (43.6%) of the respondents who were

sick but stayed back at home for treatment from one to five days, while

102 (26.2%) stayed for a period of six to ten days, thirteen (3.4%) of

them stayed from eleven to fifteen days; while 7(1.8%) stayed for sixteen

days and above.

4.2.7 Proximity of Health Facilities Available

The proximity of the available health facilities was examined.

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Table 4.17: The Distance of Health Facilities from the

Respondents

Distance of Health Facilities from

Respondents

Yes %

0 – ½ a km 153 39.4

½ - 1km 111 28.6

1 – 1½ km 124 32.0

1½ - 2 km - -

2km and above - -

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.17 shows that 153(39.4%) of the respondents agree that health

facilities are within half a kilometer from where they live; while

111(28.6%) of them says that they are between ½ to 1km. Also

124(32%) of them says that they live within 1km to 1½km away from any

health institution.

4.2.8 Impact of Man Hour Wastages on Agricultural

Productivity

Information on the impact of man hour wastages on agricultural

productivity was gathered.

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Table 4.18: Effect of Man Hour Wastage on

Agricultural Productivity

Response on Agricultural Produce Frequency %

Reduction of productivities 160 41.2

Reduces income of agricultural workers 91 23.5

Increases poverty among them 102 26.3

Makes them to lose their job - -

Causes hunger and starvation 35 9.0

Increases operational cost - -

Reduces nutritional capacity of Agric workers - -

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.18 shows that 160 (41.2%) of the respondents agree that

man hour wastages due to ill-health reduces their productivities, while

91(32.5%) of them agree that it reduces their income. Increase in poverty

level among them scored 102 (26.3%) while on 35(9%) of them agree

that it causes hunger and starvation.

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Table 4.19: Whether Ill-Health Affect Level of Crop Farmers’

Income

Response on Loss of Income Frequency %

Yes 91 23.5

No 30 7.7

Undetermined 267 68.8

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.19 shows that 91 (23.5%) has suffered loss of income as a

result of ill-health. While 30 (7.7) did not. Those who could not

determine the actual loss of income due to ill-health are 267 (68.8%) of

the respondents.

Table 4.20: Level of Income Loss due to Ill-Health per Annum

Response on Loss of Income

per Annum

Frequency %

0 – 10,000 60 15.5

11,000 – 20,000 10 2.6

21,000 – 30,000 18 4.6

31,000 – 40,000 2 .5

41,000 + above - -

None 287 76.8

Total 388 100%

Source: Field Work, 2011

Table 4.20 shows that 60 (15.5) of the respondents lost between 0 to

N10,000 annually as a result of ill-health, while 10 (2.6%) of them lost

between N11,000 to N20,000 per annum. About 18 (4.6%) of them lost

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between N21,000 to N30,000 annually, while 2 (.5%) lost between

N31,000 to N40,000 per annum. None response equals 287 (76.8%) of

the respondents.

4.3 TEST OF HYPOTHESES

The two hypotheses formulated in this study were tested at a 0.05

level of significance using one way ANOVA. The details of the

calculations are attached as Appendix II.

Hypothesis I:

There is no significant difference between the male and female

agricultural workers in their man-hour wastages due to ill-health.

The null hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance using

one way ANOVA. The ANOVA summary table is presented below in

table 4.3.1.

Table 4.3.1 ANOVA Result of Difference between the Male

and Female Agricultural Workers in their Man-

Hour Wastages due to Ill-health.

Source SS df Ms f-cal f- cri P

Between group 1.47 1 1.47 0.12 3.92 0.05

Within group 3722.3 298 12.49 - - -

Total 3723.77 299

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The result in table 4.3.1 shows that the calculated f ratio (0.12) is less

than the critical value of F (3.92) at 1 and 298 degrees of freedom and at

0.05 level of significance. The result indicates that there is no significant

difference between the male and female agricultural workers in their

man-hour wastages due to ill-health. The implication therefore is that we

fail to reject the null hypothesis since the observed differences are merely

due to sampling error. There is therefore no gender difference in man

hour wastages caused by ill-health in the reference area of study.

Hypothesis II:

There is no significant difference between man-hour wastages

caused by work related illnesses and those of other general illnesses.

The null hypothesis was equally tested at a 0.05 level of

significance using none-way ANOVA. The summary table is presented

below:

Table 4.3.2: ANOVA result of difference between man-hour

wastages caused by work related illnesses and those caused by non-

work related illnesses.

Source SS Df Ms f-cal f. cri P

Between group 69.02 1 69.02 1.19 4.26 0.05

Within group 1388.49 24 57.85 - - -

Total 1457.51 25

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The result in table 4.3.2 above indicates that the calculated f ratio (1.19)

is les than the critical value of f (4.26) at 1 and 24 degrees of freedom and

at 0.05 level of significance. The result also shows that there is no

significance difference between man-hour wastages caused by work

related illnesses and those of non-work related illnesses. The implication

therefore is that we fail to reject the null hypothesis since the observed

differences are merely due to sampling error. Work related illnesses

therefore do not differ from non-work related illnesses in their cause of

man-hour wastages of the agricultural workers in our reference area of

study.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

5.1 TYPES OF ILLNESSES SUFFERED BY AGRICULTURAL

WORKERS IN THE STUDY COMMUNITIES.

Information was gathered on common ailments suffered by the

farmers. Among the ailments suffered, waist pain, back pain and heat

and sun burn top the list with 96.4%, 95.6% and 95.6% respectively;

scorpion/snake bite and whitlow were least with 76.3% and 78.1%

respectively. The result is not surprising given the fact that crude

implements are still being used for cultivation by crop farmers of our

reference. These type of pains are associated with the use of these crude

implements and hence such a high percentage score. In the same vein,

snake/ scorpion bite and whitlow are not so common but still have high

rate of occurrence among farmers. In all, the result shows that thirteen

work related diseases have high percentages of occurrence among our

reference group. This agrees with Cole (2006), Kwan Lee and Lim

(2008) who also identified all these illnesses as the kind of disease that

attack farmers.

Similarly, the agricultural workers are not by this fact exempted

from the general ailments that attack people in the society. It was also

discovered that non-work related illnesses also attack the agricultural

workers of our reference. Top on the list also are stomach upset, typhoid

and malaria which have percentage scores of 96.1%, 94.8% and 90.2%

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respectively. Malaria and typhoid are known to be rife in African

countries. Luz and Green (1997) have indicated that 60% - 70% of work

absenteeism among agricultural workers is caused by malaria. The high

percentage got from this work justifies this assertion more especially

among agricultural workers who are peasant and live in areas that are not

known for their high good environmental status. Stomach upset is also

associated with filthy environment. In all the thirteen items investigated,

seven of them have percentage scores that are more than fifty and so are

regarded as being among the non work related illness suffered by

agricultural workers of our reference. All these illnesses pose a cog on

the wheel of progress of agricultural workers of our case study.

5.2 MAN HOUR WASTAGES CAUSED BY ILL HEALTH

The result of this objective was presented in tables 4.2.5 for man

hours lost by farmers while in hospital admission and 4.2.6 for days lost

at home by them while suffering from illness. Those who lost six to ten

days in hospital admission were fifty-three in number having the highest

percentage of 13%. In all 25% of the respondents had varying degrees of

man hour loss resulting from illnesses that led to hospital admission,

while about 75% lost several days attempting to treat themselves at home.

In this category, 43.6% lost one–five days to top the list. This seems to

confirm that self medication is the other of the day among crop farmers of

our reference. This is in consonance with Luz and Green (1997) who

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discovered that ill-health is the cause of absenteeism among farmers with

malaria contributing 67.5%.

Result also shows that gender differences does not exist as males

and females suffer these diseases alike and loss of man-hours resulting

from these illnesses are not different. A test of hypothesis of difference

between males and females on their man-hour wastages resulting from ill-

health could not reject the null hypothesis. ANOVA shows a sum of

square of 1.47 and 3722.3 for between group and within group, and a

mean square of 1.47 and 12.49 respectively. The f ratio of 0.12 could not

reject the null hypothesis at 1 and 298 degrees of freedom and at 0.05

level of significance. In all no gender differences was observed.

In like manner, a test of differences between man-hour wastages

due to work related diseases and non-work related diseases was

conducted, and no such differences was discovered. The mean squares of

69.02 and 57.85 and F ratio of 1.19 which was not good enough to reject

the null hypothesis. In other words, non work related disease cause as

much havocs to agricultural workers as work related diseases.

5.3 MAN-HOUR WASTAGES AND AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTIVITY

The result shows that 4.2% of the respondents indicated that their

productivities are adversely affected, while 26.3% also indicated that it

increases poverty among them.

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Reduction of income and the eventual result of hunger and

starvation were also indicated. This is in line with Kin et al (1997) and

hawkers and Ruel (2006) who also discovered that in their various

environment that poor health condition gave rise to not only decrease in

productivity but also engenders poverty through decrease in income. No

wonder, the income of 65.5% of our respondents are between 0 – 49

thousand naira per month (table 4.10). This shows that majority of crop

farmers of our reference group are below poverty level and as such can

only do subsistence farming.

5.4 HEALTH FACILITIES AVAILABLE TO FARMERS

Information gathered shows that 93.6% of the respondents gave

positive response to the availability of patent medicine stores while at

varying degrees and percentages all the eight items were indicated as

being present at the area of the study. But table 4.2.6 shows that only

25% of them patronize hospitals while the rest patronize others. This also

reveals that home medication is rife among the agricultural workers who

choose to obtain treatment of their ailments from patent medicine stores

(75.0%). Self medication is drug abuses which can exacerbate the impact

of the illness and as such result in more man-hour wastages. The result is

suggestive that government effort in providing health care services to the

masses still needs more to be desired. No mobile clinic was indicated and

hospitals are not located near their farms. This means that they had no

75

choice than to patronize those ones that are readily available at every

nook and cranny of the area of study. Availability does not always mean

existence. The question is: are the services affordable? With the low

income observed among our respondents, it is not difficult to understand

while many of them do not go to hospital when they are sick. They rather

stay at home and manage their illnesses with whatever drugs given to

them by patent medicine dealers.

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CHAPTER SIX; SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS

AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The main aim of this work is to examine the man-hour wastages

due to ill-health among agricultural workers in three selected

communities in Enugu State. To achieve this aim, data were gathered

through a structured questionnaire which was validated, reproduced and

administered to a sample of 388 crop farmers. These were duly retrieved

and data derived thereof were presented in frequency tables and analyzed

using percentage techniques, hypotheses were also tested. From these,

findings were made: a summary of these findings are presented below:

6.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Analysis reveals that majority of crop farmers in the area of study

are subsistent farmers who cultivate mainly to provide food for

themselves and for their dependents. Most of them are Igbos, Christians

and resident in their communities for very long time, using crude

implement to do most of their works.

On the type of ailments suffered by farmers, it was discovered that

work related ailments include muscular fatigue, heat exhaustion, and skin

disease. Pesticide poisoning, head ache, musculoskeletal diseases, heat

and sunburn, eye injuries and irritation, whitlow, snake and scorpion bite,

back pain, arthritis and waist pain. Most of these work related illnesses

are cause by the use of antiquated crude implement which requires high

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level of energy for their use. While non-work ailments include malaria,

infectious disease, stomach upset typhoid, nausea and vomiting, ante-

natal and post-natal diseases, hypertension, abdominal pains, and

pneumonia.

It was equally discovered that as a result of these illnesses, a lot of

man-hours were lost by agricultural workers of our reference. These

range from one to five days, while some lost up to ten days and many

others from eleven to sixteen days per year. These were days some of

them (25%) spent in hospital, while about (75%) of them stayed at home

managing their illnesses by themselves thereby losing more man-hours.

A test of hypothesis was carried out to find out whether there is a

significant difference between the males and females in their man hour

wastages due to ill-health. The result shows that no such differences exist

since male and female agricultural workers do not differ in their man-

hour wastages due to ill-health.

Similarly, a test of hypothesis was also conducted to find out

whether there is significant difference between the man-hour wastages

caused by work related illnesses and those of other illnesses. The result

also indicates that no such differences exist as the result was not good

enough to reject the null hypothesis.

On the availability of health facilities to help them whenever they

are ill, it was discovered that there are very few hospitals and health

78

centres located about one to one and half kilometers away from farmer’s

place of work. The health facilities readily available to them (93.6%) are

the patent medicine stores which they always go into and obtain their

treatment. The patent medicine dealers most often are not experienced

medical personnel and hence effective treatment of ailments is derived.

This makes farmers to stay at home longer than necessary while trying to

treat their ailments thereby wasting more man-hours.

The impacts of this are discovered to include reduction of the

productivities of the farmers, reduction of income and increased poverty

among farmers. It may also expose them to hunger and starvation.

6.2 CONCLUSION

From the findings summarized above, the following conclusions

are drawn.

1. Those agricultural workers suffer not only general illnesses but

also work related illnesses. These illnesses include muscular

fa