Chapter one Biology review

1. Describe and explain the contribution of Needham, Redi, Spallanzani, and

Pasteur in the process of the cell theory.

Needham: -he designed and experimented and supported abiogenesis’.

He boiled meat broth for a short amount of time and poured into two

flasks, covered and uncovered. Both became cloudy because of the growth

of bacteria after several days.

He believes that organisms came from water itself.

BUT he didn’t boil the water long enough to kill the bacteria.

Redi : - conducted one of the first controlled experiment that supported

biogenesis

He used meat in a jar half covered, with mesh and half open. After several

days he found that the mesh covered meat had no maggots, while the open jar

had maggots.

o This showed people that maggots can’t become unless flies can land,

people began to doubt spontaneous generation.

Spallanzani: - He didn’t agree with Needham, so he repeated his experiment. (He

was against spontaneous generation.

He boiled the broth longer and put it into the two flasks, no life appeared in

the sealed flask while the open flask had bacteria growth.

o Boiling the broth killed the vital principle that made life arise from non

living matter like water.

Pasteur: -conducted experiments that disapproved abiogenesis, concluding that

organisms do not come from non living matter.

(Needham and

Spallanzani)

(Redi)

(Pasteur)

2. Explain the cell theory, biogenesis, and abiogenesis

Cell theory: -

All living organisms are made up of one or more cells

Cells are the basic unit of structure and functions in all organisms.

All cells are derived from pre-existing cells.

In multicellular organisms (plant/human) the activity of the entire organisms

depends on the activity of a single cell that makes up the organisms.

Biogenesis: the belief that living things come from other living things

Abiogenesis: erroneous idea that life can come and develop spontaneously from

lifeless matter.

3. Explain Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow

Hooke: Wrote a book in 1665 in which shows illustrations of tree barks as seen

under a microscope. The drawings showed compartments which he called “cells”

Leeuwenhoek: -Designed his own microscope in 1666/1667. They were tiny and

simple with a single lense and were much more powerful than the other

microscopes of the time.

In 1683 he marked the discovery of bacteria by observing plaque on teeth.

He called these bacteria “animalcules”

Schwann: He wrote that “all animals are made up of cells” then added that “cells

are organisms and plants are collectives of these organisms.

Virchow: he wrote that “cells are the last link in a great chain [that forms] tissues,

organs, systems and individuals... where cells exist there must have pre-existing

cells” in 1858.

4. Explain how the invention of the microscope permitted scientists to discover the

existence of cells, and how this discovery revised all scientific understanding.

Early users of microscopes tended to focus on their observations on known

objects and organisms. With the ability to enlarge 50x, this let scientists

view details they’ve never seen before.

Van Leeuwenhoek used a single lens system. He developed a technique for

grinding lenses that remained unsurpassed for 150 years. He achieved 500x

magnifications.

o He was the first person to observe microscopic organisms, he

introduced to the world and scientists in particular to the living

inhabitants of the micro-universe.

This helped scientists to start understanding organisms and cells more

Thorley.

5. Examine and compare images of cell structures generated by both light and

electron microscope.

Light microscopes: max magnification of 2000x

Can see most, but not all cells and cell structures.

Resolution limited to about 0.2 “um”

Resolving power is limiting so the lighting source must be changed to

accommodate this.

Electron microscope:

1. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

-Magnifies up to 500,000 times

- Resolution as low as o.ooo2 “um”

-electrons are transmitted through the specimen

2. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

o magnifies up to 300, 000 times

o resolution 0.005 “um” (lower then TEM)

o Specimen in sprayed with a gold coating and is scanned with a narrow

beam of electrons.

o electron detector creates a 3D image

6. Identify the parts of the compound light microscope and be able to determine

total magnification, field of view, and general microscope safety.

Identifying parts – PAGE 16 TEXT BOOK.

Total Magnification = Ocular x objective

Example: If your ocular is 10x and the low power objective is 20x then your total

magnification is 200x.

10 x 20 = 200x

Field of view: the area of the slide that you see when you look through microscope.

You use micro metres “um”. When going from millimetres to micro metres move the decimal

three places to the right or times by a 1000.

Examples of calculating F.O.V

1. Low power objective = 4x

High power objective = 40x

Eye piece lens = 10x

Low power field of view = 4.4 mm

What is the HIGH power field of view?

4.4mm x 4/10

4.4 x 0.10 = 0.44 mm

0.44x 1000 = 4400 um

The total F.O.V is 4400 um

2. Low power objective = 5x

Med power objective = 10x

Eyepiece lens = 5x

Low power FOV = 3.5mm

What is the medium power field of view?

3.5mm x 5/10

3.5 x 0.5 = 1.75mm

1.75mm x 1000 = 1750 um

The total F.O.V is 1750 um

Microscope Safety

o Make sure that your hands are dry when handling it.

o Handel the slides carefully and can break easily and cause cuts.

o When carrying the microscope always use one hand to hold the arm and the

other to support the bottom.

o Do not adjust any of the focussing knobs until ready for use

o Always focus using the coarse adjustment knob first, with the low power

objective lens in positions.

o Cover the microscope when not in use.

6. Compare and contrast prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic

Prokaryotic cells: Organisms with cells lacking a true nucleus and most other

types of organelles; Bacteria and Archaea. They are the smallest living cells.

Eukaryotic cells: organisms with cells containing nuclei and other types of

membrane-bound organelles; Protists, Fungi, Plants, and Animals

7. Describe the roll of the following structures:

Cell Membrane: a structure that separated the cell interior from the outside

world and controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum: a membranous tubule system throughout a cell

Vacuole: membranous sacs that store nutrients, water and wastes.

Cilia: hair like structures extending from the cell membrane that beat in a

coordinated rhythm to produce movement. Helps enable protozoa such as the

paramecium to move about, and also helps to sweep food particles into their

gullets

Cytoplasm: a gel-like material consisting mostly of water that contains dissolved

materials and creates the chemical environment in which the other cell structures

work.

Ribosome: tiny two part structures found in the cells cytoplasm and attached to

the rough endoplasmic reticulum that helps put together proteins. They bring

together the mRNA strand, tRNA molecules carrying amino acids and the enzymes

involved in building polypeptides

Vesicle: small membrane sac for transport or storage of material within a cell.

Lysosome: membrane bound vesicles filled with digestive enzymes that can break

down worn out cell components or materials brought into the cell through

phagocytises

Nucleus: largest and most prominent structure within a cell, having double

membrane that contains the DNA instructions for making protein. Genetic

information is stored in the nucleus determines the cells structural characteristics

and how it functions.

Mitochondria: organelles with double membrane where organic molecules,

usually carbohydrates are broken down to release energy.

Golgi body: (golgi apparatus) a stack of flattened membrane bound sacs that

receive vesicles from the ER, contain enzymes for modifying proteins and lipids,

and package finished products into vesicles for transport to the cell membrane

and within the cell as lysosomes.

Flagella: long hair like projections extending from the cell membrane that

propelthe cell using whip-like motion.

Nucleolus: specialized area of chromatin inside the nucleus where ribosomal RNA

is produced to make ribosomes

Chloroplast: plastid that gives green plants their colour and transfers the energy

in sunlight into stored energy in carbohydrates during photosynthesis.

Microtubules/filament: rod like, hollow protein tubes that act like tracks along

which other organelles such a vesicles and mitochondria, can move.

Cell wall: rigid structure surrounding the cell membrane that protects and

supports the cell and allows materials to pass to and from the cell membrane

through pores.

9. Compare and contrast plant and animal cells in terms of the types of organelles

present.

Plant cells: - have outer cell walls made of cellulose (animals do not). Provides

rigidity and protecting

o Plants have one large central vacuole (animals have several small ones).

Provides rigidity and stores water nutrients.

-plants have chloroplasts and fewer lysosmes.

Animal cells: -No cell walls, only cell membrane , irregular shape

o Has more Lysosome

o Many vacuoles

o Have a centrosome, plants do not

o Lacks chloroplast ( gives plants there green)

Chapter two review – Biology

1. Describe how organelles manage various cell processes such as ingestion,

digestion, transportation and excretion.

-Golgi Apparatus: a stack of flattened vesicles from the ER, contain enzymes. This helps modify

proteins and lipids and package finished products into vesicle for the transport to the cell membrane

and within the cells Lysosome.

-Mitochondrion: is the “powerhouse” of the cell where organic molecules are broken down

inside a double membrane to release and transfer energy.

-Vacuole: Large, membrane bound fluid filled sac for temporary storage of food water and

waste.

-nucleus: The main planner of the cell, and it contains DNA and RNA in manufacturing proteins.

-Ribosome’s: Produce proteins.

2. Explain how materials move through a selectivity permeable membrane.

- The cell membrane is said to be “selectively permeable” allowing some molecules to pass

through it while preventing other from doing so.

-The cells of multicellular organisms are bathed in a extra cellular fluid contains a mixture of

water and dissolved materials.

-materials move by the means of passive transport. NO CELLUAR ENERGY is required for the

movement of these into or out of the cell.

3. Passive transport: no energy required.

-Osmosis : The free movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane. There are three

situations which can result with this water movement.

1. Isotonic environment: When the water concentration must equal the water

concentrations inside the cell. The water flow out equal’s water flow in.

2. Hypotonic environment: Water concentration outside the cell is higher and then

inside the cell, in other words the solute concentration outside cell is lower than inside the cell.

Hypotonic solution will GAIN water.

3. Hypertonic environment: water concentration out the cell is lower than inside the

cell. In other words the solute concentration outside the cell is high then inside. Hypertonic will lose

water from the cell, which is called plasmolysis.

-There are two possible results: If a cell lacks a wall, it will shrivel up like a raisin. Te cells stop

metabolizing but are not immediately killed. If the cell HAS a wall the membrane will shrink away from

the wall as water leave the cell.

See page 55 for diagram of each.

-Diffusion: Is the driving force for substances to move around in cells.

- Diffusion results from the random motion of molecules.

-Diffusion will occur from the more concentrated region to the less concentrated region

until the concentrations of both regions have become equal. (Reaching a state of equilibrium)

-The difference in concentrations between regions is known as a concentration gradient.

See page 53 for diagram.

-Facilitated diffusion: The passive movement of molecules from an area of high concentrations

to an area of low concentration. The cell membrane has such structures as protein channels and carrier

proteins to carry out the material transport.

See page 57 for a diagram.

4. Active transport: energy required.

Bulk material transport, large molecules are not carried by transport proteins. There are mechanisms for

moving larger molecules, but they don’t enter into the cytoplasm of a cell.

-Exocytosis: a vesicle from inside the cell moves to the cell surface. There the vesicle membrane

fuses with the cell membrane. The contents is then release into the extracellular fluid.

-Edocytosis: is where the cell membrane folds inward trapping and enclosing small amounts of

matter from the extra cellular fluid. Three common forms.

1. Phagocytosis: The engulfing of some extracellular fluid contains solid particles such as

debris from bacteria and other particulate matter. (Eating)

2. Pinocytosis: similar to Phagocytosis but takes in or engulfs fluid rather than

particulate matter. (Drinking)

3. Recepetor-assisted Endocytosis: involves the intake of special molecules such as

cholesterol that attach to special proteins in the cell membrane, act as receptors. These receptors have

a unique shape that will only fit the shape of the molecule to be moved into the cells interior.

See diagrams for each o pages 62-63

5. Define and describe effects of these with and without cell walls.

Hypotonic: describing cell conditions, when the water concentration outside the cell is greater

than inside the cell; water moves into the cell.

Hypertonic: describing cell conditions: when the water concentration inside the cell is greating

than that outside the cells, water moves out of the cell.

Isotonic: describing cell conditions, when the water concentration inside the cell equals the

water concentration outside the cell; equal amounts of water move in and out of the cell.

See question 3 for more info.

6. Understand the procedure for carrying out a scientific inquiry.

1. Compare and contrast matter and energy transformation associate with

the processes of photosynthesis and aerobic respiration.

Photosynthesis: is the route by which inorganic molecules, carbon dioxide and water are

converted into organic molecules such as glucose which is in organisms for their metabolism.

-It is the base of all food chains, it is the source of all life on earth.

-Equation of photosynthesis=

6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) C6H12O6 (S) + 6O2 (G)

Cellular respiration: recycles carbon back into inorganic form by releasing co2. This allows

oxygen and carbon cycles to continue. There are two types cellular respiration.

1. Aerobic respiration – a process that requires 38 ATP molecules in backrid cells are

36 ATP molecules in cells with mitchoride.

2. Anderobic: a process that will occur in the absence of oxygen. Some micro-

organisms are capable of metabolizing without the pressure of oxygen can.

-cellular respiration requires oxygen.

-Equation for cellular respiration=

C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g) + ATP

2. Explain the importance of each for individual organisms.

-Photosynthesis allows inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide and water to be converted

into organic. Energy rich substances such as sugar which cells can then use as a energy source.

-Plants use photosynthesis to make their own food and carry out cellular respiration to burn the

food they make for energy.

- It produces the oxygen they need for cellular respiration.

3. Demonstrate using equations that that they are complementary processes.

-they are complementary reactions , they are opposite of each other in terms of their reactants

and products.

Reaction Reactants Products

Photosynthesis 6CO2 + 6H2O Carbon dioxide + water

C6H12O6 + 6O2 Sugar + oxygen

Cellular respiration C6H12O6 + 6O2 Sugar + oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O +ATP Carbon dioxide + water

Photosynthesis = 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular respiration = C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 +atp

Unit 2 – Biodiversity ( life – variety )

1. How scientific knowledge is evolving?

o how evidence is discovered

o new theories and laws are tested and possibly restricted

o Paradigm shift

o This is all happening because of our wide Varity of living things on

earth.

o New species are always being discovered.

2. How biologists describe living things?

o They are organized systems made up of one or more cells.

o Unicellular = one cell Multicellular = 2 or more cells

o They metabolize matter and energy.

o They interact with their environment and are Homeostatic (able to stay the

same).

o They Grow and Develop.

o They reproduce themselves

o They adapt to their surroundings, physically and mentally

3. Why we classify things?

o We classify things because there are approx. 1.5 million different species and

plenty more to be found and they need to be organized to keep track of them.

So we put them in different groups.

4. Definitions of taxonomy & taxon (taxa)

Taxonomy: The science of naming organisms and assigning them to groups.

o “Taxon”omy – singular

o “Taxa “omy – Plural

5. Carolus Linnaeus and his system of binomial nomenclature.

o A Swedish botanist who developed the system that names plants and

animals. Binomial (Two names) Nomenclature (a system for naming)

o we still use this system now

o He gave each organism a two part name. (Genus and Species)

o Genus refers to the smaller group of organism; species is the Latin

description of the exact organism.

6. The seven Taxa.

-kingdom (kings)

-phylum (play)

-class (Canadians)

-order (on)

-family (Friday)

-genus (game)

-species (seven)

7. Why common names are not practical?

o Common names are not practical because 1. There are different species of

animals people may use different names for the same organism. Also

because, scientists use there latin name when describing them.

o They are not precise.

o They can give you misleading ideas from the basic characteristics of the

organisms.

8. What a dichotomous key is and how to use it?

o Also called identification keys.

o The key consists of a series of statements (or flow chart) that describe

organism characteristics eventually narrowing it down to one.

9. Where Viruses Fit?

o Viruses are non living. No cellular structure. No cytoplasm. No cell

membrane. No cellular respiration.

o They consist of strands of DNA & RNA surround by a coat of capsid.

o They cannot multiply by themselves. They infect a “host cell” and depend

on its metabolism of the cell to multiply the viral info. (T4 virus; lytic cycle)

10. Life cycle of T4.

o The “T4 virus” recognizes and attaches the T4 to the specific host.

o Stage of the life cycle.

a. Attachment.

b. Entry. Virus injects the nucleic acid.

c. Replication. Replicates the info.

d. Assembly. New particles are formed.

e. Lysis and release. The cell breaks open and releases the virus.

11. Why there are difficulties categorizing.

12. The six modern classification techniques.

1. Radioactive dating.

o fossils are dated either though finding there relative age or absolute age.

o Relative age: rock forms layers so the age of each layer can be determined

in relation. Oldest are at the bottom while youngest form at the top. This

gives a approximant age.

o Absolute age: a exact age of the fossil found through a radioactive isotope.

o Most commonly used: Carbon dating: C14 (to) C12

o Half life = 5730 years

o Useful range = 60, 000

2. Comparative Anatomy.

o Compares the anatomy of organism in common ancestry in three different

ways.

o Homologues structures: having a common ancestry but with different used

in different species.

o Analogues structures: body parts organisms that no not have a common

origin but similar functions.

o Vestigial organs: small or incomplete organs or bones that have no function

in one organism, but do in another. Example: human appendix

3. Comparative embryology

o compares embryos of organisms that can indicate common ancestry with

others.

4. Biochemical information

o comparing the biology of one species with another at a molecular level.

DNA & Proteins which indicate a common ancestry

5. Cellular structure

o studying the structure of cells which gives the evolutionary history.

6. Behaviour

o how organisms adapt and how they response to their environment

(behavioural adaptations)

13. The six kingdoms

Bacteria: most are unicellular, ALL prokaryotic cells, NO nervous system,

reproduce asexually, some are motile, go through photosynthesis for food

Archaea: Prokaryotic cells, absorb there food (heterotrophs), NO nervous system,

reproduce asexually, are NOT motile,

Fungi: Eukaryotic cells, most are multicellular, NO nervous system, reproduce

sexually and asexually, some are motile,

Protista: Eukaryotic cells, most unicellular, NO nervous system, reproduce

sexually and asexually, some are motile,

Planta: eukaryotic cells, Multicellular, go through photosynthesis, NO nervous

system, reproduce sexually and sexually, NOT motile

animilias: eukaryotic, NO cell wall, multicellular, ingest there food, HAVE a

nervous system, reproduce sexually, are motile (distinct at some point in their life

cycle)

14. Life cycles

1. E. Coli – page 134 figure 5.4 (Binary Fission)

2. Plasmodium vivax – page 146 figure 5.15 (Malaria)

3. Rhizopus stolonifera – page 154 figure 5.28 ( mould on bread)

15. Kingdom Plantae

o All plants compose there food through photosynthesis

Plants contain:

o cell walls composed of cellulose

o non- motile (don’t move)

o eukaryotic and multicellular

o chloroplast contain chlorophylls a, b and B-carotene

Vascular Plants a.k.a Tracheophytes

o Vascular tissue made up of xylem and phloem.

Xylem: carries water and mineral to leaves

Phloem: transports food synthesized in leaves

throughout the plant

- Vascular tissue: tissues that transport water and sugar through the

plant

- Posses true roots and stems and leaves

- Saprophyte: produces haploid spores through the process of

meiosis, which can develop without fertilization

- Gymnosperms and angiosperms do not depend on water, but ferns

and fern allies do.

- Reproduce with wind and insects to move the sperm to egg

Examples: ferns-whisk ferns, club mosses, forsetails

Gymnosperms-evergreen

Angiosperms-Deciduous trees, peas, roses

Non vascular plants a.k.a Bryophyta

-lack true roots, stems and leaves

- Small in size

-no internal support

-transport through diffusion

-Depend on water for the movement of sperm

-Gametophyte: haploid generation of a plant that produces male and

female gametes

-Reproduce: Depends on water for the movement of sperm , but

there is no protection for the egg

Example: mosses, liverworts

16. Why are angiosperms considered to be the most successful group of plants?

Because they grow and develop seeds that enclosed in a fruit.

Examples: trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses, vines, water plants, which all may have

inconspicuous flowers

17. life cycle of a fern

Page 173 figure 6.9

18. Kingdom animilias (zoology, the study of animnals)

-animals are multicellular and eukaryotic.

-consume and digest materials (heterotroph)

-most are motile at some point in life.

- There are Two types of animals: vertebrate and invertebrate.

Vertebrate: has a backbone

-there are 7 different characteristics of vertebrate

KNOW TABLE 4: VERTEBRATE WORKSHEET FOR ALL OF THEM!!

Invertebrate: Has no back bone

-There are 8 different Characteristic of the invertebrate

KNOW TABLE 3: INVERTEBRATE WORKSHEET FOR ALL THEM!!!

19. Why are arthropods sick a successful group of animals?

Because of their many adaptations allow them to inhabit a wide variety

of habitats.

They have:

1. Specific feeding structures

2. Small Body

3. Social Behaviours

4. A varity of appearances (camouflage)

5. Well developed nervous system

6. Specialized body segment (head)

7. An exoskeleton that provides protein

8. Short life cycle

19. Life cycle of a frog

Page 173 Figure 6.9

Germ Layer – All animals except for poriferans (sponges) and cnidarians (jellyfish,

hydra, and coral) have 3 germ layers of cells.

“Germ” refers to cells in the early stages of embryo development that will

develop into specialized tissues at a later stage.

o The 3 layers are:

Ectoderm – outer layer

Endoderm- inner layer

Mesoderm- middle layer

Example Humans

Ectoderm – skin, nerve tissue, and some sense organs.

Endoderm – produces the lungs, liver, pancreas, bladder, and stomach lining

Mesoderm – muscles, blood, kidneys and reproductive organs.