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Chapter No. 3 HISTORY OF VISUAL MERCHANDISING

3.1 - History of Visual Merchandising:

Visual Merchandising has been around since the dawn of civilization, since humans started

selling merchandise to a customer. When a vendor arranged his goods to be more attractive

for a customer, or when a farmer put the biggest and ripest apples on top of the basket for

consumers to see and touch, that is visual merchandising.

Sarah Marie (2008)122

lays down the history of visual merchandising in her article “A

history of visual merchandising in retail stores” as per her “In our current, consumer-

oriented culture, people do not shop merely to obtain items they need, but also to satisfy their

wants. Frequently, shopping does not even involve making a purchase. For consumers,

window-shopping has become a popular pastime. Visual merchandisers create "miniature

worlds" for merchandise in an effort to attract the attention of consumers, draw them into the

store and keep them coming back in the future. Despite the advanced techniques seen in

visual displays, visual merchandising is not a new concept or art. As early as the 18th

century,

merchandise was staged in interesting and unique arrangements to attract consumers”.

The Early Stores

Prior to the late 18th

century, when the contemporary methods of visual merchandising began

to evolve, store owners and managers cared little for the appearance of their stores and the

presentation of merchandise. Very little merchandise was displayed within the store. Rather,

a customer would enter the store and speak with the retailer, who would then present

merchandise that was kept in a back room. "Sales talk" and an ability to persuade were very

important in convincing a customer of the quality of a product and making a sale. The

evolution in store design brought about a new "process" of shopping. It was no longer a

verbal engagement between retailers and customers, but now a "sensory experience". The

first step in the evolution of store design occurred when small stores began to display their

merchandise openly to the public, instead of keeping it stored in back rooms. Eventually, the

deliberate displaying of goods became an important tool for retailers. What were once

122 Sarah Marie (2008), A history of visual merchandising in retail stores, retrieved 6th Oct 2012 from

http://hubpages.com/hub/A-History-of-Visual-Merchandising-in-Retail-Stores

136

unattractive stores that were not meant to visually appeal to consumers slowly became

exciting shopping venues.

The Development of Arcades

Arcades, or passages, were covered streets that were constructed using iron and glass.

Historically, they can be traced back to bazaars of the Arabian Peninsula and Asia Minor.

The experimentation with the second step in the evolution process occurred in Europe during

the beginning of the 19th

century with new materials greatly improved the aesthetic qualities

of the shops that were housed within the arcades. The main features of the arcades were their

glass skylights, which often stretched the entire length of the passageway. The skylights

created a completely enclosed, visually stimulating shopping environment.

Image – 3.1 – Grand exposition

The Establishment of the Grand Expositions

The establishment of the Grand Expositions marked the next advance in the evolution of store

design. The Grand Expositions, which began in London in 1851 with the Crystal Palace

Exposition, were originally meant to present and demonstrate new technology. The

exposition soon became huge, crowded fairs in which merchandise was displayed in exotic

and elaborate settings. The retailers learned that they would be more successful if they

displayed their merchandise openly and in a strategic manner to the public. They also

observed that it was better to not place objects directly on the floor, but rather on platforms or

pedestals - raising the merchandise closer to eye level. This emphasis on deliberately

displaying merchandise in a manner that would be pleasing for the consumer was an

important innovation in the development of visual merchandising. Displays were often

themed. For example, the 1899 Paris Exposition included a replica of a street in Cairo, Egypt,

137

complete with belly dancers. The retailers wanted the people coming into the exposition to

feel as if they had just stepped into another world.

Image – 3.2 – An example of departmental store of 19th

century

The Rise of the Department Store

The rise of the department store, or grand emporium, in the 19th

century brought more

changes in store design and visual displays. The early department stores continued with the

idea of displaying merchandise in elaborate and luxurious setting. Techniques that were

previously used in small dry goods stores, expositions, and arcades were experimented with,

and either used or rejected. The department stores of the 19th

century transformed the concept

of visual merchandising in four ways. In doing so, merchandise display was made one of the

most important aspects of the shopping experience.

The department stores were open every day, with the exception of religious holidays. The

second transformation that the early department stores made was in the use of luxurious store

interiors. By displaying ordinary commodities, such as a bolt of inexpensive cloth, in a

luxurious setting, these ordinary pieces of merchandise became signs of affluence and wealth.

The newly derived value came from staging the product in a luxurious environment. Despite

not selling luxury items, this method of visual display led customers to believe that average,

everyday products can also be the symbols of wealth and luxury.

Some owners in those enjoyed frequently "hiding" merchandise that customers purchased on

a regular basis, therefore encouraging them to search the entire store and, possibly, come

across merchandise that they did not originally intend to buy. Goods were also displayed in

large volumes. The potential for customers to want, buy, and spend more was great. By

displaying merchandise in large quantities, retailers made sure that the desires of the

consumer were never fulfilled. At this point in time, shortage and scarcity were still threats to

138

large portions of the population. The "endless" supplies in the department stores created a

symbolic meaning of surplus. Lastly, the department stores of the 19th

century continued and

perfected the use of themed displays, similar to those that were used in the World

Expositions. Also, merchandise was displayed in "real" scenes. For example, rather than

displaying a lamp on a shelf, it would be displayed in a replica of a living room, which would

include a mannequin family.

3.2 - The Evolution of Visual Merchandising

As per a research by Ken W. Parker123

(Centre for Social Change Research

Queensland University of Technology) on The Evolution of Visual Merchandising named

as “An Examination of Visual Merchandising in the Grand Emporiums (1846 – 1900)” puts a

bright light on the history and evolution of visual merchandising. According to him,

Contemporary techniques of visual merchandising began to evolve in retail establishments in

the 18th century. In small boutiques the first tentative steps were taken to display goods

openly to the public. Previously, retail outlets kept their visual display to a minimum.

Shopkeepers cared little for the outward appearance of their stores and only rarely presented

merchandise for consumers to view. Instead of displaying merchandise on fixtures retailers

would, upon the customers’ request, retrieve products hidden away inside cabinets or out of

drawers. Under these conditions ‘sales talk’ became vital to the selling process, as the retailer

relied on their ability to persuade the consumer that the merchandise in question was of

excellent quality.

However, this version of the development of visual merchandising has been challenged. In

contrast to Laermans (1993), Walsh (1999: 47-51) has called for a revision of retail history by

claiming that sophisticated and extravagant techniques of visual merchandising existed in the

18th century. Yet, although Walsh’s (1999) argument is quite persuasive a deeper analysis

highlights two potential flaws. Firstly, Walsh’s work only examined a small number of

London-based boutique stores whose retail practices may not have been indicative of general

pattens (Hilton, 2000). Secondly, the validity of Walsh’s research on use of images from a

small boutique store recorded in 1809 must be questioned. Walsh (1999) asserted that the

image demonstrated that the merchandise of stores prior to the grand emporiums was clearly

displayed for customers to view. However, the image used by Walsh in 1999 depicted a store

123 Ken W. Parker (Centre for Social Change Research Queensland University of Technology) on The Evolution

of Visual Merchandising named as “An Examination of Visual Merchandising in the Grand Emporiums (1846 –

1900)” retrieved 25th sept from proquest.

139

where every consumer pictured was stringently attended by a watchful salesperson. Here the

merchandise is not freely available for the consumer to browse but instead produced only

upon request. The images depicted in Walsh’s (1999) work are far removed from the

environment of free wandering and browsing encouraged later in the 19th-century department

stores. Nevertheless, through a gradual evolution in retailing ideology the interior

arrangement of stores and the deliberate displaying of goods became an integral tool for retail

managers. During this period of change, stores were slowly transformed from cluttered and

unattractive factory outlets to magnificent, exciting, and opulent shopping worlds, where

goods were not just displayed but celebrated in an environment of glass, steel, and iron.124

The second major step in the evolution of store design was the development of the Arcades

or passages predominantly in Europe during the first part of the 19th century. The arcades

were covered streets or boulevards that can be traced historically to the exotic bazaars of Asia

Minor and the Arabian Peninsula. Yet, what made the European arcades of the 19th century

critical to the development of store interiors were their experiments with iron and glass

construction, which dramatically improved the aesthetic qualities of small boutique shops that

they housed. The central features of the arcades were their glass skylights, which in their

most spectacular form covered the entire length of the passage. Although incredibly

expensive and fraught with technical difficulties, the glass skylights provided the arcades

with a fully enclosed, comfortable shopping space and a very beautiful, even dazzling

consumption site. However despite the incredible adornments outside the visual delights

presented by the arcades did not extend into the boutiques that they contained. In most cases

the internal arrangements of the stores progressed little from earlier incarnations. As such, the

arcades became more associated with the strolling observer, the flaneur, a figure made

famous in the writings of French poet Charles Baudelaire125

The third advance in visual merchandising occurred following the establishment of Grand

Expositions, which began with the Crystal Palace exposition of London in 1851. Although

originally intended to demonstrate new technology, the expositions soon became huge fairs,

where goods were exhibited in elaborate and often exotic Surroundings126

. The sensory

124

Walsh, C. (1999) 'The Newness of the Department Store: journal -A View from the Eighteenth

Century. Retrieved 25th oct 2012 from proquest. 125

Benjamin, W. (1989) Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet In The Era Of High

Capitalism. New York: Verso Publishers.

Benjamin, W. (1999) The Arcades Project. Cambridge, London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University press

retrieved 15th oct 2012 from proquest 126

Williams, R. (1982) Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth - Century

France. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Retrieved 15th sept from proquest.

140

bombardment that became the hallmark of expositions commenced as soon as the public

approached the exposition, the entrances to the expositions were spectacular and dramatic,

inside the gates of the exposition the sensory delights continued with monuments, fountains,

and marble statues lining the exposition floor’s interior. The Grand Exposition’s contained,

Hindu temples, savage huts, pagodas, souks, Algerian alleys, Chinese, Japanese, Sudanese,

Sengalese, Siamese, Cambodian quarters. It was a bazaar of climates, architectural styles,

smells, colours, cuisine, and music. However, even most significantly, the retailers of the

expositions learned that sales were increased when their products were openly and

strategically displayed to the public. The best exhibits make use of two quite distinct

systems: display under glass or open display. The idea of placing goods where people could

view them easily was a major innovation in the development of visual merchandising because

it placed an emphasis on the staging of goods in extravagant and exciting displays to increase

the appeal of the merchandise. Following the developments of the expositions consumers

expected to be presented with a bounty of visual pleasures every time they entered a retail

outlet. For consumers, stores now had to stimulate and excite them as well as provide the

basic necessities for life. Finally, while visual merchandising may not have been an invention

of the 19th-century department stores, the grand emporiums embraced the idea of staging

goods in luxurious and astonishing environments like no other retail institution.

3.3 - History of Visual Merchandising- Departmental stores: The reason Visual

Merchandisers exists today has to do with the “invention” of the Department Store, and not

the little general merchandise store. Visual Merchandising exists because one man had the

foresight to take all the general merchandise and stick it under one roof.

Aristide Boucicaut came up with the idea of creating a

store that sold all sorts of merchandise, attracted crowds,

and would allow people to wander freely about; “a town

within a town”. In 1838 he opened Le Bon Marché, in

Paris – but it became the world’s first department store

because of his innovation with distribution of goods in

1852.

Image – 3.3 – Le Bon Marche-Departmental store 1838

141

It wasn’t long before this idea caught on overseas and others followed in soon:

Macy’s, New York in 1858

Marshall Fields, Chicago in 1865

Bloomingdale’s, New York in 1872

Wanamaker, Philadelphia in 1876

Aristide Boucicaut may have come up with the “town within a town”

idea, but it was American entrepreneur Gordon Selfridge who

revolutionized it! Gordon Selfridge took what he had learned from

working at Marshall Fields and applied it to his own store which he

opened in London, a place where the department store concept had not

yet caught on; Selfridges opened on March 15, 1909 for $700,000. He

is credited with coming up with the phrase “Only shopping days until

Christmas”, leaving the lights in the store window on at night, and

adding a soda fountain.127

( source: Visual Merchandising, by Tony Morgan)

A window display from Selfridges in the 1920s: Even then displays weren’t only about the

merchandise but in creating a whole elaborate scene reflective of the times. Moreover, the

early department stores did not just copy previous techniques from the dry goods stores,

arcades, and expositions, but instead transformed the concept of visual merchandising in four

distinct ways making the display of merchandise one of the most integral components of the

shopping experience.

Firstly, the early department stores made the techniques of visual display introduced by the

World Expositions a normal part of shopping. Although incredible, the World Expositions

were irregular events, only occurring every few years in a handful of major metropolises

across Europe and later in the United States. In contrast, the grand emporiums operated

virtually every day of the year, only stopping for religious holidays. Following the evolution

of the early department stores, consumers experienced the sensory delights found in the

exposition every time they went shopping. While still remaining a fabulous and astonishing

experience, shopping in the fantastic world created by the early department stores became the

127 Visual Merchandising by Tony Morgan

142

normal form of consumption for many people in the 19th century. Secondly, the early

department stores used incredible and luxurious store interiors that exceeded those of even

the most opulent arcade. Like the arcades before them, the 19th-century department stores

created an extraordinary consumption site by experimenting with glass roofing, creating

unusual effects with natural light, and incorporating the ‘outdoors in the indoors128

.’ The

experiments in glass and iron construction created a truly amazing consumption space, as

Miller described in the case of Paris’ Bon Marche, 11‘the iron columns and expanse of glass

provided a sense of space, openness and light. Immense gallery opened upon immense

gallery, and along the upper floors ran balconies from which one could view, as a spectator

the crowds and activity below.’ Huge chandeliers hung from the ceiling, while marble tiles or

oriental carpets often covered the floor.

The early retail giants presented a stately and even regal image, as a statement by one

observer, recorded by Williams (1982: 93), demonstrated, ‘On entering Durayel’s store by

the principle door, it seems as though you are entering a palace rather than a shop.’ Indeed,

Miller (1981: 168) in describing the interior of the Bon Marche, provided a more detailed

account of the opulence of the stores, ‘everywhere merchandise formed a decorative motif

conveying an exceptional quality to the goods themselves. Silks cascaded from the walls of

the silk gallery, ribbons were strung above the halls of ribbons, and umbrellas were draped

full blown in a parade of hues and designs. Oriental rugs, rich and textural, hung from

balconies for the spectators below.’

Thirdly, the 19th-century department stores perfected the use of chaotic and excessive

displays of merchandise. Moreover, in an act that at first seems counterproductive, the Bon

Marche’s owner Aristide Boucicaut is said to have enjoyed ‘hiding’ popular goods in

unexpected departments to encourage shoppers to search the entire width and breadth of his

gigantic store to find the products that they desired. By presenting commodities in massive

quantities, department storeowners like Boucicaut and Wanamaker indicated to consumers

that the emporiums’ supplies were virtually endless.

Finally, the 19th-century department stores continued and refined the use of special and often

exotic themed displays, which had originally been employed in the World Expositions. In

many cases, the merchandise of the 19th-century department stores was not simply presented

to potential consumers on fixtures. Instead, the emporiums’ goods were grouped together in

128

Hendrickson, R. (1979) The Grand Emporiums: The Illustrated History of America's

Great Department Stores. New York journal retrieved 12th sept 2012 from proquest.

143

‘real’ scenes. For example, a saucepan would not be displayed on its own, but placed within a

context by exhibiting it in a replica kitchen complete with a mannequin family. Perhaps the

most impressive themed display conducted by any of the 19th-century department stores was

the Bon Marche’s legendary ‘white sales’. In these understandably infrequent events, the

entire store was festooned in white. All merchandise that was not white was temporarily

removed and as Miller explained, replaced by, ‘White sheets, white towels, white curtains,

white flowers, all forming a single blanc motif that covered even stairways and balconies.

The transformation in store architecture and merchandising, which had been initialized by the

arcades and World Expositions and expanded by the early department stores, changed

consumption into a visual pursuit.

After the evolution in store design, shopping was no longer a verbal engagement between

merchants and customers contesting the value and quality of goods. Instead, buying was

transformed into a sensory experience and became an entirely new social practice. Indeed, as

per Marx (1990) “it is reasonable to assert that the advances in store architecture and visual

merchandising that occurred in the 19th-century department store transformed, the means of

consumption”

3.4 - History of Visual Merchandising –Today

Today displays in museums are referred to as exhibitions, while displays in stores are referred

to as "Visual Merchandising. Essentially, visual merchandising is the selling of a store's

goods through visual means, incorporating advertising, and window displays, and interior

sales floor design and display. Throughout the twentieth century, well-known artists such as

Salvador Dalí and Andy Warhol created window displays, while other artists who are lesser

known were commissioned to design unique objects specifically for visual merchandising

purposes.

1. Sell by showing and promoting the product. 2. Create an emotional connect between the

viewer and the display. 3. Encourage the shopper to enter the store. 4. Get the customer to

pause and “shop” the selling floor. 5. Establish, promote, and enhance the store’s visual

image. 6. Entertain customers and enhance their shopping experience. 7. Introduce and

explain new products.

The role of visual merchandising is an ever changing one. Just as brands exist within a store,

the stores themselves have become brands. The customers don’t expect to see the same

merchandise at shoppers stop as one would at Life style. This is important for the visual

144

merchandiser because he is given the task of communicating the store’s image through the

displays. And this is becoming harder visual merchandisers to do. Why? Because they are

being faced with unprecedented competition. Retailers are under a lot of pressure to attract

and keep customers coming into their stores when shopping from home has become so

convenient and price competitive. Visual merchandisers are key in attracting and keeping a

customer’s attention. Luckily online shopping is still not very popular in India as shopping is

a social activity and many people do like to go out just to see what’s new! We have come a

long way from stock piling a table in front of the store with goods, to having live models

posing in windows. Creativity and innovation continue to push the boundaries in retail field.

Here are some things customers might see today:

DJ spinning music or a house band

Café or bistro as part of the store

Lounge areas for perusing look books and sipping champagne

Plasma TVs showing latest catwalk show

Mannequins and glossy photographs of supermodels

Improvements in technology and with major fashion houses having unlimited budgets,

window dressing have grown into massive productions of display. If we talk about Visual

Merchandising in context with store fronts. Years ago it was not uncommon for the store

owner to just display their wares on tables in front of the store to lure in customers. Many

still do that today! Windows were small back then as glass was not a ready-made nor easily

available product; that all changed in the 1840s – glass could be mass-produced. This had a

profound effect on the building industry.

Image 3.4 An example of store front -

1934

Image- 3.5 -An example of store front –today

145

The store windows no longer simply allowed natural light to shine in the building or act as

storage space for stock; they became important venues to attractively display the store's

merchandise. Gradually, the design aesthetic used in window displays moved indoors and

became part of the overall interior store design

3.5 - HISTORY OF COSMETICS AND PERFUMES

3.5.1 - INTRODUCTION

Cosmetics are products that are created for application on the body for the purpose of

cleansing, beautifying or altering appearance and enhancing attractive features. Cosmetics are

not the same thing as medicines and cosmetics cannot be used to alter a body’s functions or

performance.

The word “Cosmetic “ is rather broad term targeted towards many market sectors, its

dictionary definition is; “ A Powder , lotion, lipstick, rough, or other preparation for

beautifying the face, skin, hair, nails, etc.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which regulates cosmetics in the United

States defines cosmetics as “ intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing,

beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body’s

structure or functions. FDA specifically excludes soap from this category129

With growing ecological and health awareness, modern cosmetics are available in the form of

organic cosmetics, mineral cosmetics and even environmentally friendly cosmetics. The

Indian cosmetics industry includes a long list of cosmetic products buyers, importers,

wholesalers, distributors and manufacturers.

Beauty cosmetic s and toiletries like skin creams and lotions, Perfumes, lipsticks and lip

gloss, nail varnish, deodorants and eye and face make-up products like lip balm, lip liner,

lipstick, lip gloss, lip conditioner, lip boosters, foundation, concealer, blush or blusher,

mascara, eye liner, eye shadow, eye shimmer, glitter eye pencils, eyebrow pencilsproducts

that are manufactured in India include an extensive range of make-up cosmetic, creams,

waxes, gels, nail polish etc.

Cosmetics can be described by the form of the products, as well as the area for application.

Cosmetics can be liquid or cream emulsions: powders both pressed and loose. Also included

in the general category of cosmetics are skin care products which include creams and lotions

129 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) retrieved 16 march 2012 from

http://wapedia.mobi/en/Cosmetics?t=7

146

to moisturize the face and body for e.g. sunscreens, skin lighteners or treatment products to

repair or hide skin imperfections (acne, wrinkles, dark circles under eyes, etc.)

The Indian cosmetics and perfumes Industry

The Indian cosmetics Industry have witnessed rapid growth over the last couple of decades.

Today the range of cosmetics, perfumes and beauty products in India has widened

tremendously. Beauty products manufacturer in India mostly cater to the great demand for

cosmetics and perfumes that fall into low or medium economically priced categories.

However in recent years in Indian competitors have begun to manufacture cosmetics and

perfumes to cater to an international need. For instance, herbal cosmetic from India have a

great demand in the overseas market. Many cosmetic products that are manufactured in India

today are supplied to international suppliers of branded cosmetics products like The Body

Shop. 130

Rise of Indian Cosmetic Market:

The Indian cosmetics industry, which witnessed a strong growth in the recent years, has

emerged as one of the markets holding immense growth potential. With the rising beauty

concerns among both men and women, the Indian cosmetics sector would continue to expand

remarkably in near future. New product launches catering to consumers' growing

requirements would fuel growth in the industry, for which the future outlook seems

exceptionally bright.

According to our new research report131

"Indian Cosmetic Sector Analysis (2009-2012)",

the Indian cosmetics sector industry holds promising growth prospects for both existing and

new players. In 2010, the industry registered impressive sales worth INR 288.7 Billion (US$

5.8 Billion). Rising purchasing power and fashion consciousness have been driving the

sector, wherein the players are investing heavily into promotional activities to increase

consumer awareness. With these, the Indian cosmetic industry is estimated to grow at a

CAGR of around 22% during 2011-2014. It is estimated that the Indian beauty market is

worth more than US $9 million (approx) and is rising at 20% a year, twice as fast as the US

and Europe markets. The segment that offers the highest competition is the cosmetic

130 Cosmetics and perfumes, retrieved 15 Oct 2012 from http://www.cosmetics.co.in/india-and-cosmetics.html 131 Industry research solutions (April 2011) Indian cosmetics sector analysis 2009-12 , retrieved 15 oct 2012

from http://www.rncos.com/Report/IM192.htm

147

segment, which has multinational players such as J.L. Morrison, Ponds, Unilever and

Colgate-Palmolive. The increasing demand in the Cosmetic Industry has led to many

international brands e.g. Maybelline & Revelon, Avon and L’oreal have entered the Indian

market. 132

New facts that have unveiled by a series of Cosmetics business market analysis

India reveal that many international companies are now outsourcing cosmetics to India and

that the industry of cosmetic products is growing at an average rate of almost twenty percent

annually. The Indian Cosmetic Industry is also passing through a very active phase in terms

of product development and marketing. Indian consumers are moving towards more

advanced and specialized cosmetic items. The increase in demand for more advanced and

specialized cosmetic is attributed to factors such as:

Increase in the demand by Indian consumers for Cost-effective products

Increased purchasing power of the average Indian.

Increase in disposable income levels

Enhanced aspirations among rural consumers.

Changing lifestyle in the booming middle class

Fast growing base of youth with a high inclination to self-indulge.

Pervasive media and rising westernization.

These factors have awakened the consciousness of the Indian consumers to proactively seek

health and beauty offerings to look and feel good. Specially growing media and

westernization influence is stimulating awareness of personal hygiene as well as beauty

consciousness, enhancing the adoption and frequency of usage of Cosmetics and

Fragrances. Today people have learned to adapt cosmetics and perfumes as an essential part

of daily grooming, with all the billions of rupees spent every year not only in India but

worldwide on Cosmetics and Perfumes. To answer the biggest question i.e. When did it

became a norm for people who wake up every morning and even before they leave the door

of their house get to paint their face from top to bottom? And To understand how things got

to this point and as we all know that make up is not a modern social norm, but the practice of

cosmetics is really an old concept. Here is some history of cosmetics and perfumes.

132 History of cosmetics , retrieved 16th august 2012 from http://cosmetics.indianetzone.com/1/history-

cosmetics.htm

148

3.5.2 - History of Cosmetics

Image – 3.6 -Nefertiti bust with

eyeliner applied: Source;

http://wapedia.mobi/en/Cosmetics?t=7

The word ‘Cosmetac’ was first used to

describe Roman slaves whose function was to

bathe men and women in perfume. In Egypt as

early as 10,000 BC, men and women used

scented oil and ointments to clean and soften

their skin and mask body odor. Dyes and paints

were used to color the skin, body and hair. The

first archaeological evidence of cosmetic usage

was found in Egypt around 3500 B.C during

the Ancient Egypt time with some of royalty

owing make up.133

(Such as the above example

of Nefertiti bust with eye liner applied)

The Ancient Greeks and Romans also used Cosmetics. Cosmetics and Perfumes were

inherent part of Egyptian hygiene and health. Oils and creams were used for protection

against hot Egyptian sun and dry winds. Myrrh, thyme, marjoram, chamomile, lavender, lily,

peppermint, rosemary, cedar, rose, aloe, olive oil, seasame oil and almond oil provided the

basic ingredients of most perfumes that were used in religious rituals.

The ancient Egyptians took great pride in their appearance and cleanliness. Most Egyptians

bathed daily in the river or out of a water basin at home. Wealthy homes had a bathroom

where servants would pour jugs of water over their masters (equivalent to a modern day

shower). The runoff was drained though a pipe to water the garden. A cleansing cream made

of animal or vegetable oil mixed with powered lime and perfume was used instead of soap.

People rubbed themselves daily with perfumed unguent oil that had been soaked in scented

wood. The mixture was left in a pot until the oil absorbed the wood scent. Perfumed oil was

used to prevent the skin from drying out in the harsh climate. At parties, servants would place

a cone of perfumed grease on the head of each guest. The grease had a cooling effect as it

melted and ran down the faces of each guest. Everyone, regardless of age or gender, wore

makeup. Highly polished silver and copper mirrors aided the application of makeup.

133 History of cosmetics and perfumes, retrieved 16th Sept 2012 from http://wapedia.mobi/en/Cosmetics?t=7

149

Beautiful smells were essential to the Egyptian belief that “cleanliness is godliness.

“Egyptians had learnt the art to distill essential oils thousands of years ago. The Egyptian

science of perfumery eroded over the centuries “until its final rupture in the Middle Ages.”

“Smell” was incomprehensibly fundamental in Egyptian society and perfumery began as a

secret art in Egypt that was perfected by 2500 BC.

The function of perfumery was to achieve spiritual rather than physical perfection by

perfecting the physical, emotional and mental aspects of human existence. Perfumes made the

body function perfectly. Ra, the Sun God, was the source of all smell. Under Egyptian belief,

"to smell beautifully was a sign of holiness," and only perfect-smelling persons would be

received by the gods when they died. Egyptian priests discovered the true power of oils and

believed that certain types of perfumes could add to one's personal power It was believed that

the spiritual essence of plants had healing qualities and supernatural power; the embodiment

of the plant's healing spirit, rather than the plant's chemistry made the extraction process and

the oil sacred. The seven sacred oils used for mummification were The Festival Perfume,

Hekenu, The Syrian Balsam, Nechenem, Anointing Oil, The Best Cedar Oil and The Best

Libyan Oil. These oils also formed the foundation of ritual Egyptian magic. The most famous

Egyptian fragrance, kyphi, meaning "welcome to the gods," was said to induce hypnotic

states.

Few evidences of cosmetic usage have been found in China around 3000 BC. Chinese people

began to stain their fingernails with gum arabic, gelatin, beeswax and egg. The colors used

represented social class. The Chinese used one word to represent perfume, incense and

fragrance. That word was heang. Heang was divided into six aesthetic moods: Tranquil,

reclusive, luxurious, beautiful, refined or noble. (Keville, Green) The Chinese upper classes

made lavish use of fragrance during the T'ang dynasties that began in the 7 th

century AD and

continued until the end of the Ming dynasty in the 17 th

century. Their bodies, baths, clothing,

homes and temples were all richly scented, as was ink, paper, cosmetics and sachets tucked

into their garments. China imported jasmine-scented sesame oil, cloves, gum benzoin, ginger,

nutmeg and patchouli - from and through India.

Cosmetics were used in Persia and what is today the Middle East from ancient periods. After

Arab tribes converted to Islam and conquered those areas, in some areas cosmetics were only

restricted if they were to disguise the real look in order to mislead or cause uncontrolled

desire. All branches of Islam set a number of thumb rules relating to purity and cleanliness,

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whether in its physical or spiritual form. For some branches, the general rule is outlined by

the Quran, "For Allah loves those who turn to Him constantly and He loves those who keep

themselves pure and clean." Muhammad also declared, "Allah is Beautiful and He loves

beauty." On the other hand, some fundamentalist branches of Islam forbid the use of

cosmetics. An early cosmetologist was the physician Abu'al-Qassim al-Zahrawi1, or

Abulcassis (936-1013 AD), who wrote the medical encyclopedia Al-Tasreef in 30 volumes.

Chapter 19 was devoted to cosmetics.

Al- Zahrawi considered cosmetics a branch of medicine, which he called Medicine of Beauty

(Adwiyat al-Zinah). He dealt with perfumes, scented aromatics and incense. There were

perfumed stocks rolled and pressed in special moulds, perhaps the earliest antecedents of the

present day lipsticks and solid deodorants. He used oily substance called Adhan for

medication and beautification.

Henna

has been used in India since around the 4 th

or 5 th

centuries. It is used either as a hair

dye or in the art of mehndi. Women in India did not use soap either but instead used a

turmeric germicidal cream and the treatment composed of gram flour or wheat husk mixed

with milk. The wheat husk would remove dead cell tissue. On festive occasions, special

bathing cosmetics in the form of Ubton are widely used in India, even today. The turmeric

preparations are used by newly married brides during their wedding. The present form is

cosmetic preparations containing turmeric, almonds, sandal, etc. Apart from cosmetic

fragrances, they provide good antiseptic properties.

India was famous in the earlier days for using Itra, similar to the modern scents marketed by

various companies, but was in a concentrated form. These were made from various Indian

flowers' fragrances. These are popularly used during festive occasions.

In his article, "Cosmetics and Perfumes", R. T. Vyas, states that in ancient times cosmetics

and perfumes were limited to the use of flower-garlands and gandha, sandal-paste to beautify

the persons of gods and humans. The word sugandhi, well perfumed, is used twice in the

Rigveda. Similar expressions involving the use of the word gandha are also found in

Taittiriya Samhita, Maitrayani samhita and Taittiriya Aranyaka.134

134 History of Technology in India. Bag, A. K. (Ed.) 1997. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. by

D.P. Agrawal and Lalit Tiwari

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The use of kohl or kajal has a long history in the Hindu culture. The use of traditional

preparations of kohl on children and adults was considered to have health benefits.

In Japan, lipstick made of crushed safflower petals was used to paint the eyebrows and edges

of the eyes and the lips, whereas rice powder was used to color the face and back. Sometimes

bird droppings were also used to compile a lighter color. Even today, skin whitening

continues to represent the ideal of beauty.

European men and women often attempted to lighten their skin directly or used white powder

on their skin to look more aristocratic. A variety of products were used, including white lead

paint.

Queen Elizabeth I of England was one well-known user of white lead with which she created

a look known as "the Mask of Youth." Portraits of the queen by Nicholas Hilliard from later

in her reign are illustrative of her influential style. Some Native American tribes painted their

faces for ceremonial events or battle.

During the early years of the 20th

century, makeup became fashionable in the United States of

America and Europe owing to the influence of ballet and theatre stars. But the most

influential new development of all was that of the movie industry in Hollywood. In1900,

black entrepreneur Annie Turnbo began selling hair treatments, including non-damaging hair

straighteners, hair growers and hair conditioners door-to-door. In Los Angeles, Max Factor

started selling makeup to movie stars in 1904. Modern synthetic hair dye was invented in

1907 by Eugene Schueller, founder of L’Oreal. He also invented sunscreen in 1936. In 1914,

T J Williams founded Maybelline, the specialized mascara manufacturing company. After the

First World War, the flapper look came into fashion for the first time and with it came

cosmetics: Dark eyes, red lipstick, red nail polish and the suntan, invented as a fashion

statement by Coco Chanel.

Lipstick was introduced in 1915 in cylindrical metal tubes. In 1922, the bobby pin was

invented to manage short (bobbed) hair. In 1932, Charles and Joseph Revson, nail polish

distributors, and Charles Lackman, a nail polish supplier, founded Revlon, which sells nail

polish in a wide variety of colors.

In 1935, pan- cake makeup, originally developed to look natural on color film, was created by

Max Factor. Aerosols were patented in 1941, paving the way for hair spray. In 1944, a Miami

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Beach pharmacist, Benjamin Green, developed sunscreen to protect soldiers in the South

Pacific. Lawrence Gelb, in 1950, introduced Miss Clairol Hair Color Bath, a one-step hair

coloring product. Roll-on deodorant was launched in 1952 and mascara wands debuted in

1958.

In 1963, Revlon offered the first powdered blush-on. Aerosol deodorants were introduced in

1965 so full and so on.

3.5.3 - Benefits of Cosmetics

Cosmetics are regarded as a means of improving the complexion and beautifying the skin and

overall look. The skin creams and lotions can be used to deep-cleanse the skin. It the skin

pores are blocked, it may lead to infection and acne formation. The cleansing products

thoroughly cleanse the skin and remove any dirt or microorganisms. After cleansing, one

needs to moisturize the skin. Moisturizers are applied to prevent drying of the skin and keep

it smooth and radiant. Moisturizers are applied to prevent drying of the skin and keep it

smooth and radiant. Moisturizers also offer an excellent protection against sun rays and cold

winds. Moisturizers act as a lubricating agent and they are essential for the people with dry.

People with oily skin use oil-free moisturizers.

There are special sun-protection creams/lotions that can protect skin from the harmful UV

rays of the sun. These creams minimize the risk of skin cancer that results from exposure to

sun rays. There are special body lotions, which keep the skin of legs and hands smooth in

addition to the facial skin.

There are several skin care products that can improve one’s complexion. Many cosmetics

consists of vitamins such as A, D, E, K. These vitamins are essential for healthy skin and

hair. Top cope up with body odor one can use perfumes and deodorants and fell fresh and

cheerful whole day. A large variety of shampoos and conditioners are available, which keep

the hair clean, soft and silky.

Cosmetics are used not only for skin care but also to treat skin problems. If someone has dark

spots or pimples on the face, then they can hide them using certain products such as

concealer. Even the shape of the face, chin or nose can be temporarily changed with the help

of make-up. One can also cover the dark circles and wrinkles using anti-ageing creams and

eye makeup. One can enjoy the eyes of different colors by using contact lenses. Nails look

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beautiful and attractive due to beautiful nail colors. One can give favorite color to the hair by

using different hair colors and hair dyes. That provides a sensational and unusual look.

Cosmetics can bring about a huge change in ones’ personality. However, one needs to be

careful and cautious while using the same so that there is no harm or skin allergy.

3.5.4 - Top Ten Cosmetic Brands in India.

The Indian cosmetics industry has seen strong growth over the past few years and emerged as

one of the industries holding huge potential for further growth. The sector has mainly been

driven by improving purchasing power and rising fashion consciousness of the Indian

population. The potential for this industry is tremendous as Indian women are only just

opening up to the use of various cosmetic products. The make-up industry in this country is

still, therefore at a budding stage. Overseas however, there is a great demand for new-age

permanent makeup products as well as for healthier alternatives to cosmetic products with

potent chemical components like mineral makeup and organic make-up. There are a number

of leading cosmetic brands in India which are the first choice of ladies.

LAKME

Lakmé is an Indian brand of cosmetics, owned by Unilever.Lakme started as a 100%

subsidiary of Tata Oil Mills (Tomco), part of the Tata Group; it was named after the French

opera Lakmé, which itself is the French form of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, also

renowned for her beauty. Indian cosmet Lakme was started in 1952, famously because the

then Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was concerned that Indian women were spending

precious foreign exchange on beauty products, and personally requested JRD Tata to

manufacture them in India. Lakme is a highly praised and loved cosmetic brand in India. It is

highly popular amongst girls and ladies and is appreciated specially for its wide range of

cosmetics. Lakme is catering to the Indian cosmetics society through its wide range of

product, with continuous up gradations and innovations. Lakme in India is almost half a

century old. With all the innovations, Lakme has grown to be the market leader in the

cosmetics industry in India and especially in Mumbai. The major Indian fashion event,

Lakme Fashion Week, has Lakme as its major sponsor. The Lakme India Fashion Week is

the biggest Indian fashion event as far as Indian fashion designers are concerned. With a

unique blend of understanding of women of all ages today, Lakme is setting trends and

dominating the fashion arena.

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REVLON

Revlon is an American cosmetics, skin care, fragrance, and personal care company founded

in 1932.The three founders of Revlon started with a single product – special nail enamel but

later they pooled their resources and developed a unique manufacturing process. Using

pigments instead of dyes, Revlon developed a variety of new shades of opaque nail enamel.

In six years the company became a multimillion dollar organization. By 1940, Revlon offered

an entire manicure line, and added lipstick to the collection. Revlon is a world leader in

cosmetics, skin care, fragrance and personal care and is leading mass market cosmetics brand.

In 1940’s Revlon listed itself as one of America’s top five cosmetic houses. In 1950, Revlon

introduced a red lipstick and nail enamel called “Where’s the Fire?” Today Revlon is a highly

praised and loved cosmetic brand in India. It is highly popular amongst girls and ladies and is

appreciated specially for its wide range of cosmetics.

ORIFLAME

Oriflame Cosmetics S.A. (Luxembourg) is a cosmetics group, founded in 1967 in Sweden by

the brothers Jonas af Jochnick and Robert af Jochnick. The company sells skin care, cosmetic

products and other related products through an independent sales force of over 3 million

people. Oriflame sells their products through a direct selling force. Their direct selling force

earns commission off all sales they personally make, and may also invite others to work with

Oriflame, earning a commission of the sales of teams they develop.

LOREAL

The L’Oréal Group is the world’s largest cosmetics and Beauty Company. With its registered

office in Paris and head office in the Paris suburb of Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine, France, it has

developed activities in the field of cosmetics. Concentrating on hair colour, skin care, sun

protection, make-up, perfumes and hair care, the company is active in the dermatological and

pharmaceutical fields and is the top nanotechnology patent-holder in the United States.

Loreal has been built around fundamental values which have guided us throughout the life of

our company, and continue to do so today. Our values have shaped our culture, and they

underpin our reputation.

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CHAMBOR

The Chambor cosmetic line is a blend of the finest traditions. In terms of radiant color, soft

texture and skin accentuator, Chambor has never failed to satisfy the consumer demands. It

has been retailing at selected counters since 1994 across India. Developing quality solutions

keeping in mind the requirements of a “feminine face” is their primary goal. The Chambor

line of colour cosmetics incorporates the finest traditions. Beauty secrets are developed as

quality solutions for the essential aspects of the feminine face – the radiance and the glow.

The Chambor woman has the unique ability to leave her imprint on the world around her. She

seeks perfection in whatever she does, so who can turn to but Chambor, to bring out her

inherent beauty.

MAYBELLINE

Maybelline is a makeup brand sold worldwide and owned by L’Oréal. Their motto is Maybe

she’s born with it. Maybe it’s Maybelline. The Maybelline Company was created by New

York chemist T.L. Williams in 1915. Williams, then in his early 20s, noticed his younger

sister applying a mixture of Vaseline and coal dust to her eyelashes to give them a darker,

fuller look. The company was acquired by L’Oréal in 1996. The Maybelline Company had its

beginning in 1913 and is a brainchild of New York based chemist T.L. Williams. There is a

very simple and inspiring story behind the emergence of Maybelline. Maybelline received a

new lease of life when the company hired Lynda Carter as the company’s coordinator for

beauty and fashion. At present, Maybelline products are endorsed by supermodels Christy

Turlington, Josie Maran, Erin Wasson, Adriana Lima, only to name a few.

AVON

Avon Products, Inc. is a US cosmetics, perfume and toy seller with markets in over 140

countries across the world. Avon Products is a multi-level marketing company. The company

was founded in 1886 by then 28-year-old David H. McConnell who sold books door-to-door

and gave out perfume to entice women to buy his books. Avon is one of the leading cosmetic

brands in India and is highly praised and loved by women for its quality and range of

products.

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MAC

Make-up Art Cosmetics, better known as MAC Cosmetics, is a manufacturer of

cosmetics.MAC Cosmetics was founded in Toronto, Canada by Frank Toskan and Frank

Angelo in 1984. The first U.S MAC store opened in 1991, located at Greenwich Village,

New York. The company’s products were originally designed specifically for professional

make-up artists, but are now sold to consumers worldwide. The MAC PRO Program is

provided to professionals in the industry. An annual fee must be paid for this service. MAC

Cosmetics is one of the most popular cosmetics companies in the world. MAC regularly

releases special limited edition collections and also creates some of the most popular

cosmetics products around.

COLOR BAR

Color Bar cosmetics are one of the leading brands of color cosmetics in India. The product

range has been developed with the promise of providing our consumers world class

innovative products in a wide range of colors. The inspiration of Color Bar is the millennium

woman who believes in expressing her many moods and desires through the variety of colors

she adorns. Color Bar products have international formulations and packaging with a

premium appeal. Color Bar has been developed with the philosophy to provide the customers

with innovative high quality products at attractive prices and widest range of colors.

Extensive research and study on the needs and liking of the consumers globally has gone into

creating the packaging for the products.

STREET WEAR

A young, funky and hip brand, Street Wear, globally is positioned at the young and trendy

shopper and the range consists of about 30 SKUs covering categories like nail enamel,

lipsticks, lip gloss, face make-up kits and eye shadows. Street Wear The brand says: It is not

tested on animals. Street Wear is one of the leading cosmetic brands in India and is highly

praised and loved by women for its quality and range of products. With the emerging fashion

and beauty consciousness amongst the ladies and girls of India, Street Wear is gaining

popularity.135

135 Top ten brands of cosmetics in India, retrieved 18th Sept 2012 from http://infobhsrti.com/indias-top-10/top10-

cosmetics-brandsin-india.php

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3.5.5 - INTRODUCTION OF PERFUMES

Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oil and aroma compounds, fixatives, and

solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell.

Perfume is associated in many cultures with the sensual and romantic side of life.

Perfumes are an element of cosmetics. Perfumes have traditional importance and cultural

values worldwide. Perfume has become an intrinsic part of our daily lives; It is a part of our

identity. Wearing perfume gives pleasure, not only because it smells nice, but also because

Perfume creates an aura around the wearer that expresses something he/she wishes to convey

about his/her personality. We all like to smell good and try on a lot of perfumes before we

find the one that fits our mood. It’s very true that fragrance control out emotions. Different

scents affect us differently. Perfumes can set the mood not only in romantic way, but in a

peaceful way as well. There are some scents designed to produce a tranquil effect, a calming

and soothing feeling. The importance of perfume has become wide spread, and it’s found in

about everything we buy. We always sense the different smell sensations around us for e.g.

the invigorating shower gel, the familiarity of a personal perfume, the fresh-washed smell of

just washed clothes, the citrus tang of the dish-wash liquid, the relaxing night massage oil or

night massage cream, the room freshener etc. People are essentially visually oriented, and

dependent on sight and sound to gather information from the surroundings." Smell" however

is an extraordinary sense, closely linked to the limbic system (seat of emotions and the

functions of memory), it has the power above all other senses to pervade our psyche to

change our mood. Image is everything and a particular perfume has an image associated with

it. Certain perfumes are for ‘free-spirited’, others for the elegant character, some type are for

lady who is delicate and sensual. We also wear different perfumes for different occasions- A

perfume for work, a perfume for going shopping, a perfume for a dinner with the family, yet

another perfume for special occasions. Different scents match different occasions.

In the world flooded with products to enhance every aspect of modern living, the consumer is

spoilt for choice. The so looking simple consumers are ahead of scientist. The consumer is

ahead of the scientist; here Fragrance is an important part in the positioning of these

products

The size of the perfume industry in India:

The Indian fragrance market is valued at Rs. 3 billion, comprising alcoholic and attar

perfumes with a 50% market share each. In alcoholic perfumes, one-third is represented by

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unorganized market while the rest is mainly imported. As per the Economist Intelligence

Unit the sales Value (US $ m) of Perfumes & Fragrance in India was:-

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Perfumes &

Fragrances 2,103 2,291 2,464 2,696 2,941 3,169

Perfumes as luxury accessory buys are one of the most popular must-have items on the

aspirational buyers’ list as well. According to industry estimates, the domestic luxury

perfume market is growing at a rate of 20-25 % year-on-year

3.5.6 - Meaning and History of Perfume

The very word perfume is derived from the Latin perfumum, meaning 'by' or'through'smoke,

as it was with the use of burning incense that the prayers of the ancients were transported to

the heavens for the contemplations of the Gods. The use of fragrances developed within the

four great centres of culture in China, India, Egypt and Mesopotamia, and was extended in

the elite societies of Greece, Palestine. Rome, Persia and Arabia. The great world religions of

Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and Zoroastroism employ fragrance in pursuance of

their faiths. Thus, religious and pleasurable pursuits have been the main drives in the

phenomenal growth of perfume usage throughout the centuries.

In the olden days the perfume oil was extracted from flora such as rose, peppermint, bay leaf,

eucalyptus, geranium, iris, jasmine, lavender, lemon, lilac, lily, magnolia, moss, orange, pine,

raspberry, rose, sage, sandalwood, tuberose, vanilla, violet etc. These extracts were steeped in

oils until a perfumed unguent was formed. The unguent was then rubbed into the skin.

The Christian bible is chock-full of fragrance descriptions. The story of Jesus of Nazareth is

populated by fragrant materials, from frankincense and myrrh, his gifts at birth, through to

the use of spikenard to wash his feet during life and finally the use of myrrh in the binding

sheets of his body after crucifixion. Through trade and cultivation, Palestine became a great

source of aromatic wealth. The Greeks further developed the use of fragrances, not only in

praise of their gods, but also for purely hedonistic purposes. The sciences of medicine and

herbalism developed with Hippocrates and Theophrastus, whilst Alexander the Great, tutored

by Aristotle, in the third century BC advanced the use of alchemy. The most used fragrances

of the Greeks were rose, saffron, frankincense, myrrh, violets, spikenard, and cinnamon and

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cedar wood. Meanwhile, in Rome, Pliny the Elder outlined a primitive method of

condensation which collected oil from rosin on a bed of wool, and also made the first

tentative experiments in chromatography. Throughout the ages, perfume has provided a

pathway to happiness. The first professional perfumers piled there in Capua, which became a

trading centre of the industry. Perfume was used in abundance at the games both as a gift for

the gods and as a mask for malodors of a bloodstained and offal-dappled arena. It is estimated

that in the first century Romans were consuming nearly 3000 tons of frankincense and over

500 tons of the more expensive myrrh. Roman emperors used perfume to excess, instanced

by Nero and his wife Poppeae, who had a kind of 'perfumed plumbing' in their palaces, with

false ceilings designed to drop the flower petals onto dinner guests and scented doves which

fragranced the air with perfumed wings. When Poppeae died, it was said of Nero that he

burned a whole year's supply of incense on her funeral pyre. Empress Zoë, in the Christian

stronghold of Constantinople, had employed court perfumers. From there the practice spread,

with Normans strewing flowers and rushes onto the floors of castles and churches to keep the

air fragrant and acceptable. In a perverse day, the Black Death of 1347-1351 and subsequent

pandemics were huge catalysts to the growth in usage of aromatic products, which had

already shown signs of flourishing from Eastern alchemical practice. To counteract the odor

of decay of dead bodies due to plague ,the people carried nosegays and small floral bouquets

.Washing with water and enveloping the body in smoke or incense was felt to be an effective

defense against Black death, and in addition torch bearers with brands of fragrant herbs

walked ahead of important and rich personages. Guilds of the supply of aroma products

began to be formed between the 12th

and 13th

centuries. Related crafts included the London

Guild of Pepperers and Spicers, and in 1268 the Glover's Guild was recognized .King Henry I

of France and England granted a heraldic shield to the Guild of Perfumers. A charter to

Glover perfumes had been granted by Philip Augustus of France as early as 1190. Venice

was an important centre for trade and commerce between Europe, the Middle East and the

Orient, and became the funnel through which many spices and aromatic raw materials

reached Europe, and its domination in trade for these products lasted for a few hundred years.

In 1573 Edward de vere , Earl of Oxford ,brought Elizabeth I not only scented sachets, but

also perfumed gloves and jerkins. Around this time the first books and manuscripts

describing perfumery techniques surfaced, and court perfumers took the stage.

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History is littered with examples of the famous and their perfumed preferences: Henry III was

said to have fallen head over heels in love with Mary of Cleeves after breathing the odor of

her just removed clothing. Henry IV of France was reputed to smell so ripe that his intended

,Marie de Medici(1573-1642) keeled over when she first met him, while Henry himself

,reveling in his own natural odor and those of others, once reputedly wrote to his mistress

Gabrielle d'Estree,' Don't wash my love ,I will be in home in eight days'. The French kings

and their courts greatly indulged the use of fragrance, LouisXIII favoring neroli, based on

orange blossom, whilst his chief adviser Cardinal Richelieu had the fragrant scent of flowers

'bellowed' through his apartments. Louis XIV,the Sun King ,with his mistress Madame de

Montespan, compounded his own fragrances, whilst Louis XV lavished wealth on 'La Cour

Parfumee'(the perfumed court) with his mistress Madame de Pompadour and Madame du

Barry, where even the fountains did not escape a fragrant dousing . Meanwhile, over in

England, Charles I (1600-1649) had Neil Gwynne as fragrant advisor, whilst CharlesII (1630-

1685) was encouraged in the aromatic arts by Catherine of Braganza.

In 1708, Charles Lilly, a London perfumer, introduced scented snuffs and a revolutionary

fragrance consisting of orange flower , musk, civet, violet and amber, whilst in 1711 William

Bayley opened a perfumery in Long Acre ,moving later to Cockspur Street under the sign of

'Ye Olde Civet Cat' . Juan Floris (1730) and William Yardely (1770) added to the

groundswell matched in France by Houbigant (1774) and Lubin(1798). These half dozen

perfumers catalyzed the marketplace; expanding their clientele to commonflok. Two famous

compounded fragrances La Poudre de Marechale (1670) and Eau de Colonge (1710), grew in

popularity, making a slight move in presence from the heavy animalic scents of the times.

The chuches frowned and Oliver Cromwell did his best to put a stamp on the use of

fragrances, but the eighteenth century saw a fragrance backlash of mighty proportions.

Fragrances were needed in profusion to combat the olfactory disaster zones of prisons,

hospitals, ships, churches, theatres, and work-shops and, indeed, anywhere where there was a

gathering of humming humanity.

The seventeenth century perfumes had begun to be stored in lightly blown glass bottles and

the eighteenth century saw the appearance of pear-shaped bottles in opaque white glass,

decorated similarly to porcelain ware. Weight was reduced, and decorative appeal achieved

by colour, cutting and appliqué decoration, which made perfume bottles truly treasured

possessions, and worth much to today's collectors. Napoleon Bonaparte loved aromas , he

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liked citrus and herbal smells, and favored Eau de Cologne, using by all accounts several

bottles a day. Josephine, a Creole from Martinique, employed a different potpourri of smells.

She favored animalics, and was particularly fond of musk oil.

Queen Victoria can be credited with two smell revolutions that hit Britain. The shawls she

wore were steeped in patchouli, imbuing a rich woody fragrance to the garment. During the

Victorian era, wearing of perfume was strictly controlled. As the Victorian era drew to a

close, new names cropped up to cater for the mass-market demand in quality and reliability of

scents. Scientists and artisans developed into perfumers of both integrity and repute. To

famous names such as Lillie Yardley, Lentheric,and Floris were added Savoury,

Moores,Atkinsons,Chardin,Crown,Coty,Hougibant,Guerlain,Roger and Gallet, Penhaligon

and Piver; names which are familiar in households today.136

Perfumery developed in three fundamental ways: the technique used, the structure and

synthetics employed and the industrialization of the process.

In his book Odours, Fragrances and Cosmetics (1865), S.Piesse developed theories that

related specific odors to notes on a musical scale in an attempt to categorize the spectrum of

smells. In 1890, Atkinsons published one of the books on perfume technology, essentially

concerned with the production of absolutes by the cryoscopic removal of fats. In 1861,

Guerlain created Eau Imperiale for Empress Eugenie , the influential wife of Napoleon III

.By the end of the century, this redeveloped fragrance was shown to be created around neroli,

rose, geranium, sandalwood, musk and the synthetic chemical coumarin. Fragrances began to

be described in a structural form, with the adoption of top, middle and bottom note

terminology.

Two other fragrances, Forgere Royale (1882) and Jicky (1889) were in vogue. Fougere

Royale was arguably amongst the first fragrances to use a synthetic chemical -Coumarin,

whilst Jicky is held to be the first truly vertically structured fragrance,with a fresh ,citrus top

based on lemon, bergamot and mandarin, middle floral notes of rose and jasmine, woody

notes in vetiver, orris root and patchouli, and base notes of coumarin , benzoin, civet, amber

and vanillin. By 1879, Yardley exported different varieties of scented soaps to the United

States, whilst the British company Crown Fragrances was exporting about fifty different

fragrances to different countries. Perfumers focused on mass production techniques for aroma

chemicals, glass bottles and alcohol service an ever-growing market demand. Products were

136 Prashant kumar Kudli (2006), History of perfumes and fragrance, retrieved 25th Oct 2012 from

http://ezinearticles.com/?History-of-Perfumes-and-Fragrances&id=690098

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branded to encourage consumer loyalty. Perfumes of France, England and Spain widened

their horizons to a global marketplace. Perfume started reaching the masses. This set the

scene for the twentieth century, the age of fashion, which spurred a truly explosive growth in

the use of fragrance in many forms.

The late 19th century was the first real era of perfume during this period new scents were

created because of advances in organic chemistry knowledge. Synthetic perfume products

were used in place of certain hard to find or expensive ingredients. In the first 20 years of the

twentieth century, a score of fine fragrances was developed, including Violette Purpre

(1907,Houbigant), L'Origan (1905,Coty) ,English Lavender ( 1910,Atkinsons), L'Heure Blue

( 1912,Coty) ,and Old English Lacender (1913,Yardley).During the last decade of that

century, the industry had grown to such an extent that over 100 fine fragrances a year were

being launched. Perfume had come to the people. Chemistry and creativity had brought it

there. France became a hub for flower and herb growing for the perfume industry. It was

only in the 20th Century that scents and designer perfumes were really mass produced.

Today in the 21st Century perfume is a 20 billion industry worldwide. Both Men & Women

have fragrance wardrobes of at least five-six different perfumes, rather than a single signature

perfume, keeping special perfumes for special occasions.

3.5.7 - Different types of perfumes

The perfume caters to our smell. Our five senses are touch, hearing, seeing, tasting and

smelling. Corresponding to these are the five sense organs- the skin, the ears, the eyes, the

tongue and the nostrils. Over and above these gross physical senses is another- the sixth sense

that is something intangible which, leads to a feeling of wellbeing upon inhaling a delicate

perfume. Perfumes have two functions, negative and positive. It covers up stale smell of

sweat and on the other hand it exudes intoxicating fragrance. The perfume is the victory of

man over Nature- capturing the cream of her scent spread all around. The perfume is a

mixture of oils, aroma and fixatives blended with solvents. Not everybody can understand the

language of perfume making. Each perfume belongs to a family. Perfume making starts with

dilution of the oil with a solvent. Ethanol mixed with water is the most common solvent.

Others are coconut oil, wax and jojoba. The increase or decrease of aromatic compounds

relates to scent’s intensity and longevity. The amount of oil used varies from one perfume

family to another.

163

From 1900 perfumes were categorized in groups- single floral, floral bouquet, ambery

(admixture of scents from animals, flowers and woods), woody (mainly sandalwood and

cedar), leather (honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars), chypre (cyprus) and fougere (fern).

Since 1945 perfumes have been divided into bright floral, green, oceanic, citru and

gourmand. From 1983 the fragrance-wheel is being used to simplify classification – floral,

oriental, woody, fougere and fresh. Each is divided into subgroups.

The source from which perfume is drawn is plants, animals and synthetic bases. Plants are the

largest sources- its bark, fruits, flowers, and leaves, twings, roots, seed and bulbs. In the

animal world perfumes are extracted from whales, beavers, civets, honeybee and musk deer.

Synthetic perfumes are cheaper but not quite so fine and delicate. In the case of the latter

there are health risks connected to rashes, asthma and even cancer.

Floral perfumes are considered the best perfumes all over the world. In fact the history of

perfumes says that floral perfumes are the first perfume category of the world and thus

popular also. Floral perfumes represent the essence of love and romance. Floral perfumes are

further sub divided into different categories like floral green, floral fruity etc. The main idea

is that these types of perfumes are floral bouquets, which means that they are made from a

number of flower scents.

Different floral fragrance notes are harmonized together. If, combined with any other family,

floral perfumes are universally commercial. It's considered to be the most feminine of all

fragrance families. The most ordinary bouquet is the so-called rose and jasmine duet. Most of

the perfumes, either famous or not, have in their basis this combination, but for making some

difference between them, their creators have added other combinations of flowers, as well as

other ingredients, such as moss, fruits, spice and musk. All these can offer to a perfume

certain originality. The most famous classic examples of this duet can be found in Joy from

Platou, Arpege from Lanvin and No. 5 from Chanel.

There are also some other floral perfumes whose bouquets don't contain at all this

combination: Anais Anais from Cacharel, which is based on lilies and orange flowers, or

Champs-Elysee from Guerlain, a perfect scent that combines the rose with buddleia - flower

with the smell closed to the lilac. The floral perfumes have intense feminity and the romantic

charm, in different grades of freshness and sweetness.

164

Table – 3.1 - Characteristics: Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor

characteristics in perfumery

Naturals Synthetics

Variance

Vary by the times and locations where

they are harvested as well as how the

product was extracted from the raw

material. It's much more difficult to

produce consistent products with

equivalent odour over years of harvest and

production. As such, the perfumer has to

"manually" balance-out the natural

variations of the ingredients in order to

maintain the quality of the perfume. In

addition, unscrupulous suppliers may

adulterate the actual raw materials by

changing its source (adding Indian

Jasmine into Grasse Jasmine) or

the contents (adding linalool to

Rosewood) of increase their profit margin.

Much more consistent than natural

aromatics. However, differences in

organic synthesis may result in

minute differences in concentration of

impurities. If these impurities have

low smell (detection) thresholds, the

differences in the scent of the

synthetic aromatic will be significant.

Components Thousands of chemical compounds; large

potential for allergies.

Depending on purity, consists

primarily of one chemical compound.

Scent

Uniqueness

Bears a somewhat similar scent to its

originating material, depending on the

extraction method.

Similar to natural scents if the

compounds are the same. Novel scent

compounds not found in nature will

often be unique in their scent and

dissimilar to the scents of any

naturals.

165

Scent

Complexity

Deep and complex fragrance notes. Softer

with subtle scent nuances.

Pure and pronounced fragrance notes.

Structural and defined.

Price

Perfumes composed of largely natural

materials are usually much more

expensive.

Perfumes using largely synthetic

aromatics can be available at widely-

affordable prices. Synthetic aromatics

are not necessarily cheaper than

naturals, with some synthetics being

more costly than most natural.

Source: perfumes, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfume

Perfume odorant types today

Concretes--purest, soft plant parts are placed in solvent

Absolutes--concretes concentrated in alcohol

Resinoids--extracted like concretes, from plant secretions

Tinctures--direct extraction with ethanol

Distilled essential oils--most common modern methods

3.5.8 - Leading Brands of perfumes in Mumbai

BRANDS VENDOR

GUESS BCPL

BIPLMASS BCPL

BVLGARI BCPL

BENETTON BCPL

BVLGARI BCPL

ESPRIT BCPL

NAUTICA BCPL

SLANGER BCPL

HERMES BCPL

SWISSARM BCPL

REEBOK BCPL

EDHARDY BCPL

LALIQUE BCPL

JAGUAR BCPL

166

FERRAGAM BCPL

BIPLMASS BCPL

ADIDAS CAVIN CARE

JOVANMUS CAVINKARE

PERRYELL EURO

LALIQUE EURO

MYRURGIA HARMONY

AZZARO ITL

BURBERRY ITL

CAROLINA ITL

CARTIER ITL

DOLCEGAB ITL

ESCADA ITL

EVAFLOR ITL

FERRARI ITL

ISSEYMIY ITL

JAQUESBO ITL

JEANPAUL ITL

KENZO ITL

LACOSTE ITL

LANVIN ITL

PACO ITL

THIERYMU ITL

TOMMYHIL ITL

VALENTIN ITL

VERSACE ITL

GUCCI ITL

DKNY ITL

ARAMIS ITL

LOLITALE ITL

LOEWE ITL

GAP ITL

BANANARE ITL

PAULSMIT ITL

LAPERLA ITL

PORCHEDE ITL

PRADA ITL

DIESEL ITL

JUICYCOU ITL

D-SQUARE ITL

NARCISOF ITL

MONT BLANC ITL

NINA RICCI ITL

BOUCHERO ITL

JDELPOZO ITL

ETIENNEA ITL

167

MOSCHINO ITL

AUBUSSON ITL

FACCONAB ITL

TEDLAPID ITL

MANGO ITL

JEANPATO ITL

CANALI ITL

ITLMASS ITL

CHEVIGNO ITL

STDUPONT ITL

LUCIANOS ITL

MAMARA ITL

FCUK ITL

ZEGNA ITL

VANCLEEF ITL

FERRE ITL

SEANJOHN ITL

ITL MASS ITL

MAKEUP ITL

FRAGRANC ITL

SKINCARE ITL

HAIRPROD ITL

PLAYBOY JL MORRISON

CACHAREL LOREAL

RALPHLAU LOREAL

ARMANI LOREAL

BOSS MKP

MONTBLAN MKP

HUGO MKP

DUNHILL MKP

POLICE MKP

NIKE MKP

ESTEE LAUDER MKP

NIKEPERF MKP

ALFREDDU MKP

BOSS MKP

AUSTINRE MKP

GUCCI MKP

HUGOBOSS MKP

NEUTROGE MKP

NIKE MKP

POLICE MKP

MOUNTBLANK MKP

LOTUSHER MKP

ICEBERG MKP

MKPMASS MKP

168

DAVIDOFF TARZ

GIVENCHY TARZ

JENIFERL TARZ

JOOP TARZ

CALVINKL TARZ

CHLOE TARZ

KENETHRO TARZ

MEN TARZ

WOMEN TARZ

UNISE TARZ

OTHERS TARZ

MAKEUP TARZ

SKINCARE TARZ

MARCJACO TARZ

DAVIDOFF TARZ

Vendor/Dealers

BCPL Beauty concept pvt. Ltd.

ITL Intercraft pvt. Ltd.

TARZ TARZ pvt. Ltd.

MKP MKP Distibution Pvt. Ltd.

Eg. Of Brands endosered by celebrities

Image – 3.7 –LOMANI Paris by AMITABH

BACHCHAN

Image – 3.8 -TIGER EYES by SRK

169

Image – 3.9. Eg. Of Brand of Leading

Car Company - Ferrari

FERARI BLACK EAU DE

TOILETTE

Table 3.2 - BEST SELLING PERFUMES IN

SHOPPERSTOP for 2011 and 2010

Ranking

TOP 10 Brands 2011 2010

CK 1 2

Davidoff 2 4

Bvlgari 3 9

Burberry 4 1

Boss 5 5

Versace 6 10

Hugo Boss 7 3

Paco 8 7

Azzaro 9 6

Issey Miyake 10 8

Table – 3.3 -BEST SELLING PERFUMES AT PANTALOONS –Mumbai

INTERGRA

AZZARO

AZZARO CHROME

AZZARO SILVER BLACK-preferred

by young professionals.

BURBURRY

PRADA

KENZO

PAULSMITH

S.T.DUPONT

ESCADA

LACOSTE

CARTICE

FERRARI

CAROLINA HERRERA

JUCER COUTURE

DIESEL

JACOUTS BOGART

SO

AQUA BRAVA

ANTONIO

BANDERAS

ADOLFO

DOMINGUFZ

BYCGARI

HERMES

JAGUAR

NAUTICA

SWISS ARMY

4711

TABACE

REEBOK

ESPIRIT

NINA RICCI

PACCORABANNE

LOEWE

MOSCHINO

FORSCHE

UDY

EYAFLOR

DAVIDOFF

GIVENCHY

JOOP

BERAWANG

JENIFFER LOPEZ

RALPH LAUREN

GIORGIO ARMANI

CALVIN KLEIN

Table – 3.4 -BEST SELLING PERFUMES AT WESTSIDE -Mumbai

NIKE

DAVIDOFF

CALVIN KLIEN

HUGO BOSS

VERSACE

AZZARO

DKNY/ GUCCI

170

Table – 3.5 -Perfume Brands available at LIFESTYLE –Mumbai

CALVIN KLEIN

DAVIDOFF

DIOR

MISS DIOR

KENNETH COLE

GIVENCHY

VERAWANG

JENIFFER LOPEZ

JOOP

SARAHFESSICCA

PARKER

REEBOK

ADIDAS

NIKE

MARCJACOP

BURBERRY

ISSIMIYAKEE

JEANPAUL

GAULTIER

AIGNER

FERREGAMO

EDHARDY

DIESEL

DSOUARED

PAUL SMITH

LANVIN

JUICY COUTUE

PORSCH DESIGNER

FERRARI

NEWDANDG

LOLITAESCADA

ELIZABETHARDON

VANCLEEFAND

ARPELS

MOSCHINO

CAROLINA HERRERA

NINA RICCI

DKNY

RALPH LAUREN

JIORJIO ARMANI

EMPORIO ARMANI

YVES SAINT LAVRENT

DOLCE AND GABBANA

SWISSARMY

BVLGARI

HUGO BOSS

ASTEL AUDER

DUNHILL

THEORY MOVGLAR

PRADA

VERSACE

AZZARO

KENZO

PACORABANNE

PLAYBOY

EVAFLOUR

DESCO

ULRIL DE DARENS

FCUK

LACOSTE

LOEWE

S.P.DUPONT

SALVALORE

GUCCI

UDV

Table -3.6 – Best-selling Brands of cosmetics in Mumbai

Cosmetic Brands available

at Lifestyle --- Mumbai LOREAL

REVELON

MAYBELLINE

CHAMBOR

MAX FACTOR

BOURJOIS

PONDS

KAYA

LAKME

SHENAZ HUSSAIN

Cosmetic brands

available at

Pantaloons – Mumbai REVELON

LAKME

L’OREAL

MAYBELLINE

CHAMBOR

FACES

Leading Cosmetic brands

at Shoppers’ Stop –

Mumbai CHAMBOR

LAKME

REVLON

L’OREAL

MAYBELLINE

BOURJOIS

ELIZABETHARDON

DIOR

After knowing the history of visual merchandising, perfumes and cosmetics and knowing

about the leading cosmetics and perfumes in Mumbai. It becomes very important to discuss

how these leading brands increases their sales by applying the visual merchandising practices

and how visual merchandising and displays enhances store atmospherics. The next chapter

puts light on various practices of visual merchandising along with clarifying the ethical

responsibility of visual merchandising in retail