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9–2© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
Chapter Learning ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Explain the nature of the individual–organization relationship.
2. Define personality and describe personality attributes that affect behavior in organizations.
3. Discuss individual attitudes in organizations and how they affect behavior.
4. Describe basic perceptual processes and the role of attributions in organizations.
5. Discuss the causes and consequences of stress and describe how it can be managed.
6. Describe creativity and its role in organizations.
7. Explain how workplace behaviors can directly or indirectly influence organizational effectiveness.
Individual Contributions
Understanding Individuals in Organizations
• The Psychological Contract–The overall set of expectations held by an individual
with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return.
The Psychological Contract
Organizational Inducements
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–3
9–4© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
FIGURE 9.1 The Psychological Contract
Understanding Individualsin Organizations
• The Person-Job Fit–The extent to which the contributions made by the
individual match the inducement offered by the organization.
• Each employee has a specific set of needs to be fulfilled and a set of job-related behaviors to contribute.
• The degree to which the organization can take advantage of those behaviors and, in turn, fulfill an employee’s needs will determine the level of person-job fit.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–5
Personality and Individual Behavior
• Personality–The relatively stable set of psychological and
behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another.
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Openness
Negative EmotionalityThe “Big Five” Personality Traits
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–6
9–7© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
FIGURE 9.2 The “Big Five” Model of Personality
High agreeableness Low agreeableness
Agreeableness
High conscientiousness Low conscientiousness
Conscientiousness
Less negative emotionality More negative emotionality
Negative Emotionality
More extraversion More introversion
Extraversion
More openness Less openness
Openness
The “Big Five” Personality Traits
• Agreeableness– A person’s ability to get along with others.
• Conscientiousness– The number of goals on which a person focuses.
• Negative emotionality– The extent to which a person is poised, calm, resilient, and
secure.• Extraversion
– A person’s comfort level with relationships.• Openness
– A person’s rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–8
The Myers-Briggs Framework
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)– A questionnaire used to differentiate personalities on
the dimensions of the MB framework– Useful to determine communication styles and
interaction preferences; has questionable reliability and validity.
• Personality Types– Extraversion (E) versus Introversion (I)– Sensing (S) versus Intuition (N)– Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F)– Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P)
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–9
Personality Traits
Machiavellianism
Self-Esteem
Risk propensity
PersonalityTraits at Work
Locus of control
Self-efficacy
Authoritarianism
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–10
Personality Traits at Work
• Locus of Control–The extent to which people believe that their behavior
has a real effect on what happens to them.–Internal locus of control—individuals who believe
they are in control of their lives.–External locus of control—individuals believe that
external forces dictate what happens to them.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–11
Personality Traits at Work (cont’d)
• Self-Efficacy–A person’s belief about his or her capabilities to
perform a task. –High self-efficacy individuals believe they can perform
well while low self-efficacy individuals doubt their ability to perform.
• Authoritarianism–The extent to which an individual believes that power
and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–12
Personality Traits at Work (cont’d)
• Machiavellianism–Individual behavior directed at gaining power and
controlling the behavior of others.• Self-Esteem
–The extent to which a person believes she/he is a worthwhile individual.
• Risk Propensity–The degree to which an individual is willing to take
chances and make risky decisions.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–13
Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence (EQ)–The extent to which people are self-aware, can
manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy, and possess social skills.
Self-awareness
Managing Emotions
Empathy
Social skills
Motivating oneselfDimensions of EQ
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–14
Attitudes and Individual Behavior
• Attitudes–Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have
about specific ideas, situations, or other people.• Cognitive Dissonance
–The mental discomfort that individuals experience when their own attitudes are in conflict with their intended behavior.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–15
Attitudinal Components
Cognitive Component
Why we feel that way
Affective Component
How we feel toward the situation
IntentionalComponent
How we intend to behave toward or
in the situation
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–16
Work-Related Attitudes
• Job Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction–An attitude that reflects the extent to which an
individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work.
• Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors–Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and
organizational factors.• Satisfied employees are absent from work less often, make
positive contributions, and stay with the organization.• Dissatisfied employees are absent from work more often, may
experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and are continually looking for another job.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–17
Work-Related Attitudes (cont’d)
• Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors–High levels of job satisfaction do not
necessarily lead to high job performance.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–18
Work-Related Attitudes (cont’d)
• Organizational Commitment–An attitude that reflects an individual’s identification
with and attachment to an organization.• Organizational Commitment
and Work Behaviors–Employee commitment strengthens with an
individual’s age, years with the organization, sense of job security, and participation in decision making.
–Committed employees have highly reliable habits, plan a longer tenure with the organization, and muster more effort in performance.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–19
Affect and Mood in Organizations
• Positive Affectivity–A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic,
have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood.
• Negative Affectivity–A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic,
tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–20
Perception and Individual Behavior
• Perception–The set of processes by which an individual becomes
aware of and interprets information.• Selective Perception
–The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs.
–If selective perception causes someone to ignore important information it can become quite detrimental.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–21
Perception (cont’d)
• Stereotyping–The process of categorizing or labeling people on the
basis of a single attribute (e.g., gender and race.)–Stereotyping may cost the organization valuable
talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is unethical.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–22
9–23© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
FIGURE 9.3 Perceptual Processes
Characteristics and ProcessesThat Affect Perception
Characteristics of the person:
• Salience• Disposition• Attitudes• Self-concept• Personality
Characteristics of the object:
• Contrast• Intensity• Movement• Repetition• Novelty
Situational characteristics:
• Selection• Organization• Stereotyping• Halo• Projection
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–24
Perception and Perceptual Processes
• Attribution–A mechanism through which we observe behavior and
attribute a cause to it.• How Behavioral Attributions Are Formed:
–Consensus• Do other people in the same situation behave the same way?
–Consistency• Does this person behave the same way at different times?
–Distinctiveness• Does this person behave the same way in other situations?
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–25
Stress and Individual Behavior
• Stress–A person’s response to a strong stimulus (i.e., a
stressor.)• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
–Stage 1 Alarm• Panic, wondering how to cope, and a feeling of helplessness.
–Stage 2 Resistance• Individual is actively resisting the effects of the stressor.
–Stage 3 Exhaustion• Prolonged exposure to stress causes an individual to give up.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–26
9–27© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
FIGURE 9.4 The General Adaptation Syndrome
Stage 1Alarm
Stage 3Exhaustion
Stage 2Resistance
Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome
Normal level of resistance
Response to stressful
event
Personality Types
• Type A personality–Extremely competitive, aggressive, devoted to work,
have a strong sense of time urgency, impatient.–Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as
possible as quickly as possible.• Type B personality
–Less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker sense of time urgency.
–Less likely to experience personal stress or to come into conflict with other people.
–Likely to have a balanced, relaxed approach to life.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–28
9–29© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
FIGURE 9.5 Causes of Work Stress
InterpersonalDemands• Group pressures• Leadership styles• Conflicting
personalities
Task Demands
Quick decisions•
Critical decisions
•Incomplete informa-tion for decisions
PhysicalDemands• Temperature extremes• Poorly designed office• Threats to health
Role Demands• Role ambiguity• Role conflict
Organizational Stressors
•
Consequences of Stress
• Negative personal consequences–Behavioral—smoking,
alcoholism, overeating, drug abuse.
–Psychological—sleep disturbances, depression.
–Medical—heart disease, stroke, backaches, ulcers, skin conditions.
• Negative work-related consequences–Poor quality work
output and lower productivity.
–Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment.
–Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–30
Individual Consequences of Stress
• Burnout–A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when
someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–31
Managing Stress
Regular Exercise
Relaxation
Time Management
Support Groups
StressManagement Strategies
for Individuals
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–32
Stress Management Strategies
• Regular Exercise–Reduces tension and stress, and improves self-
confidence and feelings of optimism.• Relaxation
–Allows individuals to adapt and deal with their stress.
• Time Management–Reduces stress by prioritizing activities to accomplish
them in their order of importance.• Support Groups
–Socializing away from work reduces stress.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–33
Creativity in Organizations
• Creativity–The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or
to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas.• The Creative Individual
–Background experiences and creativity–Personal traits and creativity
• Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–34
Creativity in Organizations (cont’d)
• Cognitive Abilities and Creativity–Most creative people are highly intelligent.–They are both divergent and convergent thinkers, a
skill they use to see differences and similarities in situations, phenomena, and events.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–35
The Creative Process
Preparation
Incubation
Insight
Verification
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–36
The Creative Process
• Preparation–Formal education and training is
used to “get up to speed.”–Experiences on the job provide
additional knowledge and ideas.• Incubation
–A period of conscious concentration during which knowledge and ideas mature and develop.
–Incubation is helped by pauses in rational thought.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–37
The Creative Process (cont’d)
• Insight–A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative
person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation.
–Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding.• Verification
–Determines the validity or truthfulness of the insight.–Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see
if the insight leads to the expected results.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–38
The Creative Process (cont’d)
• Enhancing Creativity in Organizations–Make creativity part of the
organization’s culture.• Set goals for revenues from
creative products and services.
• Reward creative success; refrain from punishing creative failures—some ideas work out as expected, others don’t.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–39
Workplace Behaviors
Performance Behaviors
Organizational Citizenship
Withdrawal Behaviors
Types of Workplace Behaviors
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–40
Types of Workplace Behavior
• Workplace Behavior–A pattern of action by the
members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness.
• Performance Behaviors–The total set of work-related
behaviors an organization expects an individual to display.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–41
Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d)
• Withdrawal Behaviors–Absenteeism
• Occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons.
• May be a symptom of other work-related problems.–Turnover
• occurs when individuals quit their jobs for work-related or personal reasons.
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–42
General BehaviorsGeneral Attitudes
Attitude–Behavior Relationships
Specific Attitude
Example
Positive attitude toward working hard
this morning
Specific Behavior
Example
High work performance during
morning hours
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–43
Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d)
• Organizational Citizenship–The behavior of individuals that makes a positive
overall contribution to the organization.
Social context of the workplace (work group)
Determinants of Organizational Citizenship
Organization’s capability to reward
citizenship
Individual’s personality, attitudes,
and needs
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–44
Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d)
• Dysfunctional Behaviors–Behaviors that detract from, rather than
contribute to, organizational performance.• Absenteeism and turnover• Theft and sabotage• Sexual and racial harassment• Politicized behavior• Intentionally misleading others• Spreading malicious rumors• Workplace violence
© 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–45