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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Design of the Experiment
3.2.1 Equating the Control and Experimental group
3.3 Variables selected for the study
3.3.1 Independent Variable
3.3.2 Dependant Variable
3.3.3 Confounding Variable
3.3.4 Co variate
3.3.5 Experimental validity (Internal & External Validity)
a) Internal Validity
b) External Validity
3.3.5.1 Ecological Generalization
3.3.5.2 Population Generalization
3.4 Population
3.4.1 Sample
3.5 Instruments
3.5.1 Instrument to Measure Intelligence
3.5.2 Instrument to Measure Higher Mental Abilities in General Science
(THMAGS)
3.5.3 Instrument to Measure Higher Mental Abilities in the Specific Units
Selected for Study (Unit test II)
3.5.3.1 Test Construction Chemistry – Unit test II
3.5.3.2 Test Construction- Biology – (Unit test II)
3.5.3.3 Validity & Reliability of Unit test II
3.5.4 Instrument to measure Achievement (Unit test I)
3.5.4.1 Test Construction – Chemistry(Unit test I)
3.5.4.2 Test Construction – Biology(Unit test I)
3.5.4.3 Validity & Reliability
3.5.5 Instrument to Measure the Opinion of the Students on Concept
Mapping Developed by Trifone (2006)
3.6 Procedure of the Study (Process)
3.6.1 Content Areas
3.6.2 The Pedagogical Analysis
3.6.3 Lesson Plans
3.6.3.1 Advantages of a Lesson Plan
3.6.3.2 Steps in Lesson Planning
3.6.4 The Treatment
3.6.4.1 Pre Test and Post Test
3.6.4.2 Achievement Test
3.7 Precautions taken for Study
3.8 Problems Faced During the Study
3.9 Data Collection
3.10 Scoring
3.11 Statistical Analysis
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The present study aimed at finding the comparative effectiveness of concept
mapping as a pedagogical tool, on the cognitive processes and scholastic performance
of ICSE students of standard seven, for selected units of the subject, General Science.
General science is taught in class seven as Biology, Physics and Chemistry, but for
the present study the researcher has selected a few units from Chemistry and Biology
to be taught using Concept Mapping. The objectives, hypothesis, are mentioned in
Chapter 1. Empirical evidences are mentioned in Chapter 2. In the present chapter, the
design and procedure followed in carrying out the study has been presented in detail
under various headings like population, sample, design, tools, and procedure for data
collection, scoring, and statistical techniques used for analyzing the data. The details
of the design and procedure are discussed as:-
3.2 Design of the Experiment
3.3 Variables selected for study
3.4 Population - Sample
3.5 Instruments used in the study
3.6 Procedure of the study (the process)
3.7 Precautions taken for the study.
3.8 Problems faced during the study.
3.9 Data Collection
105
3.10 Scoring
3.11. Statistical Analysis used
3.2 Design of the Experiment
In the school set up random assignment of subjects was not possible for the
researcher. Hence Quasi – Experimental Design was selected. The threat to internal
validity is controlled using matching – only Design (Best & Kahn 1996. p.139;
Fraenkel &Wallen 1996. p.275; Borg &Gall 1974.p 394). Hence the Design used for
this study is called The Matching only Pre test- Post test Control group Design
( Fraenkel & Wallen 1996 p.275). Matching helps the researcher to keep the subjects
of the control and experimental group in such a manner that they are closely
comparable on a pretest that measures the dependant variable or variables selected for
study. Matching is useful in studies where small samples are used and when large
differences between and experimental and control group on dependant variable are
not likely to occur. It increases the precision by reducing the standard error. It also
permits division of experimental and control group into subgroups thus allowing the
researcher to determine whether the treatment had a different effect on subjects at
different levels. (Borg& Gall 1974.p 384) After gaining insight into the literature
related to concept mapping and problems under study, the study was implemented.
The experimental group was treated with concept mapping strategy during the
teaching learning process for 12 weeks. The students were measured on the dependant
variables before the treatment and after the treatment (pre test and post test) so as to
measure the effect of the treatment.
106
3.2.1 Equating the Control and Experimental groups.
The control and experimental group were tested on the intelligence ability. It
was found out that in the experimental group, there were 41 students but six of the
students during the study dropped out and in the control group comprising of 42, three
students dropped out. Hence in the control group there were 39 students and in the
experimental group there were 34 students for the study. It was found out that on
matching these students on the basis of mental ability there were 30 students from
both the groups who show equivalent scores. A group is matched with another similar
group. This takes the form of matching group averages and the matched groups are
treated as though they are independent. Sprinthall(1994)..
Table. 3.1 Matching of control and experimental groups.
The table 3.1 denotes experimental and control group can be subdivided into
matching groups based on Co -variate.- mental ability. In the present study, the group
fall in average mental ability according to the PGTI score and hence sub groups are
not formulated. Hence the experimental group is considered as a single group
equivalent to the control group.
Control Experimental
1. A1 A’1
2. A2 A’2
3 A3 A’3
107
The Matching- Only Pretest – Post test Control Group Design
Treatment group O M X1 O
----------------------------------------------------------
Control group O M X2 O
The M in this design refers to the fact that the subjects in each group have been
matched (on certain variables) but not randomly assigned to the groups. O refers to
dependant variable at the beginning and end of the treatment. X1 is treatment (concept
mapping) X2 is no treatment (Fraenkel & Wallen 1996 p.275).
Table 3.2: Design of the Experiment (The Matching –Only Pre test --- Post – test
Control Group design)
Population: Standard Seven of Pune city
Sample School: S D A Higher Secondary School, Aundh Rd. Pune – 7
Sample: Group Class Total /o. of Students Sample
selected
Control VII A 41 30
Experimental VII B 42 30
Total = 82 60
Age Group: 12- 13 years
Independent Variables (treatment variable): Concept mapping method
Dependant Variables: (i) Mental processes (ii) Academic Achievement
Co Variance: Intelligence ability.
Level of significance: 0 .05/ 0.01
108
Table 3.3. Plan of the Experiment implemented
S./o Duration Group Activity engaged
1. Oct:22
‘07
VII A&B Orientation of the test and the method
2. Oct:23,24
‘07
VIIA &B Intelligence test and pre test
administered
3. Oct:25
‘07
Goes for 3
months
for each
VII A & B Treatment begins first for Biology
then chemistry
4. January
2008,
14-16
VIIA & VIIB Post test administered
(Appendix B.1- school calendar, B.2- time table)
3.3 Variables selected for the study.
Variables are characteristics experimenter manipulates, controls or observes in an
experimental study. There are two types of variables. a) Independent variable
b) Dependant variable. (Best and Kahn 1996 p.137)
3.3.1 Independent variable.
The two types of Independent variables are a) treatment variable b) organismic
variable.
In the present study these variables are as follows.
A) Treatment variable: Concept mapping is the treatment variable. This is a
teaching method used in this experiment to assess the effect on the mental processes
and scholastic achievement of the students of class Seven. (Theoretical framework of
concept mapping is given in chapter 1). Selected units of Chemistry, and Biology
109
were taught using this method to the experimental group whereas the traditional
method was used for the control group.
b) Organismic variable: These variables (Age, Sex, Intelligence level)
cannot be altered by the experimenter and Kahn (1996, p137) has noted that the
experimenter can decide to include or remove them from the study. In this particular
study it is decided that class seven students of age group 12-13years of Co educational
school is taken for study. Gupta (2004, p. 57) also in his study has taken into
consideration grade, sex, age, as the subject characteristics.
3.3.2 Dependant Variable
The dependant variables for the study are the Cognitive Processes and
Scholastic performance. In the cognitive processes, four levels are analyzed. They are
application, analyses, synthesis, and evaluation. They were also measured on their
scholastic achievement in Chemistry, and Biology.
3.3.3 Confounding variables (Intervening Variables & Extraneous Variables)
There are many factors that may influence the results which may not be
observed directly such as fatigue, home environment, anxiety, time table etc. These
are beyond the control of the investigator. Gupta (2004) page 60 in his study has
mentioned that these factors are beyond the control of the researcher hence remains
uncontrolled during the experiment.
Extraneous variables can be controlled by randomization of the sample, matching
cases, or group matching (Best & Kahn 1996, p.139-140). In this study the researcher
has resorted to group matching, since the design is intact classes selected for the
study.
110
3.3.4 Co –Variate
The initial differences between the experimental and control group was
statistically eliminated using matched groups. General mental ability is an index of
intelligence which might have affected the mental processes, (Gupta 2004, p.57)
which was under study. But in this study since the researcher used matched groups
with negligible variance, there was no need to control the co-variate.
3.3.5 Experimental Validity (Internal Validity & External Validity)
In 1966, Campbell and Stanley have described two types of experimental
validity-internal validity and external validity.
a) Internal validity: It helps to find the extent to which independent variable
actually have a genuine effect on the dependant variable. (Best & Kahn 1996, p.140)
In the present study, the threats to internal validity have been controlled by techniques
as shown in the table 3.4 below:
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Table 3.4: Techniques used for Controlling Threats to Internal Validity.
Independent
variable
Dependant
variable
Variables to be
controlled
Controls
employed.
1) Subjects
characteristics
a) grade
b)age
c)Sex
d) Intelligence
a) Only class VII
was taught
b) Students of the
class were of the
age group12 -13 .
c)All the sections
had girls and boys
d) general mental
ability was used as
a covariate
2) Mortality 2)Matched group
3)Location
3) Experiment was
conducted in a
single school with
same environment
4)Instrumentation
4) Standardized
instruments were
used
5) Implementer
5) The same
teacher taught both
the experimental
and control
classes.
Concept mapping
method
Cognitive processes.
Scholastic
achievement
6) Testing
6) Having
experimental and
control group
controls this threat.
112
7) History
7)Having a control
group controls this
threat
8) Maturation
8) Having a
control group
controls this threat
9)Statistical
regression
9) Matched groups
in the
experimental and
control controls
this threat.
b) External Validity: It helps to understand the extent to which the variable
relationship can be generalized to other settings. (Best & Kahn 1996, p.140; Best &
Kahn 2003, p.184). The factors that can affect generalization are shown in the
table 3.5 below and the controls to counteract on these are also given.
Table 3.5 Techniques used to Control Threats for External Validity
Sr./o Factors Techniques taken to control the factors
1. Interference of Prior
treatment
Removed due to experimental and control
group design
2. The artificiality of the
experimental setting
The treatment was done in real classroom
setting with all the students enrolled and
during the regular time according to the time
3. Interaction Effect of
Testing
Removed due to the presence of the control
group
4. The extent of Treatment
verification
The researcher herself conducted the study
and the regular teacher was present to check
any bias was there with the researcher.
According to Frankel & Wallen (1996 p107) External Validity can be done by
population generalization and Ecological generalization.
113
3.3.5.1 Ecological Generalization
In Ecological generalization the following areas are taken into consideration:
(Frankel & Wallen 1996. p.109)
Text Books: - The text books used are based on the syllabus prescribed by the Inter
State Board for Anglo Indian Education, New Delhi and the National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi. All the schools are
following the directions of the NCERT.
Methods: - Methods used are traditional methods of teaching such as lecture method.
This is used in the control class by the researcher and the experimental group is
subjected to the treatment.
3.3.5.2 Population Generalization
This is by the selection of a sample. In this study a matched group is selected
with negligible covariance in general mental ability. The sample is explained in detail
in the following section
3.4 Population – Sample
The population considered for the study is standard seven students in Pune
city. This term in research refers to all the members of a particular group, and the
target population is the actual population to whom the researcher would like to
generalize (Frankel & Wallen 2006, p 107). In the present study the target population
is the Seventh standard students of ICSE schools in Pune city.
The following schools were visited in relation to construction of the test for
the cognitive processes as well as to gather the opinion of the teachers on the
114
weightage to be given for the various levels of cognitive processes in the test
construction.
The schools visited by the researcher for the study are as follows:
• Hume Mchenhry school – Salisbury Park, Pune.
• Bishop’s School- 5-A General Bhagat Marg, Pune.
• Hutching’s School – 7, Phayre Road, Pune.
• Vidya Valley School – Sus, Pune.
• St.Helena’s School – 8, Susie Sorabji Road, Pune.
• Spicer Memorial Higher Secondary School – Aundh Road, Pune.(Appendix D.3)
115
Figure: 3.1 Pune City Map Denoting the Research Fields
Source: www. maps.india.com
116
3.4.1 Sample
A sample represents the population and it is “any part of a population of
individuals on whom information is obtained” (Frankel &Wallen 2006, p.107). Non
random sampling method – purposive sampling is tried in the study due to
administrative set up of the school.
The sample consisted of 83 students of standard Seven of an ICSE school in
Pune city. The sample consisted of two intact sections (VII A, VII B) of class VII
students selected from the SDA Higher Secondary School, Aundh Road, Pune- 7. The
students were assigned to each class on the basis of Computer out put hence
randomization was possible. Again at random, Class VII A was selected as
experimental and Class VII B was selected as control. All these classes contain both
boys and girls (21 boys and 21 girls in section A and 21 boys and 21 girls in Section
B).
The two groups were as similar as the availability permitted; they were
comparable in their size, average age group, IQ and especially in their past
achievement in science. Thus the two groups were comparable within the parameter
of quasi experimental measures at pre – experimental stage. Initially the sample
consisted of 83 subjects which were gradually reduced to 73 students of the academic
session 2007- 08. A few students dropped out thus, there were 34 in experimental
group and in the control group there were 39 students. Due to Matching the group
according to the PGTI Score 30 students each were selected from the experimental
and control group for the study. All these students were pursuing the same course of
study with latest syllabus prescribed by the Inter- State Board for Anglo Indian
Education, New Delhi and National Council of Educational Research and Training
117
(NCERT), New Delhi (Dalal, 2007; Prasad, 2005) with the medium of instruction as
English
The school records shows that all the students involved in this study belonged
to middle class families living in the school neighborhood with similar income group.
The distribution of the sample shows that majority of them come from Maharashtra
with a few out side the states. They were all urban students. The school environment
and resources were same for all the students. Randomization in selection of the
sample from the pool of population is a requirement of the true experimental design
but this was not possible for the study, hence intact groups were taken but within the
intact groups matched groups were selected for the study. Intact groups are taken
because students cannot be changed across the sections due to number of technical
problems, such as getting permission from school authorities. Moreover changing
them for study can affect them psychologically. The placement of students was kept
intact, but in the intact group the researcher can keep a track of the matched pairs of
students.
Since the sample size is small there might arise the problem of generalizing to
a large population, but it must be noted that large sample is not feasible in this study
because it is an in depth study, taking place for a long duration (12 weeks including
the intermittent holidays). Not only that, it is beyond the control of the researcher. In
the following sections how a small sample can be generalized is dealt at length.
Fraenkal and Wallen 2006 p.104 has noted that for experimental study the sample size
can be 30 in each group or 15 per group if they are tightly controlled. Smaller samples
were taken for number of experimental studies. Agarwal & Mishra(1988) selected 18
students of class VII in each group for the study. The fifth survey of Educational
Research 1988-92 Vol II has reported that Bhaveja, Bharati (1989) selected 22
118
students of class IX, Chaudhury, Kamlesh (1989) selected 10 student teachers for the
study. Nirupama, Jaimini (1991) using purposive sampling selected 3 sections of class
IX of G.G senior secondary school, Delhi for her study. Joshi & Kumar (1983) by
purposive sample selected 22 B.Ed students for the study. Kaushik (1988) selected 60
students of standard IX, each group comprising of 20 for the study. Mahajan, Jyotasna
(1992) selected 3 groups of 15 student teacher in each and Manocha, Vineeta (1991)
used three groups of 36, 36, 32 subjects respectively. Ramini (1989) used a sample of
40 students in four groups which were exposed to four methods of teaching by
rotation (Sharma 1992).
Gupta (2004) has cited in page 61in his study that , Vardhini (1983) validated
her study on 43 students each in two sections, Sushama ( 1987) used a sample of 78
students , Pillai (1987) selected two divisions of the standard IX with 38 and 37
students as experimental and control group for his study. Ganguli & Vashistha (N.D)
has reported, Talengaonkar (1984) had taken 34 students of class IX , Pande (1986)
included 86 students for his study, Chitrive (1983) had taken three intact sections of
class XI for his study with 35 students in each section. Baveja (1988) took 63 students
in her experimental group and 36 students in control group, Singh et.al
(1986,1987,1988) had taken samples of nearly 45 teacher educators each time. Rai
et.al (1989) utilized a sample of 50 students of class X and Koul (1986) worked with
50 students as his sample, whereas Jemini(1990) studied on two sections of chemistry
classes in a school. Passi and Sansanwal while reviewing research in teaching in
Buch’s Fourth Survey of Research in Education, 1991 p.1023, have justified the use
of small samples in experimental research due to deeper inquest of these studies and
available methodological facilities
119
3.5 Instruments
Any study requires reliable and valid tools to measure the variables under
study. Usually Standardized Tools are used in the study and in this study also the
researcher has selected standardized tools for the purpose along with teacher made
tests. The present study required tools in the following areas:
1.) A test for assessing the intelligence
2.) A test for measuring higher mental ability in General Science (THMAGS)
3) Two achievement tests in the area of Chemistry, and Biology on specific units
taught by the teacher.
4) Trifone (2006) Concept mapping questionnaire
3.5.1 Instrument to Measure Intelligence.
Pramila Group Test of Intelligence (PGTI) constructed by Pramila Ahuja
was selected as the instrument to measure the intelligence of the students in the
present study. The test is in English, for the pupils of age group of 9 to 13 years. It
contains seven subtests - scrambled words, analogies, classification, disarranged
sentences, same - opposite, series and best answer. Time limit for the test is 35
minutes. The test was standardized on 10,373 students of both sexes. The reliability
Coefficient for the test by the Split – Half method is 0.943 and validity coefficient
with other Intelligence test shows as r =0.731 (Ahuja, 2003).
3.5.2 Instrument to Measure Higher Mental Abilities in Science
Test of Higher Mental Ability in General Science (THMAGS): It was
decided to use the D.N. Sansanwal and Anuradha Joshi’s Test of Higher mental
ability in Science (THMAS). The test contains 20 items and is meant for High School
120
students. It is based on Blooms Cognitive domain and assesses four levels –
application, analyses, synthesis and evaluation. But since it is only applicable for
standard IX students the researcher constructed a test for assessing the higher mental
abilities in science for standard VII students. The test is named as Test of Higher
Mental ability for General Science (THMAGS). The construction of the test is dealt in
detail in Chapter IV. The reliability of the test calculated by Split Half method is
0.68.The validity was checked by the expert teachers. Apart from this the researcher
also developed tests in Chemistry and Biology, to measure the higher mental abilities
of the students in the respective units taught during the treatment. The test is called as
Higher Mental Ability test (Unit test II) the reliability of the test is 0.672 & 0.646
for Chemistry and Biology respectively.
3.5.3 Instrument to Measure Higher Mental Ability in the Specific Units Selected
for the Study.
Unit test II: The testing and evaluation has to move towards more concept
based so as to measure and develop the analytical skill of the pupils. This paradigm
shift only can help to “move away from rote learning” was suggested by Ashok
Ganguly, the chairman of the CBSE board. Further the CBSE board chairman
announced “this year onwards 20% of the test paper will have analytical questions
which will be typologically different from past years” This change is “to differentiate
the best from the rest”(Times of India, Pune, Friday, Feb 15, 2008)
The instrument to measure Higher Mental Ability in the specific units is an
achievement test in character but this test is concept based which would assess the
analytical capability of the student. These test items were formulated in tandem with
that of the Assessment of Scholastic Skills through Educational Testing (ASSET) and
121
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) test items but within the
instructional objectives and content of the unit selected for the study. Some of the
questions were taken from ASSET and TIMSS. The test items were all situation based
but falling into the parameter of the concept the students have learned in the specific
units selected for the study. An example of test items used in the test paper selected
from TIMSS (TIMSS population 2 item pool 1994 p.60) is as follows –
1. Filtration using the equipment shown below can be used to separate which
materials?
a) A solution of milk and water
b) A solution of table salt and water
c) A solution of sugar and water
d) A mixture of mud and water.
Tests were made for Chemistry and Biology. Each question paper was
constructed for 15 marks. Each item was scored for one mark each. All the items used
were closed questions to remove subjectivity. The type of questions used were
concept based, situation oriented multiple choice questions.
122
The steps followed were that used for developing tests (Siddiqui 2004 p.69 -70
Mohanty 2004 p.73-76)
Step 1: Building a blue print (table of specifications) is based on the instructional
objectives and the outline of the content. (See appendix B.3 for the instructional
objectives) ( Groundlund 1981 p.69-70, Gronlund&Linn 1990p.54 )
Step 2: Based on the blue print test items were formulated and given for analysis to
experts. Three experts were given to analyze the test items and they were also asked
categorize the test items into different instructional objectives. This was done to
ascertain that there was a general consensus among the teaching community about the
level of the questions and reduce subjectivity. Apart from them the expert guidance of
the guide was very valuable.
Step3: Some of the test items were modified according to the suggestions given by the
experts and the booklet was given for a try out to a sample of similar students.
Step 4: Item analysis was done to select the items that can discriminate the low and
high achievers
Step 5: Poor items were discarded and the final form of the test was made.
3.5.3.1 Test Construction – Chemistry – Unit test II
The steps for test construction were followed as per the guidelines given by
Groundlund & Linn (1990). The researcher constructed and selected test items from
standard tests and gave it to experts for analysis of the test items to remove the
researcher bias. The results are given below in the table 3.6
123
Table: 3.6 Analysis of Test Items by Experts for Chemistry (Unit- Air, Oxygen,
Hydrogen) to Measure Higher Mental Ability on Specific Units
(Unit test II)
Que: /o AA
Expert
1
ST
Expert
2
Kvv
Expert
3
average
1) App App: App: App
2) Ana; App: App: App:
3) App App: Eva App
4) Ana; Ana: Ana: Ana:
5) Ana; Ana: App: Ana:
6) App Syn: App: App:
7) Ana; Ana: syn Ana:
8) Ana: App: Ana: Ana
9) Ana; App: Ana: Ana:
10) Ana; App: App: App:
11) Eva: Syn Eva: Eva
12) Syn Syn: Eva Syn:
13) Eva: Syn Eva Eva:
14) Ana; App: App: App:
15) App Ana: App: App:
/ote: AA – Mr. Antony ST - Mr. Shaji Thomas Kvv – Mrs K. V. Varghese
App: - application, Ana: - analysis, Eva: - evaluation, Syn: - synthesis
The Chemistry test items were analyzed by three experts in Chemistry holding post
graduate and doctoral level of qualifications two are chemistry school teachers one is
a college professor with an experience in school teaching.. Test items 2, 6, 8, 11
needed to be discussed again with the experts to come to a consensus for categorizing.
Their comments were also incorporated to the final form of the test items. (Appendix-
C.1) Based on the analysis of the chemistry experts the test items were categorized
into various objectives and the weight age is given below in table 3.8
124
Table 3.7 Weight age to Objectives – Chemistry (Unit II)
Objectives Marks Weight age
in percent
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
07
05
01
02
47
33
7
13
Total 15 100
The content analysis of the test items was also done and the researcher has
taken more of the test items from unit Air and Oxygen because more information was
dealt in this area and lesser in Hydrogen. Hence the distribution of test items are given
in table 3.8
Table 3.8 Weightage to Content- Chemistry (Unit II)
Content
Marks
Percent
Air & Oxygen
Hydrogen
10
05
67
33
Total 15 100
Further the test items were given to similar students other than the
experimental group to find the reliability and validity and to perform item analysis.
Based on the scores in the trial test, item analysis was done and it is given in table
3.10 Item analysis will help us to find the item difficulty and discriminatory power of
the particular item. It can be used for selecting items of desired difficulty that best
discriminates between high and low achieving students ( Linn & Groundlund 1995,
p.320-321) Item difficulty was found using the formula
125
P = R/T x 100
Where P - is item difficulty, R - equals the number students who got the item right,
T -equals the total number of students who tried the item. The discriminating power is
computed using the following formula
D = RU - RL / .5 T
D is the discriminating power, Ru is the upper group who got the item right and R l is
the lower group who got the item right divided by the one half the total number of
students included in the item analysis.
Table: 3.9 Item Analysis of Test Items of Higher Mental Ability Test (Unit test
II) - Chemistry
Item
/o.
RU RL RH+RL
( R )
RH-
RL
Item
difficulty(P)=R/Tx100
Discriminating
power
(D)=Ru-Rl /
½ T
Item
evaluation
1) 5 1 6 4 30 0.4 retainable
2) 10 4 14 6 70 0.6 retainable
3) 10 7 17 3 85 0.3 retainable
4) 10 8 18 2 90 0.2 retainable
5) 9 5 14 4 70 0.4 retainable
6) 10 5 15 5 75 0.5 retainable
7) 6 1 7 4 35 0.4 retainable
8) 7 2 9 5 45 0.5 retainable
9) 6 6 12 0 60 0 rejected
126
10) 10 5 15 5 75 0.5 retainable
11) 9 1 10 8 50 0.8 retainable
12) 8 3 11 5 55 0.5 retainable
13) 9 4 13 5 65 0.5 retainable
14) 10 7 17 3 85 0.3 retainable
15) 9 5 14 4 70 0.4 retainable
Items with moderate difficulty 40 -50 -60 % and with validity indices of 0.20
or more are regarded satisfactory ( Garret 1966 ). The analysis of the test items are
given in table 3.9. The item analysis shows that item no: 9 have 0 discriminatory
powers and hence it is removed. The reliability by Cronbach Alpha is 0.672 The
final form of the test is given in the Appendix –C.1
3.5.3.2 Test Construction- Biology – (Unit test II)
Test construction for measuring higher mental ability in Biology (Unit test II)
followed the same pattern for Chemistry. The test items were formulated based on the
objectives and then given to the experts to analyze and assign to various objectives the
responses of the teachers are given in the table 3.10
127
Table: 3.10 Analysis of Test Items by Experts for Biology (Unit- Human
Systems) to Measure Higher Mental Ability (Unit test II) on Specific
Units
Que: /o Sc
Expert
1
Cg
Expert
2
St
Expert
3
Average
1) Syn Ana Syn Syn
2) Ana Ana Ana: Ana
3) Syn Eva Syn Syn
4) Eva Ana Ana: Ana
5) Ana Ana App; Ana
6) Ana Ana Ana Ana
7) App App Ana: App
8) Ana Ana Eva Ana
9) Ana Ana Syn Ana
10) Syn Ana Syn Syn
11) Ana Ana Ana: Ana
12) Syn Syn App: Syn
13) Syn Eva Eva: Eva
14) Syn Eva Syn Syn
15) Ana Ana Ana: Ana
/ote: Sc – Sheela Chacko, cg - Christiana George, St – Susan Thomas
The Biology test items were analyzed by two experts in Biology holding post
graduate and doctoral level of qualifications as well as the researcher it self who holds
a postgraduate qualification, two were school teachers and one a college professor
with experience in school teaching. The content selected for the study was on Systems
of Human body. The three experts on analysis of the test items found more test items
falling into analysis level. The weight age for the objectives based on the analysis of
the experts is given in table 3.11.
128
Table 3.11 Weightage to Objectives – Biology(Unit II)
Objectives Marks Weightage
in percent
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
01
08
05
01
07
53
33
07
Total 15 100
Table 3. 12 Weightage to Content- Biology (Unit II)
Content Marks Weightage
in percent
Digestive system 1 6.7
Respiratory system 3 20
Excretory system 1 6.7
Circulatory system 1 6.7
Reproductive system 1 6.7
Skeletal system 3 20
Muscular system 1 6.7
Nervous system 1 6.7
Integument system 2 13.3
Endocrine system 1 6.7
Total 15 100
When the test items were formulated the researcher gave equal importance to all the
systems. More test items were taken from skeletal system, respiratory system and
integument system due to more content.
129
Table: 3.13 Item Analysis of Test Items Mental Ability Test (Unit test II) –
Biology
Item
/o.
RU RL RH+RL
( R )
RH-
RL
Item
difficulty(P)=R/Tx100
Discriminating
power
(D)=Ru-Rl /
½ T
Item
evaluation
1) 10 5 15 5 75 0.5 retainable
2) 10 9 19 1 95 0.1 rejected
3) 10 2 12 8 60 0.8 retainable
4) 10 7 17 3 85 0.3 retainable
5) 3 0 3 3 15 0.3 retainable
6) 9 5 14 4 70 0.4 retainable
7) 9 0 9 9 45 0.9 retainable
8) 5 5 10 0 50 0 rejected
9) 9 2 11 7 55 0.7 retainable
10) 9 7 16 2 80 0.2 retainable
11) 6 0 6 6 30 0.6 retainable
12) 10 3 13 7 65 0.7 retainable
13) 7 1 8 6 40 0.6 retainable
14) 9 2 11 7 55 0.7 retainable
15) 0 2 2 -2 10 -0.2 rejected
130
Items discarded according to the discriminatory power were items 2, 8, 15. The
CronbachAlpha or reliability is 0.646. The final test form is in appendix C.2
3.5.3.3 Validity & Reliability of Unit test II
The content validity was ascertained by the consultation with experts and
comparing with the syllabus, and content present. Reliability was calculated by the
pilot test and it was found out that the reliability of chemistry is 0.672 and Biology is
0.646
3.5.4 Instrument to Measure Achievement
Unit test I: The achievements of students were measured with the help of
achievement test developed by the researcher. Achievement tests were made for
Chemistry and Biology. Each question paper was constructed for 50 marks. Each item
was scored for one mark each. All the items used were closed questions to remove
subjectivity .The type of questions used were name the following, match the correct
answer, multiple choice questions, completion questions, short answers. The
following steps were followed while developing the tests.(Siddiqui 2004 p.69-70
Mohanty 2004 p.73-76)
Step 1: Building a blue print (table of specifications) is based on the instructional
objectives and the outline of the content. (See appendix B.3, B.4 for the instructional
objectives) ( Gronlund, 1981 ; Linn& Gronlund, 1990; Linn& Gronlund, 1995. p 534-
535).
131
3.5.4.1 Test Construction – Chemistry (Unit test I)
Achievement test was constructed by the teacher and basically it is a unit test
having test items from the lower level onwards (Knowledge, Understanding,
Application)
Table 3.14 Weightage to Objectives – Chemistry (Unit test I)
Objectives Marks Weightage
in percent
Knowledge
Understanding
Application
26
21
03
52
42
06
Total 50 100
Table 3.15 Weightage to Content- Chemistry (Unit test I)
Content Marks Percent
Air & Oxygen
Hydrogen
31
19
62
38
Total 50 100
Table 3. 16 Weightage to Type of Questions- Chemistry(Unit Test I)
Content
name
No(mks)
complete
No(mks)
T/F
No(mks)
M.C
No(mks)
S.A
No(mks)
total
Unit 1.(air&
O2)
Unit 2(H2)
5(1)
5(1)
6(1)
4(1)
11(1)
2(1)
8(1)
7(1)
2(1/2)
2(1/2)
31
19
Total 10(1) 10(1) 13(1) 15(1) 4 (1/2) 50
T/F = true or false; M.C= multiple choice; S.A= short answer
132
3.5.4.2 Test Construction- Biology – (Unit test I)
Table 3.17 Weightage to Objectives – Biology (Unit Test I)
Objectives Marks Weight age
in percent
Knowledge
Understanding
Application
22
22
06
44
44
12
Total 50 100
Table 3.18 Weightage to Content- Biology(Unit Test I)
Content Marks Percent
Digestive system 8 16
Respiratory system 5 10
Excretory system 3 06
Circulatory system 7 14
Reproductive system 1 02
Skeletal system 4 08
Muscular system 2 04
Nervous system 10 20
Integumentary system 6 12
Endocrine system 4 08
TOTAL 50 100
133
Table 3.19 Weightage to Test Items – Biology (Unit Test I)
content
Terms
Odd
one
Fill in
the
blanks
Multiple
choice
Difference
Total
Dis:sy 4(1) 2(1) 1(1) 1(1) 8(1)
Res:sy 1(1) 1(1) 1(1) 2(1) 5(1)
Excre:sy 1(1) 1(1) 2(1)
Circu:sy 1(1) 2(1) 1(1) 2(1) 2(1) 8(1)
Rep:sys 1(1) 1(1)
Ske:sy 1(1) 2(1) 1(1) 4(1)
Musc:sy 1(1) 1(1) 2(1)
Nerv:sy 2(1) 2(1) 2(1) 2(1) 2(1) 10(1)
Integu:sy 1(1) 1(1) 2(1) 1(1) 1(1) 6(1)
Endo:
sys
1(1) 2(1) 1(1) 4(1)
Total 10(1) 10(1) 10(1) 10(1) 10(1) 50
Step 2: According to the blue print 50item objective type questions were made for
each (Chemistry, Biology) unit test. Items were selected from the units selected to be
taught by the researcher. Only English version of the items was made. Language of
the test items were made simple for the easy comprehension for the reader.
Step 3. The lists of items were given to the concerned regular teacher, statistician,
and educationists to check for any ambiguity of the questions and the distracters. On
the basis of their suggestions some of the questions were modified as well as
eliminated.
Step 4: (Try out) A booklet containing the list of 50 items was made. Each question
had the provision of space to be answered in the same area. These were distributed to
the students of standard seven of SDA Higher secondary school Pune ( these students
are not subjected to the experimental study) Instructions of answering the questions
and approximate time- limit were given in the booklet. Instructions were read out and
134
explained. Each correct answer was given one mark and wrong answer carried zero
mark.
Step 5: (Item analysis)
Appraisal of the classroom test is done with item analysis. The procedure is
(Gronlund 1981 p.256-259; Linn & Gronlund 1990 p247-250; Linn & Gronlund
1995, p. 320-321) as follows:
1. Rank the test papers in order from the highest to the lowest score
2. Selected the 10 papers with the highest total score and the 10 papers with the
lowest total scores
3. Place rest of the middle papers aside. They were not used in the analysis.
4. For each test item, tabulated the number of pupils in the upper and lower
groups who selected the right answer.
5. Compute the difficulty of each item (percentage of pupils who got the item
right) with following formula, in which R = the number of pupils who got the
item right and T= the total number of pupils who tried the item.
Item Difficulty (P) = R/T x100
6. Compute the discriminating power of each item i.e., the validity index of an
item (Garret1966) ( difference between the number of pupils in the upper and
lower groups who got the item right) with the following formula, in which Ru
= the number of pupils in the upper group who got item right, Rl = the
number of pupils in the lower group who got the item right , divide the
difference with half of the total number of pupils included in the item
analysis(1/2 T)
Item Discriminating Power = Ru - Rl / ½ T
135
In the present study, the researcher has accepted item with moderate difficulty, this is
in accordance to Garret (1966. p363) “items with moderate difficulty are to be
preferred – 40 -50-60% passing”
Regarding the discriminating power of each item or validity index of an item, Garret
made the following observation in page 368
“Item with validity indices of 0.20 or more are regarded as satisfactory;
but items with lower indices will often serve if the test is long. Items
having zero validity are of course, useless. These items and items
having negative validity must be discarded, or they must be examined
carefully”
Table: 3.20 Item Analysis of Test Items – Chemistry (Unit test - I)
Item
/o.
RU RL RH+RL
( R )
RH-
RL
Item
difficulty(P)=R/Tx100
Discriminating
power
(D)=Ru-Rl /
½ T
Item
evaluation
1) 9 8 17 1 85% 0.1 rejected
2) 7 1 8 6 40% 0.6 *
3) 10 4 14 6 70% 0.6 retainable
4) 2 1 3 1 15% 0.1 rejected
5) 8 5 13 3 65% 0.3 retainable
6) 9 4 13 5 65% 0.5 retainable
7) 10 6 16 4 80% 0.4 retainable
8) 4 0 4 4 20% 0.4 retainable
9) 10 9 19 1 95% 0.1 rejected
136
10) 10 8 18 2 90% 0.2 retainable
11) 10 9 19 1 95% 0.1 rejected
12) 10 8 18 2 90% 0.2 retainable
13) 10 8 18 2 90% 0.2 retainable
14) 9 8 17 1 85% 0.1 rejected
15) 10 9 19 1 95% 0.1 rejected
16) 9 4 13 5 65% 0.5 retainable
17) 10 9 19 1 95% 0.1 rejected
18) 6 5 11 1 55% 0.1 rejected
19) 9 5 14 4 70% 0.4 retainable
20) 9 6 15 3 75% 0.3 retainable
21) 10 8 18 2 90% 0.2 retainable
22) 8 7 15 1 75% 0.1 rejected
23) 10 10 20 0 100% 0 rejected
24) 9 6 15 3 75% 0.3 retainable
25) 10 7 17 3 85% 0.3 retainable
26) 8 5 13 3 65% 0.3 retainable
27) 10 5 15 5 75% 0.5 retainable
28) 6 7 13 -1 65% -0.1 rejected
29) 10 10 20 0 100% 0 rejected
30) 9 9 18 0 90% 0 rejected
137
31) 9 5 14 4 70% 0.4 retainable
32) 7 2 9 5 45% 0.5 *
33) 8 8 16 0 80% 0 rejected
34) 8 6 14 2 70% 0.2 retainable
35) 10 4 14 6 70% 0.6 retainable
36) 10 3 13 7 65% 0.7 retainable
37) 10 7 17 3 85% 0.3 retainable
38) 6 2 8 4 40% 0.4 *
39) 7 2 9 5 45% 0.5 *
40) 6 1 7 5 35% 0.5 retainable
41) 4 5 9 -1 45% -0.1 rejected
42) 8 5 13 3 65% 0.3 retainable
43) 9 1 10 8 50% 0.8 *
44) 7 4 11 3 55% 0.3 *
45) 6 1 7 5 35% 0.5 retainable
46) 9 4 13 5 65% 0.5 retainable
47) 6 3 9 3 45% 0.3 *
48) 9 5 14 4 70% 0.4 retainable
49) 5 1 6 4 30% 0.4 retainable
50) 8 3 11 5 55% 0.5 *
Note: * are retained
138
Table: 3.21 Classification of test items according to the Item Difficulty and
Discriminating Power – Chemistry (Unit test I)
Item Difficulty (P) Discriminating
power (D) Below 40% 40% to60% Above 60%
Above 0.40 8, 40,45,49, 2, 32,
38,39,43,44,50
3,6,7,16,19,27,31,35,36,46, 48,
0.30 --- 0.39 5,47, 20,24,25,26,37,42,
0.20 – 0.29 10,12,13,21,34,
Below 0.20 4, 18,41, 1,9,11,14,15,17,22,23,28,29,30,33,
In Chemistry item difficulty of 30% to 90% were selected and they all showed
validity indices 0.2 to 0.8(see table 3.20; 3.21). The total items removed after the
analyses were 15. The items removed were1,4,9,11,14,15,17,18,22,23,28,29,30,33,41.
Hence the final test form contains 35 test items. (See appendix C.5; C.6). The
asterisks items are selected.
Table:3.22 Item Analysis of Test Items – Biology (Unit test I)
Item
/o.
RU RL RH+RL
( R )
RH-
RL
Item
difficulty(P)=R/Tx100
Discriminating
power
(D)=Ru-Rl /
½ T
Item
evaluation
1) 10 8 18 2 90% 0.2 Retainable
2) 9 5 14 4 70% 0.4 Retainable
3) 10 4 14 6 70% 0.6 Retainable
139
4) 10 4 14 6 70% 0.6 Retainable
5) 8 2 10 6 50% 0.6 *
6) 10 6 16 4 80% 0.4 Retainable
7) 3 0 3 3 15% 0.3 Rejected
8) 6 0 6 6 30% 0.6 Retainable
9) 7 1 8 6 40% 0.6 *
10) 8 6 14 2 70% 0.2 Retainable
11) 7 5 12 2 60% 0.2 *
12) 10 10 20 0 100% 0 Rejected
13) 7 6 13 1 65% 0.1 Rejected
14) 9 6 15 3 75% 0.3 Retainable
15) 10 9 19 1 95% 0.1 Rejected
16) 9 2 11 7 55% 0.7 *
17) 3 1 4 2 20% 0.2 Retainable
18) 6 4 10 2 50% 0.2 *
19) 10 9 19 1 95% 0.1 Rejected
20) 9 6 15 3 75% 0.3 Retainable
21) 8 1 9 7 45% 0.7 *
22) 7 1 8 6 40% 0.6 *
23) 8 0 8 8 40% 0.8 *
24) 10 4 14 6 70% 0.6 Retainable
140
25) 10 8 18 2 80% 0.2 Retainable
26) 8 0 8 8 40% 0.8 *
27) 10 5 15 5 75% 0.5 Retainable
28) 7 0 7 7 35% 0.7 Retainable
29) 8 0 8 8 40% 0.8 *
30) 10 2 12 8 60% 0.8 *
31) 9 6 15 3 75% 0.3 Retainable
32) 5 2 7 3 35% 0.3 Retainable
33) 9 5 14 4 70% 0.4 Retainable
34) 7 4 11 3 55% 0.3 *
35) 9 5 14 4 70% 0.4 Retainable
36) 10 4 14 6 70% 0.6 Retainable
37) 10 8 18 2 90% 0.2 Retainable
38) 9 3 12 6 60% 0.6 *
39) 8 2 10 6 50% 0.6 *
40) 6 2 8 4 40% 0.4 *
41) 5 1 6 4 30% 0.4 Retainable
42) 7 2 9 5 45% 0.5 *
43) 3 0 3 3 15% 0.3 Rejected
44) 9 2 11 7 55% 0.7 *
45) 2 0 2 2 10% 0.2 Rejected
141
46) 2 0 2 2 10% 0.2 Rejected
47) 4 0 4 4 20% 0.4 Rejected
48) 9 1 10 8 50% 0.8 *
49) 9 1 10 8 50% 0.8 *
50) 7 2 9 5 45% 0.5 *
Table:3.23 Classification of Test Items According to the Item Difficulty and
Discriminating Power – Biology (Unit test I)
Item Difficulty (P) Discriminating
power (D) Below 40% 40% to60% Above 60%
Above 0.40 7,8,28,41,47 5,9,16,21,22,23,26,29
30,38,39,40,42,44,48,49,50
2,3,4,6,24,27,33,35,36
0.30 --- 0.39 32,43 34 14,20,31
0.20 – 0.29 10,17,45,46 18 1,11,25,37
Below 0.20 12,13,15,19
In Biology item difficulty of 30 % to 90% were selected and they all showed validity
indices 0.2 and above. Item 43 (15% – 0.3), 45 (10% - 0.2), 46 (10% -0.2), 47 (20% -
0.4) were not selected, when the students were interviewed on the difficulty many of
them replied “this is a new question pattern which we are not familiar with” Reenu
(ID.NO, HR 213) For the validity of the test the researcher has taken them in the final
test form. Thus in the final test form 10 test items were removed and it contained 40
142
test items. The items removed were 7,12,13,15,17,19, 43, 45, 46, 47. Appendix C.8
indicates the final test form.
Table 3.24 denotes the number of test items in the initial form and in the final form
with their coefficient of correlation and coefficient of reliability.
Table: 3.24 /umbers of Items Selected for Final Tests.
Achievement test No. of
items
before
try-
out
No. of
items
retained
for final
use
Validity
index
(Dis:
power)
Item
difficulty
Coefficient
of
correlation
( r)
Coefficient
of
reliability
( R)
Chemistry
50
35 0.2 to0.8 30% to
90%
0.733821
0.846478
Biology
50 40 0.2 to
0.8
30% to
90%
0.882307 0.937474
Step 6: (Final Structure of the Test)
After the appraisal of the question booklet the final structure of the booklet is decided
on the basis of the item analysis. The final form of the booklet is seen in Appendix
C.6;C.8 The answer book lets were corrected by the researcher carefully. This
question book let was ready to be used for the experimental study.
3.5.4.3 Validity and Reliability: The steps were taken to have the high content
validity, and criterion validity by making a detailed and balanced table of
specifications and item analysis. The reliability of the test after the appraisal was
found out using Split Half Method. After removing the above specified test items, the
questions were arranged in a serial order and all the items were divided in to two
143
sections based on the question numbers. The odd numbered questions as one set and
all the even numbered questions as one set. The coefficient of Correlation ( r ) was
then found out using the Pearson Product-moment coefficient.. The formula used for
finding coefficient of correlation is
( )( )∑∑
∑=
22 yx
xyr
Where
=∑ 2x the sum of the X subtracted from each X score squared ( )2XX −
=∑ 2y the sum of the Y subtracted from each Y score squared ( )2YY −
=∑ xy the cross products of the mean subtracted from that score ( )XX − ( )YY −
Coefficient of Reliability was found out by r = r
r
+1
2
The same procedure was followed for the two subjects. The reliability of Chemistry
was 0.85 and Biology was 0.94 the table 3.24 gives a detailed explanation of the item
analysis.
3.5.5 Instrument to Measure the Opinion of the Students on Concept Mapping
Developed by Trifone (2006)
Concept mapping opinionnaire was developed by Trifone (2006) and used in his study
The efficacy of Concept Mapping in Motivating Students to take a more meaningful
approach to learning. The questions were formulated to assess students on the “ basis
of their perceptions of how concept mapping: (1) affected their level of effort, and
active role expended in learning Biology, (2) served as an aid to understanding and
144
achievement, (3) affected their ability and motivation to learn Biology.” Trifone
(2006). Eight questions were formulated to assess these three areas. In the present
study the same questionnaire was used for the science subject as a whole. Validity and
reliability were not found, even then along with the objective 1 & 2 the opinionnaire
provide an insight into explaining the results obtained in the first two objectives.
3.6 Procedure of the study (The process)
The process involves a dual nature due to the content and the methodology and it is
highlighted by the NCERT as ‘Pedagogical Analysis’ in its 1998 Framework (Borse
2007) On the basis of the guiding principles of NCTE, the Pune university put
forward the idea of Content Cum Methodology where in a teacher will meaningfully
integrate content and methodology . This involves the analysis of the content based on
the curriculum and using appropriate methods to deliver the content to the students in
a manner such that the content is meaningfully integrated into their Schema.
Hence for the process, the content needs to be analyzed on the basis of the
curriculum, syllabus and the text book.
3.6.1 Content Areas (Units): - In the present study the content selected are:
Chemistry (Air, Oxygen, Hydrogen), and Biology (Human systems)
These topics were selected because they are important concepts students required to
understand and is elaborated as they go to higher classes. Though the research in
Science Education points towards hands on and inquiry based the practice is chalk
and talk method. To help children become autonomous learners the NCERT put
forward a revision of the curriculum on the basis of Themes that are cross disciplinary
in nature. The themes chosen are: Food, Materials, The world of living things, How
145
things work, Moving things, People and ideas, Natural phenomena, Natural
Resources. These themes run through but as we go to higher classes there is a
consolidation of content which leads to some theme absent such as Food in class X
(NCERT, N.D p.136) These themes are guiding lights in the construction of the text
books .The NCERT also points that children in the upper primary stage should be
given instruction on areas which come in direct experience.
This is the stage where children can and should be provided
plentiful opportunities to engage with the processes of
science: observing things closely, recording observations,
tabulation, and drawing, plotting graphs – and, of course,
drawing inferences from what they observe. Sufficient time
and opportunities have to be provided for this. Ibid p.137
Taking into consideration these statements and with the discussion with the teachers
and experts (Dr. Seema Katre, Dr. Susan Thomas, Dr.M. Upalani, Mrs K.V.
Varghese, Mr. Shaji Thomas, ) the following units in Chemistry were selected for the
study: Air, Oxygen, Hydrogen. It should also be noted that these elements (Oxygen,
Hydrogen) forms the basis for many reactions like the oxidation, reduction reactions
and forms a major concept for learning chemistry. Along with Air these topics cross
the borders and reach Biology and Environmental science and hence are a very
important content to be taught in standard seven.
The Upper Primary is the age, when children reach the stage of puberty and
are keen to know about there bodies and sexuality (Biehler & Snow man 1990 p.129).
The NCERT curriculum document states that it must be dealt not merely as a
biological process but a situation to address many taboos, and a setting for counseling.
(NCERT, N.D p.137. Moreover the systems of the Human body follows a funnel
146
shaped elaboration as it moves in to higher grades. Hence it is considered as an
appropriate concept to be taught in grade seven.
Table: 3.25 Curriculum Prescribed by the /CERT for Different Classes in
Relation to the Units Selected for the Study
Grade Themes Key concepts
Materials Grouping things on basis of properties VI
The world of
living things
The world of living things- light, air,
water
Plant & Animal form and function
Materials Different types of materials Chemical
reactions
VII
The world of
living things
Utilization of food. Respiration,
movement of substances- circulation,
excretion, sweat formation
Materials Burning and rusting VIII
The world of
living things
Reproduction, sense organ, endocrine
system
Materials Elements, compounds, mixture.
Materials around us
IX
The world of
living things
Cell, organs , organ systems
147
Materials Types of reactions, Oxidation,
Reduction reactions in terms of gain
and loss of oxygen and hydrogen
Reactions of iron rusting,
X
The world of
living things
1utrition, transport, respiration,
excretion, Movement, control and
coordination, reproduction- all
systems of the human body
Analysis of the text books from standard VI to X is given above denoting the
importance of the selected units in various grades.. In lower grades the units are
introduced and as they go higher the content becomes more in-depth and spreads out.
In the case of chemistry and Biology the distribution is ‘mixed method’ (Borse 2007)
Table: 3.26 Class Wise Distribution of Content from Std VI to X – ICSE
Unit
No.
Std VI StdVII StdVIII Std IX Std X
Air Air,
Oxygen,
Hydrogen
Air &
Burning.
Oxygen,
Hydrogen,
Oxygen
Atomicity of
Hydrogen,
Oxygen Study
of compounds
like HCl ,
NH3 HNO3
SO2 H2S
H2SO4
Cell , Plant
life
Organ
system of
Human body
Life
processes-
Transport of
Nutrients in
Nutrition and
digestions in
Humans.
The skin, The
Nervous
system, Sense
organs,
Endocrine
148
Plants &
animals,
Circulatory
system,
Reproductive
system in
Plants and
animals.
Nervous
Control and
coordination&
sense organs
Chemical
coordination.
Growth and
development
in plants and
animals,
puberty and
adolescence.
cardiovascular
system,
Respiratory
system,
Excretory
system.
system,
Reproductive
system.
A comparative analysis of the prescribed text books with the NCERT syllabus shows
that the Key concepts mentioned are taken into consideration and the text books were
formulated. The text books used are the following:
• A Text Book of Biology for standard VII (Prasad 2005)
• Simplified Middle School Chemistry for Standard VII(Dalal 2007)
149
Table: 3.27 Comparison between Syllabus and Text book
Syllabus Chapters in the Textbook
Unit Subject
/o. Key
concepts
Chapter
/o.
Chapter Title
Total
/o. of
pages
5 Air, Oxygen and
Oxides
53-70 Chemistry 2
2
3
Materials,
Chemical
reactions
Classification
of substance
into acidic
basic ,
neutral
Breath of
life- air
6 Hydrogen 71-78
Biology 1
3
Utilization of
food
Respiration
Circulation,
excretion,
perspiration
5 Organ systems of
the Human body
41-59
3.6.2 The Pedagogical Analysis
Science teaching is not transmission of a body of knowledge. It consists of skills to be
mastered, observations and inferences to be consolidated and finally helping students
to transform the body of knowledge into connecting links to their personal body of
knowledge and replacing existing misconceptions within them. Teachers need to use
different methods to achieve the above task in the classroom. Single method may not
be enough to teach a single unit or even in one lesson plan. Over the years the main
mode of teaching was lecture method which is considered as the traditional method of
teaching. Various methods of teaching science are: Discussion method,
Demonstration method, Laboratory method, Heuristic method Project method
Inductive – Deductive method. The out come of the in depth study of the teaching
learning process by Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil is the Models of Teaching. Joyce
150
& Weil (1985) organized the models of teaching into four families of which the first
is the Information Processing Family Model of teaching. The models of teaching in
this family includes the organization and presentation of verbal and non- verbal
symbols in a way that help in the formation of concept, solution of problem,
development of social relationship and integrated personality(Siddiqui, 2004) The
Advance Organizer Model of David P. Ausubel falls into this category.
Ausubel formulated a learning theory ‘which places central emphasis on the
influence of students’ prior knowledge on subsequent meaningful learning.’
(Curriculum guide CDC N.D) The fundamental idea in Ausubel’s cognitive
psychology is that learning takes place by the assimilation of new concepts and
propositions into existing concept and propositional frameworks held by the learner.
This knowledge structure as held by a learner is also referred to as the individual’s
cognitive structure.(Novak & Canas 2006) and it forms the basis for Concept Maps
developed by Novak. Concept Map helps to make meaningful connections by
developing meta cognitive thinking pattern, by planning, organizing and self
regulating their learning as they strive to make logical valid propositional statements
(Trifone2006). The maps can be used in various situation such as prior to laboratory
method, or after the experimental session, it can be used in expository materials and
for analyzing the field trip information.(Novak, Gowin & Johansen 1983,Heinz-Fry &
Novak 1990,Roth 1994,Kelly & Odom 2001,Llewellyn 2007) The Map finds
application in variety of situations and in the present study Concept Map was used in
the instructional process, to find out its effectiveness in students’ achievement and
cognitive processes.
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3.6.3 Lesson Plans
The successful execution of any activity requires careful planning and class-
room teaching is not an exception. The prerequisite for successful teaching is a good
lesson plan. Lesson planning has a futuristic implication which permits a teacher to
anticipate pupils’ reactions and by using these reactions to prepare adequately in order
to avoid foreseeable difficulties (Mohan 2002).
3.6.3.1 Advantages of a Lesson plan
Advantages of Lesson Planning are manifold. A summary is given below: (Mohan
2002, Sharma 2003)
i. It makes work, organized and regular
ii. It enhances the self – confidence and self reliance of the teacher
iii. It facilitates appropriate use of aids at appropriate time
iv. It establishes proper connections between different lessons of study, thus
ensuring continuity in the teaching – learning process.
v. It is economical and saves time from unnecessary repetition.
vi. The student interest can be retained by planning suitable activities and
assignments, according to the mental level of the students.
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3.6.3.2 Steps in Lesson planning.
Various approaches of lesson planning are used; one of the most widely used
approaches is the Herbartian Approach. (Sharma 2003, Mohan 2002,) Lesson plan
were constructed using concept maps. A sample lesson plan is in appendix F
In each stage of this approach concept map can be used and the stage can be
effectively realized.
i. Introduction/Motivation or Explore & Engage
The mind of the child should be prepared prior to presentation of the concept/
knowledge. Prior knowledge of learners controls to a greater extent what each
individual can learn from a particular situation. It is not productive to pour facts
into their brains. Each student must assimilate and make sense of new ideas by
connecting them to what they already know (Fisher 2004).
The researcher asked probing questions on the content to be taught in the
class. For example, in the chemistry class a question asked prior to teaching the
Unit Air was ‘What is air? What are its characteristics?’ And the students made
concept maps of their prior knowledge about Air. This gives the students a graphic
representation of the prior knowledge of the concept Air, and helps them to
understand their assumptions on this particular concept. See Appendix A.5 for the
prior concept map. Thus eliciting and challenging their prior knowledge
motivates them to learn and assimilate the missing links in their Schema.
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ii. Presentation or Explain & Engage
The ensuing discussion in the class helps them to find the misconceptions
regarding that particular concept. The discussion among the students, with the
help of the teacher helped to explore and extend the body of knowledge. The
researcher presented the content with pictures and concept maps (appendix A.7)
developed collaboratively with the help of the students. Appendix A.6 show a
concept map developed by a student during classroom discussion.
iii. Comparison or Association or Elaborate
The maps made in the class were collaboratively made .The students gave
inputs as the class progressed and there were active discussions, exclamations,
arguments about the place of the propositions to be made, and the concept terms
in the bubble to be written, denoting the class was engaged actively in the learning
process.
iv. Generalization & Application or Extend & Connect
As the lesson progressed the student made concept maps assisted to
externalize “the individual’s propositional frameworks and can check faulty
linkages, moreover the cross linkages show possible new integrative
reconciliations that in turn lead to new and more powerful understanding” (Novak
& Gowin, 1983). Thus the students are able to generalize the event or phenomena
or concept and able to draw a whole picture from the parts. It gives a logical
conclusion for the event and the misconceptions can be removed. Thorndike 1923
has mentioned the psychological construct ‘transfer of learning’ (Eisenkraft 2003)
which takes place at this phase. The ‘aha’ feeling or the exclamation ‘I got it’
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shows the inner satisfaction a child gets when he/ she makes a meaningful
connection in his /her Schema.
v. Recapitulation or Reflection
A recap of the lesson learned was also ascertained using a concept map.
Teacher made hand outs with fill in concept maps or fill in concept maps on the
black board were used to recap the lesson along with the questions. This type of
summarization helped them to remember the concepts. Weekly recapitulation for
the lesson completed was also given. A focus question was given to which the
students made individual Concept Maps thus helping them in weekly recap of the
lesson covered. These assignments were evaluated and given marks. A sample
lesson plan is prepared (appendix F)
3.6.4 The Treatment
Prior to the treatment standardized questions were bought; achievement and
questionnaire to measure the mental abilities were constructed. Meanwhile the school
authorities were contacted and permission was secured for the field work. (Appendix
D contains all the permission letters for the field work) Regular teachers were also
contacted and the researcher prepared lesson plans for the selected units with the help
of Concept Maps.
The experiment began on October 22, 2007 and culminated on January 16,
2008. Thus there were 12 weeks which included the holidays and examinations. The
school calendar is given in the Appendix – B.1. The experiment lasted for 50 class
periods for each section which was divided among Chemistry and Biology. The
researcher went into the class during the regular class periods thus not giving any
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disturbance for the functioning of the regular school schedule. Each section was given
three periods for each subject (Chemistry, Biology). Thus in a week there were 12
periods for both sections. The time table is given in the Appendix – B.2 The regular
class teacher came and observed the classes time to time.
The treatment began with pre- test. Then the students were oriented about the
steps of construction of Concept Maps and each one was given class work note books
pasted with the steps of construction of Concept Maps. The instructions were titled as
HOW TO BUILD A CO1CEPT MAP. The steps were taken from Learning How to
Learn (Novak & Gowin 1984, p.227). The steps for constructing the Concept Map
are:
• Identify the focus question or knowledge domain (area) you wish to map.
Identify 10 or more concepts that are connected to the question or knowledge
domain.
• Rank in order the concepts by placing the broadest and most inclusive idea at
the top of the map.
• Work down the list and add more concepts as needed.
• Begin to build up your map by placing the most inclusive at the top. Usually
one or two or more will be at the top.
• Next select two or three sub concepts to place under each general concept.
Avoid placing more than three under any other concept.
• Connect the concepts by lines. Label the lines with one or two linking words.
So that it reads as a valid statement. The connection creates meaning. When
you hierarchically link together a large number of related ideas, you can see
the complete answer to the questions or the structure of meaning to the given
knowledge area.
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• Rework the structure of the map, which you may include by adding or
subtracting sub concepts.
The students were made to construct a small concept map to show how to construct a
good concept map. They were also made to differentiate a good and a bad concept
map. After this the treatment began wherein the experimental group was subjected for
the treatment and control group was treated without any change except for the
variable under study. Some of the teacher made concept maps were made with the
help of Inspiration software. The control group was given to draw and label the
diagrams understudy as weekly assignments.
3.6.4.1 Pre Test & Post Test
The experiment started by equalizing the group with (PGTI) Group test of
Intelligence for 9 – 13 years. After equalizing a pretest for cognitive processes was
given. The tests used for this purpose was constructed by the researcher known as test
for Higher mental ability in General Science. After the duration of the treatment the
students were subjected to the post test using the same tests along with the
achievement tests (Unit test I & II)
3. 6.4.2 Achievement Test
Class room testing is done to obtain valid, reliable information regarding pupil
achievement. Testing is based on the instructional goals and objectives.
They play an important role in both the instructional process and the assessment
process.
In the lesson plans made, the instructional goals and objectives were clearly specified.
They were based on the Blooms taxonomy (see Appendix B.3,B.4 instructional
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objective based on Bloom, cited by Linn & Gronlund 1995 p.534 - 535). After the
teaching learning process of the selected units, achievement test were conducted after
proper announcements and instructions to the pupils. It was administered in the class
rooms in the regular situations for both experimental and control groups. Scoring was
conducted carefully with the help of the key and an appraisal of the test was also
done.
3.7 Precautions taken for the Study.
For the success of the study the researcher had taken number of precaution for
obtaining accurate results. They are as follows
i. The students were oriented on the tests and the construction of the concept
maps.
ii. The researcher went to the classroom during the regular class timing so that
the students will not feel any undue change in the timetable and it helped to
implement the experiment in the most natural setting.
iii. The researcher taught both the experimental and control group and both were
given all the test simultaneously and hence the students were not aware about
the experimental and control group segregation.
iv. Since the teacher taught both the groups, there was no teacher variation.
v. Good rapport between the student and teacher was established, which helped
in the smooth conduction of the tests.
vi. The units selected were not taught earlier because there was prior consultation
with the teachers concerned.
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3.8 Problems Faced During the Study.
The researcher has met with some constraints during the course of study which
future researchers should take into consideration. Some of the constraints which the
researcher felt during the study were:
i. To get an approval from the concerned school for conducting a test is quite
difficult. Unless you have a good recommendation to convince the principal
you may not be allowed to enter the school premises.
ii. Mortality of the subjects is another problem to tackle with. It is very unlikely
that all the subjects will attend regularly for all the days.
iii. Sudden holidays declared becomes a problem for the researcher who has a
tight schedule.
iv. In spite of all the efforts some students did not either attend the pretest or the
post test. Hence sample size reduced from 41 to 34 in experimental group and
in control group it came down from 42 to 39
v. The treatment was not continuous due to sudden holidays and Diwali and
Christmas holidays.
3.9 Data Collection
The Pretest data & Post test data were collected after careful implementation
of the test according to the instructions. Data collections were done with least
difficulty due to the presence of an assistant or the regular teacher. The data collected
was carefully corrected and complied for scoring
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3.10 Scoring
Scoring of the data was done using the procedure and marking scheme given
by each test instruments. It was then carefully tabulated fed into the computer filed in
folders. Statistical treatment was done for the analysis of the data. The results were
analyzed and discussed in the preceding chapters.
3.11 Statistical Analysis
The data fed on the computer was analyzed for mean, standard deviation, t –
value and effect size. The significant difference between the experimental and control
group was found.
