CHAPTER II

RIANG HABITAT: LAND AND THE PEOPLE

Riangs are one of the significant tribal communities in the state of Tripura. They

have been living in this state for several hundred years. To understand the Riangs, one

necessarily needs to understand their land and the people with whom they live. Since

Riangs live in the geographical region of Tripura, this chapter concentrated on the

geographical background of Tripura and the people of Tripura with whom Riangs

interact. This background information will help us to understand Riangs with regard to

their socio-economic, cultural, religious life and the transformation taking place among

them.

2.1. Tripura: Historical Background

Tripura is a small hilly state situated between latitudes 20°56' and 24°32' north,

and longitudes 91 10' and 92°21' east. It is surrounded on three sides by Bangladesh, i.e,

the district of Noakhali on the west and south, the district of Chittagong and a part of

Noakhali on the south-east, and the district of Sylhet on the north-west and on the north-

eastern side by Cachar district of Assam and Mizo Hills of Mizoram on the east. The

state has rich natural resources; including gas and forests. The local flora and fauna bear

35

a very close affinity and resemblance with floral and faunal components of Indo-

Malayan and Indo-Chinese sub-regions (Saigal, 1978).

Topographically, the state is characterized by hill slopes, tilla (hillocks), lunga

(plain land between the tilla), flat land, rivers and lakes. The terrain is mostly undulating

and more than one-third of the total area is covered by forest. There are many hill ranges

running north to south, almost parallel to each other, dividing the state into broad valleys.

The principal hill ranges are Jampui, Sakhan, Longthrai, Atharamura, Baramura, and

Devatamura. The Jampui is the highest hill range in Tripura, its height being about 1,000

meters above the sea level. The principal rivers rise mostly from the hills in the state and

run through the valleys. They are fed by innumerable tributaries in their respective

catchments. The rivers are Longai, Juri, Deo, Manu, Dhalai, Khowai, Haora, Gomati,

Mahuri and Feni. Fertile lands and plenty of edible plants have attracted number of

indigenous tribal communities to enter Tripura in different waves and to settle here

adopting jhum (shifting cultivation) based economy to sustain their lives. With their

separate ethnic features with colourful traditions these tribal communities have created a

multi-tribal mosaic constituting a mixed cultural environment since long back (Bera,

2010).

36

Fig.2.1. Map of Tripura showing the important landmarks

According to Singha (1896: 2), Tripura is a corrupt form of the words tui (water)

and pra (near). Thus the word means 'the land adjoining water'. It is likely that the land

bears the name Tripura because of its proximity to water, for ‘it is a fact that in the days

of yore the boundaries of Tripura extended up to the Bay of Bengal’ (Tripura District

Gazetteer, 1976). However, scholars opine that Tripura is a Sanskritized form of Tipera,

the name of a tribe to which the ruling family belonged (Majumdar,1973, Bera, 2008).

37

The early history of Tripura, particularly prior to the 15th century, is shrouded in mists of

legend and tradition. Thus the state's history relates to two distinct periods - the

traditional period as recorded in the Rajmala (chronicles of the Tripura Rajas) and the

historical period as recorded in the writings of the historians as well as in the Rajmala.

According to Rajmala, the rules of Tripura were the descendants of Druhya, the

third son of Yayati of the Lunar Dynasty. The Rajmala gives a long list of rulers since

Druhya. Tripur was the 40th

descendant of Druhya. Tripur was a patron of the Kirata

culture and became unpopular. He was killed by Lord Shiva. The people who fled the

Heremba (Cachar) country returned as votaries of Lord Shiva. He promised them a ruler

to be borne by the widow of Tripur. The promised prince, name Trilochan or ‘the three-

eyed’, was born in due course. The legends and traditions claim that he was the

contemporary of Yudhishtir. In the epic MahabharataTrilochan is mentioned as the ruler

of Tripura (Hunter, 1973 reprint). Scholars who believe in the historicity of Rajmala

believe that Tripura was a very ancient state and the ruling house of Tripura was one of

the oldest dynasties in India.

Revolutionary activities and ideas in India in the previous century had their

impact on Tripura, and the result was the growth of political consciousness. This political

movement had two aspects. On one hand it gave full support to the national struggle for

freedom, while on the other it launched a struggle against the oppressive measures of the

princely administration. The proposed partition of Bengal in 1905 led to the Swadeshi

movement and Tripura was affected by it. In 1942-43 the Riang, led by Ratanmani,

started a movement against the feudal system introduced by unpopular Riang king led to

the RiangBidroho (Riang rebellion). However, this movement was suppressed by the

royal force. Besides these movements, the Jamatia revolt in 1863 and the Kuki revolt in

1871 are worth mentioning in understanding tribal history of the state (Bera, 2010).

38

Tripura had been an independent kingdom until the British appointed a political

agent in 1871; but the state was never ruled directly by the British. MaharajaBir Bikram

Kishore Manikya (1923-46) was the last ruling prince of Tripura (Saigal 1978). He

succeeded his father MaharajaBirendra Kishore in 1923. A versatile person and an able

administrator, he was very popular with his people. MaharajaBir Bikram passed away a

few months before India’s independence, on May 17, 1947. But before his death he

foresaw that Tripura’s fate must be tagged to the rest of India. The princely state merged

with the Indian Union after independence on the 15th

of October, 1949 as Group-C

Category State. It became a Union Territory on 1st July, 1963. Tripura became a full-

fledged state on the 21st January, 1972 (Saigal 1978).

The state has an area of 10,491.69 sq. km. According to 2011 census it

has3,673,917persons, comprising 1,874,376 males and 1,799,541 females. It is the third

smallest state in terms of area in the country after Goa and Sikkim and ranks 17th

position in terms of density of population. Tripura comes next to Assam in population

among the north eastern states of India and the capital is Agartala. At present, the state

has eight districts (since 2012), and also one Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council

(TTAADC) with its headquarters at Khumlung. The Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous

District Council was set up in 1982 under the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution,

which was later brought under the Sixth Schedule in 1985. The TTAADC covers about

2/3rd

of the total area of the state covering all the eight districts and has 1/3rd

population

of the state. The figure shows the ADC area of Tripura(TTAADC Report).

39

Fig: 2.2. The TTAADC area of Tripura

40

2.2. Population composition

The population of Tripura is characterized by the presence of nineteen tribes with

their own cultural identity and social diversity. The Scheduled Tribe population (ST) of

the state is 11,66,813 which is 31.78 per cent of the total population (Census 2011). The

ST population of the state comprise tribes namely the Tripuri, Jamatia, Noatia, Riang,

Halam, Chakma, Mag, Garo, Munda, Lushai, Oraon, Santal, Uchai, Khasia, Bhil,

Lepcha, Bhutia, Chaimal and Kuki,whohave their own cultural heritage. However, of

these Tripuri and the Riang are the numerically dominant tribes living since historical

times. Most of the tribal communities live in hill areas and have been living in fraternity

and peace. Each tribe has its own dialect, religion, social customs and cultural varieties.

Table 2.1. Population and proportion of Scheduled Tribes, 2011 Census

Sl. No. Name of ST Total population Proportion of

the ST 1. All 11,66,813 100%

2. Tripuri 5,92,255 50.76%

3. Riang 1,88,220 16.13%

4. Jamatia 83,347 7.14%

5. Chakma 79,813 6.84%

6. Halam 57,210 4.90%

7. Mag 37,893 3.25%

8. Munda 14,544 1.25%

9. Garo 12,952 1.11%

10. Bhil 3105 0.27

11. Bhutia 28 .002

41

12. Chaimal 549 .047

13. Khasia 366 .031

14. Lepcha 157 .013

15. Uchai 2447 .20

16. Orang 12011 1.02

17. Santal 2913 .25

18. Lushai 5384 .46

19. Noatia, Murasing 14298 1.22

20. Kuki 10965 .94

21. Generic tribes 48,356 4.14

The tribes of Tripura are categorized into three types. The Tripuri, Riang,Jamatia,

Noatia, Koloi, Rupini and Murasing are indigenous to the state. In the second category

are the tribes who have a major presence in the neighbouring states of Tripura. The tribes

that fall in this category are the Lushai, Kuki, Halam, Mag, Chakma, Garo, Khasi,

Lepcha and Bhutia. In the third category comprise the tribes who have come from

mainland India. They are the Munda, Santhal, Oraon and Bhil. The indigenous Riang are

classified as the only Primitive Tribal Group (now reclassified as Particularly Vulnerable

Tribal Group) in the state, incidentally the major PTG out of the only two PTGs

inhabiting the whole of north east India (NERLP Report, 2012).

Riangs of Tripura,like other communities, immigrated to this land. They grew in

isolation and were sometimes subjugated by one another. Each community had its own

social and administrative organization starting from village level and to the chieftainship

of the whole tribe. In the early twentieth century a sizeable number of non-tribal Hindu

42

Bengali peasantry from East Bengal (now Bangladesh) had migrated to this state at the

instance of its ruler, who with a view to augment the revenue offered settlement of

cultivable land in the valley for a low rent. The king also employed the educated

Bengalis in state administration and over the years, they accepted Tripura as their

homeland. However, the natives always regarded them as aliens although the relation

between the two was relatively stable till the former was in majority.

Tripura was traditionally the abode of nineteen tribes who have their distinct

traditions, customs and dialects. Kok-borok has been the main dialect for inter-tribe

communication. It is spoken by about 80 per cent of tribal population. In the pre-

independence era, Tripura was a tribal dominated state but its aboriginal population got

merged in the process of large scale immigration from erstwhile East Pakistan. The

immigrants now constitute over sixty eight percent of state population and their mother

tongue, Bengali, is the official state language against Kok-borok, which enjoys the status

of second language. Influx of plains people from across the border and within the

country has added another complexity to existing mixture (Upadhaya,

2005).Transformed from a predominantly tribal state to a non-tribal majority state, the

population of the tribes had reduced significantly. The progressive increase in state

population and steady decline in the proportion of the natives have not only caused a

demographic imbalance, but also caused economic, sociological and political upheaval

and caused ethnic turbulence (ibid). The table below gives the details of the proportion of

the tribal population from the year 1901 against total population of the state.

43

Table 2.2.Growth of Population in Tripura against ST population

Year Total population

of the state

Population of the

tribes

Percentage of the ST against

total population of the state

1901 1,73,325 91,679 52.90

1911 2,29,613 1,11,308 48.47

1921 3,04,437 1,71,610 56.37

1931 3,82,450 1,92,240 50.26

1941 5,13,010 2,56,991 50.09

1951 6,45,707 2,37,953 36.85

1971 15,56,342 4,50,508 28.94

1981 20,53,058 5,83,770 28.43

1991 27,57,205 8,53,345 30.94

2001 31,99,203 9,93,426 31.05

2011 36,73,917 11,66,813 31.78

Source: Chakravarthi, 1998, Bera,2010, Census 2011

2.3. Economic trends

Out of total area of 10,491.69 sq. km in Tripura about 60 per cent area is hilly

and forested. The area under cultivation is about 27 per cent only. The tribes practice

agriculture. The major mode of farming was shifting cultivation or jhum. The practice of

jhum is widespread; of the nineteen tribes in the state, the Riang, Tripuri, Noatia,

Jamatia, Uchai, Kuki, Halam and Garo practice traditional jhum cultivation. Tripuris,

Riangs and Jamatias practice it in a large scale even now. The Riang are wholly

dependent on shifting cultivation, which is not the case for the Bhil, Santhal and the

Oraon who are involved in tea plantations. These jhumias are by tradition forest

44

dwellers, and their slash and burn cultivation involves clearing of forested lands and

preparing these for fields. Various magico-religious ceremonies, based on traditional

faith and belief of each tribe, are performed during this occupational pursuit both during

pre-harvest and post-harvest sessions.

The forests are not only the source of livelihood for tribals but there exists an

intricate relationship between tribals and forests in the eco-system. About 80 per cent of

the tribal population depends on forests for their survival. The main survival strategies

being practiced are jhum cultivation and bamboo collection. The jhumias have been

cultivating in forested lands since the time of the kings. Since a large part of the area of

the state is under forest cover the problem of jhumia rehabilitation and tribal livelihood is

challenging in both socio-economic and ecological ways. Since jhum cultivation is still

resorted to by the tribals of the state, forest ecology plays a great role in their socio-

religious life. Their only implement is the takkal, a kind of iron chopper. The land

allocated for jhum in the state has become restricted due to various reasons. The

Government of Tripura has launched a number of schemes for the settlement of the

jhumias, encouraging them to take up plough cultivation.

The diversity of occupational pattern highlights the importance of community

specific development programmes in this state. However, there can be no universal

approach to tribal development in the context of Tripura. A survey conducted in 1990 by

the Tribal Welfare Department, Government of Tripura estimated that this form of

cultivation is practiced by around 55,049 tribal households over 35,000 - 40,000

hectareannually. Of the tribal households, about 60 per cent are fully dependent on jhum,

while the rest are partially depending on other economic pursuits. The data collected

from a first-ever census-type ‘Enumeration of Shifting Cultivators in Tripura’ in 2007

45

show that 1.36 lakh persons (or 14 per cent of the tribal population) are still dependent

fully or partially on jhum for their survival (Report, Government of Tripura, 2008).

Agriculture is the mainstay of Tripura's economy. It is one of the main sources of

revenue. Rice is the major crop in the state. A few varieties of rice, jute and vegetables

are grown in the low-lying areas and the plains. As the state has only 27% of its total

land as cultivablethe size of the landholding is small thereby reducing the productivity.

There is little prospect of a major irrigation project in the state as the terrain is mostly

undulating.

To discourage the jhuming government has introduced the rubber plantation in

the state. The rubber plantations in the state have proved to be quite successful. The

Rubber Board has provided wide-ranging assistance to the private as well as corporate

sectors for the development of rubber plantations in the state. The Rubber Research

Institute of India, apart from its research activities, has extended technical aid to the

rubber growers. The Tripura Forest Development and Plantation Corporation had raised

3,694 hectares of rubber plantation under Government schemes for the resettlement of

tribal, jhumia and scheduled caste families since 1982.

Right from the First Five Year Plan, demonstrations have been carried out by the

Department of Agriculture to impress upon the cultivators on the importance of modern

mechanical devices and improved implements. Many of the farmers have already been

settled as permanent cultivators. Those yet to be settled are given assistance in kind, and

against work involved in the reclamation of land, construction or renovation of houses,

purchase of bullocks, seeds and manure. The Government is thus taking effective steps to

wean away the tribal families from jhuming to settled cultivation by providing them with

alternative land and other necessary inputs, such as training in high yielding seeds,

fertilizers and insecticides and in addition training in rubber plantation is also given.

46

The handicraft products of the state have already earned a distinction. Weaving,

which is the oldest and most developed cottage industry of the state, is still practiced by

the local people, including the tribals, as well as the Manipuri settled in Tripura. The

Government is providing help and support for further development of the handicraft

industry. The tea industry also occupies an important place in the state economy. Almost

the whole of the state’s income from the industrial sector comes from the tea industry.

The department of education was established in 1952 to enable smooth

functioning of the education system at all levels. The Government launched a number of

schemes for the promotion of education. The education department gives special

scholarship, stipend, coaching and sponsorship for tribal students. The Government has

accorded education a top priority and allocated 16 percent of the entire state budget to

education. Effort is made to establish one lower primary school within one kilometre

radius, upper primary within three kilometre radius, a high school within five kilometre

radius and a college within 25-30 kilometres. Mid-day meal was introduced from

15th

August 1995. With all these attempts there are number of Government schools in the

villages with a single teacher. The teacher is not regular and the students are not

motivated to come to school. Missionary schools were introduced from the year 1940 by

the New Zealand Baptist Missionary Society after the establishment of first Bru (Riang)

church at Hachuh Para. Schools sprung up in Riang dominated areas as more and more

missionaries made inroads into the interiors of the state. In spite of these efforts the

literacy rate has not improved.

2.4. Social organization

Most of the non-tribal communities of Tripura settled in the plains havea farming

background. Their settlement pattern is compact and multi-ethnic in composition.

47

Houses are rectangular with mud walls, a thatched roof and a small courtyard. The

kitchens are generally far away from the living room. The settlement patterns of the

tribals differ from that of the non-tribals in many ways. The tribal settlements are

distributed on hill slopes or on hillocks, and are often surrounded by trees or forests.

They are unitary with regard to their secular, ritual and cultural matters. Besides, these

villages are homogenous and generally consist of 40 to 60 families of the same

community.

The settlements of the Chakma, Mog and Jamatia consist of a large number of

families, living in a compact, linear arrangement. These settlements are on the flat slopes

adjacent to the hillocks on one side and cultivable plain lands on the other. Noatias and

Riangs are dispersed on the hillocks. The extent of a settlement located on a tilla is very

often restricted by the break in the slopes. Thus it is common to see a single family

occupying a hillock. The lack of level ground cuts down on the space available for

houses, especially among the tribals. The absence of courtyards is also due to want of

level ground. The houses are constructed with local materials like wood, bamboo and

Chan grass. Instead of using mud walls which get soaked during rains, the tribals build

their walls with bamboo splints. Sometimes the houses are raised on platform of varying

heights from the ground. Such houses are known as tongghar. These houses have only

one door and no windows. The domestic animals are generally housed under the

tongghar. The tribal men are expert in basket making and the women in weaving clothes

(Choudhury, 1983).

Barring the Garo and Khasi, all the communities of Tripura are patriarchal by

authority and patrilineal by descent (Bera,2009). The father is the head of the family.

Families of the same community living in village constitute a para or bari, and are very

often named after the village chief. Sometimes they are named after the

48

chhara(rivulet/stream). Most of the communities are strongly united through village

organization, cooperation and fellow feeling among their members, collective worship of

Gods and Goddesses, shifting cultivation in a band etc. Love marriages, marriages by

elopement with previous understanding and negotiated marriages are prevalent.

Jamaikhata (marriage by service) is also in trend among the tribals. Both bride price and

dowry are prevalent. Child marriage is on the wane. The communities either cremate

their dead or bury them. The disposal of bones in water and ancestor worship is practiced

by most of the communities.

There are four predominant religions - Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism and

Christianity. Most of the tribals have their own tribal customs and beliefs.There are

Buddhist tribes like the Mag and Chakma, and Christian ones like the Garo and Kuki.

Vaishnavism is practiced by the Murasing. Of the many festivals, the one that occupies

the pride of the place is the worship of ChoddoDevota or ChauddaDevata (Fourteen

Gods) associated with Kharchi, the state festival. Next in importance are Ker and Garia

puja. A mention may be made of two other important and popular festivals of Tripura -

Durga puja and Diwali. The fairs of Tripura are mainly of socio-religious in nature.

Both tribals and non-tribals of Tripura have their own way of running their

societies. Disputes over issues like marriage and divorce are still resolved by religious

heads according to the religious beliefs and practices. The tribals have retained their

customary laws relatively well. They generally have two sets of mechanisms to maintain

law and order. One is at the village level, while the other one is at the inter-village level.

At both levels the authority structure is formed by voice vote of the adult males. The

tribals rarely approach the court to resolve disputes. Disputes of any kind are generally

resolved on the basis of their age-old beliefs, ideas and ideals.

49

Linguistically, the tribes of Tripura may be distinguished into three categories

namely, the Tripuri, Riang, Jamatia, Noatia, Uchai and the Murasing are Kok-borok (also

dialects of Kok-borok) speaking tribes identified as users of Bodo language of

TibetoBurman family. These tribes mainly migrated to this territory from a place called

Shan of Upper Burma and down hills of Tibet and linguistically are known as Bodo

group of Tribes. The Halam, Kuki, Lusai and other tribes like Hrangkhal, Molsom,

Darlong and the Kaipeng are linguistically known as Kuki Chin group of tribes, who

migrated from China. The language spoken by Mag and Chakma is known to be of

Arakan origin. Linguistically, the Tipera (Tripuri) are Bodos(Chatterjee,1974).Kok-

borok strongly resembles other dialects, such as Cachari and Garo (Banerjee, 1966).

Bengali has been the most important and dominant language in the state. The erstwhile

rulers of the state accepted Bengali as the state language and as the language of

administration 500 years ago. Today it has established itself in every walk of life.

2.5. Riang population

Riangs are the second largest tribal group with a population of 1,88,220(Census

2011). There are dense Riang habitations in the subdivisions of Kailashahar,

Kanchanpur, Gandachera, Amarpur and Belonia in the state. They belong to the

Mongoloid racial stock. The dialect spoken is one of the Indo Mongoloid groups of the

TibetoBurman linguistic family known as Kau Bru. The Riangarelagging behind in

development despite their numerical majority. Difficult terrain, remoteness, lack of

literacy, and endogenous cultural practices are some of the reasons for this social

exclusion. It is evident from the records that over the century (1901-2011) their average

population strength had been 16.58% of the total tribal population of the state. The

decadal population figure is shown in the table below.

50

Table 2.3.RiangPopulation over the years

Census

Years

Riang

Population

Total ST population Riang Percentage

1901 15,115 91,679 16.49

1911 22,433 1,11,308 20.15

1921 28,959 1,71,610 16.87

1931 35,881 1,92,240 18.66

1941 40,347 2,56,991 15.70

1951 48,471 2,37,953 20.37

1961 56,597 3,60,070 15.72

1971 64,722 4,50,544 14.37

1981 84,004 5,83,960 14.39

1991 1,11,606 8,53,345 13.08

2001 1,65,103 9,93,426 16.62

2011 1,88,220 1,166,813 16.13

Source: Bera,2010, Census 2011

According to 2001 census, the distribution of Riangs in the state of Tripura is as

follows: North Tripura (80,279: 48.62%), South Tripura (49,698: 30.10%), Dhalai

(32,151:19.47%) and West Tripura (2,975: 1.81%). At present Riangs are sporadically

distributed in all the eight districts (reorganized in 2012) of Tripura. However the district

wise break up is not available. Riangs are identified as one of the seventy five Primitive

Tribal Group (PTG) of India during the sixth plan period by the Ministry of Home

51

affairs, Government of India on the basis of their pre - agricultural level of technology,

extremely low level of literacy, and declining or stagnant population. Riangs are found in

Mizoram, Bangladesh and Assam, besides Tripura (Barooah, 2009; Chaudhuri, 1983).

Scholars believe that Riangs are a significant cultural group. They have their own dialect,

and have still retained their individual identity by clinging to their traditional core

cultural markers. Riangs have carved out for themselves a special position in the face of

Tripura (Bera,2013). The Riang dance, popularly known as Hojagiri, is a commonly

seen item in any cultural programs of Tripura and elsewhere.

The Rajmala (the chronicles of the royal dynasty) suggests that the Riang were

settlers of Maynai hills. It is evident from the legends of Riangs that they migrated from

Burma to Tripura through the forest-clad regions of Chittagong Hill Tract. After settling

down in Tripura, the Riang got the patronage from the ruling Tripuri kings as defence

personnel in the army of the state (Bera, 2010; Chaudhuri, 1983).

Migration

The Riang are said to have come first from Shan state of Upper Burma (now

Myanmar) in different waves to Chittagong Hill Tracts. Similarly, another group came

through the Mizoram border as an expatriate population. Riangs have lived in Mizoram

in large numbers from the time of their migration and still live in Mizoram and a part of

them slowly crossed over to Tripura particularly to Kanchanpur, Chawmanu,

Kailashahar, Ambassa and other places of North Tripura. Riangs of the Chittagong Hill

Tracts moved to South Tripura and concentrated in Udaipur, Belonia, Amarpur and

Gandachera Sub-Divisions. There are legends galore. However, scholars say that they

52

were part of the great movement of the Mongoloid population. Riangs are also in region

of Burma, in Cachar areas and Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Myths have inextricably been mixed with facts in the history of the Riang

migration to Tripura. Legends say the Riangs are closely related to the royal clan of the

Tripuri. Tradition has it that a Tripuri prince, who was banished, went along with his

followers to the Lushai Hills and established a kingdom there. His descendants ruled the

state for generations till there was no rightful heir to the throne. That let loose anarchy

and internecine feuds, which forced the chiefs of four sub-tribes (Twikluha, Yongsika,

PaisikaandTuibruha) to go along with their people on a journey to Tripura by the

passage of Chittagong. It was an arduous trek. The Riang managed to cross the Dumbur

hill peak after two failed attempts. Uchai, the same blood of Riangs, could cross the hill

after the Riang, and were treated as a separate tribe in the name of Uchai though their

tradition and culture are same.

The Riang reached Tripura during the reign of King Mahendra Manikya. But they

failed to meet the king and make their submissions owing to bureaucratic resistance.

Their supplies ran out, and they suffered great privations, but that did not weaken their

resolve to get their message across to the king. In order to gain royal attention, they

broke the dam over the Gomati River while a religious ceremony was being held there. It

was a serious offence and the king sentenced the chiefs to death. The Riang chiefs then

pinned their hopes on queen Gunoboti to whom they made their prayers. The queen

pleaded to the king to withdraw the death sentence. That made Riangs to be the loyal

subjects of the Tripura king. A few of them, along with their people, migrated to Tripura

and Chittagong centuries ago. That must have happened before the 15th

century

CE.(Current Era or Christian era), because it is recorded that Dhanya Manikya (1462-

53

1550), a Tripura king of Debbarma clan, had two commanders of Riang origin in his

army.

Group and sub-group

The Riang are divided broadly into two groups, Meska and Molsoi. The Meska

have seven sub-groups (dapha), while the Molsoi have six. The Meska sub-groups are:

Meska (lemon tree), Mwsa (tiger), Chorkhi (spinning wheel), Raikwchak (red cane),

Uairem (born of mixed marriage), Tokmayosku (toes of hens), and Twmuiyafak

(tortoise).The six Molsoi sub-groups are: Molsoi (chilli), Apeto (a type of fish),

Nogkham (burnt house), Chongpreng (musical instrument), Yakstam (finger ring), and

RiangKachko (chief). The pattern of naming of the sub-groups suggests that they have

totemic names.The thirteen Riang sub-groups have twenty six heads. These chiefs, again,

are divided into two categories, Rai and Kaskau. Rai means Raja(chief). It is a title

received by the chief of the sub-groups. Kaskau, on the other hand, means chief minister.

The title is self-explanatory. There is a controversy among them about their title Riang.

They call themselves ‘Bru’ instead of Riang because the term Riang is only a sub title

(sub-group) among the Bru community. Riang is spelt as Riang in the Government

records. However in the present work Riang term is used as it is commonly used by the

Riang community. The Riang have a well-defined and well-organized three-tier

administration which is analogous to the three-tier panchayat system of contemporary

India. All disputes are resolved in accordance with the customary laws of the Riang

(Acharyya, 1999).

54

Occupation

Riang life and economy is centralized with forest and its surroundings. Jhum

cultivation and other food gathering activities like hunting of wild animals, birds,

catching fish, collection of forest based fruits, leaves and plants, etc. are their major

economic activities. The Riang are a community not fully adapted to sedentary way of

living and following primitive method of cultivation called jhum cultivation. In jhum,

they produce everything they need. The cultivation is accompanied by religious rituals.

First, they clear the site on a hill slope (hapinghalap) and reserve it for jhuming by

pitching two poles of bamboo in the form of a cross. That is a warning against

trespassing. Then they offer puja to the presiding deity of jhum praying for rich harvest.

The seeds are sown after the first monsoon showers and crops are harvested in winter.

The chief crops grown are khul (cotton), mai (Paddy), maichiny (maize), all vegetables

and banta (a leafy spice). Gathering of edible roots and creepers are also done to

supplement their diet. They sometimes hunt animals for personal consumption. They

enjoy group hunting of the wild animals, share the meat and arrange grand feasts.

Settlement pattern

The Riang generally live on hill tops in groups. They build their huts with forest

resources like poles made of bamboo or wood, bamboo strips (used to make the

platform), and bamboo leaves or chan grass (used for roofing). The Riang change home

after one or two years toanewjhum site after observing a ceremonial puja and appeasing

deities of dense forest. However, the non-sedentary tendency of the Riang is slowly

waning.

55

Food and drinks

Besides jhuming and hunting, the Riang also catch fish to supplement their diet.

Being fond of fish, they fish in rivers and ditches during the rain and stagnant waters in

the winter. They use traps made of cane and bamboo splits for fishing. Those have

narrow openings and more than one chamber inside. Rice, pulses, vegetables, fish, dried

fish, bamboo shoot, roots and green leaves are their staple food. They also eat meat of

hunted birds and animals. The Vaisnavites are mostly vegetarians. Their special red rice

produced in jhum is so tasty that only rice could be equal to complete lunch with all kind

protein and minerals. Due to their natural food habit the general health is quite good. The

practice of drinking liquor is widespread among both men and women in Riang

community. They have their own method of brewing liquor known as arraq or chow-

arraq (rice beer). Liquor has an inevitable presence on all social occasions. However this

practice is under the process of transition.

Dress and ornaments

The Riang have a simple mode of clothing themselves. Men wear loin cloth,

which is generally hand woven and turban. Women wear a long piece of cloth for the

lower part of the body known as passra or rignai and a short piece of cloth (rsa) as

breast garment. Women weave their clothes in their own domestic looms. Riang women

know how to appear beautiful and fashionable in their own way. They dress and wear

ornaments in a meticulous way. Women wear necklaces made of silver or metal coins

and of pearls. Notable among the ornaments used by women are rangbutang and anchali

(to wear around neck), tar (for forehand), and youhchow (for ears).

56

Crafts

The Riangs are expert in bamboo crafts. In fact, basket-making is a popular craft

among many other tribal communities as well. Some are good at art and making craft

items, such as fish trap and bamboo baskets. They make drums of various types, pipes

and flutes. They are very creative in making things that are available in their

surroundings. The Riang collect the raw materials (bamboo) from forests and produce

containers of various shapes and sizes that could be used for different purposes like

storing food grains (mau-khain), paddy, other jhum products (mai-nauh) and making

alkaline water (chauhkhoikhauh). Baskets of different types, shapes, sizes are woven.

They use canes, bamboo splits, creeper and iron chopper. Baskets are woven by men.

Women are prohibited from making baskets. It is a practice that young man before

marriage must know the art of basket making. He must at least know to make a cradle

otherwise child may die. They make baskets for carrying, storing grains, cages, vessels

and trays to keep things. They have different names such as tuilanga used for carrying

things; naukhai used to carry grains which are closely woven; dingra is used for

carrying; but is bigger in size, khang used for cotton; khau is cylindrical shaped, bottom

is square and the seeds of paddy are preserved in it; buku, is a basket used by women and

chap is used by men in jhum. They also make combs, mattresses and implements for

fishing and hunting. The baskets made by Riangs are used by Bengali neighbourhood as

well.

Weaving of cloth is done by women. Men are not allowed to weave. Cotton is

grown in the field. Cotton is collected during October –November. It is then slowly

peeled off and seeds are separated. Then the cotton is made into wick like things to put

for spinning followed by dyeing. Riangs use mainly two colors black and red. Red color

is made from tree called achu and the black color is made from a plant lele. Then the

57

actual weaving starts. It is done with a traditional loom. The loom is made of light

materials that it can be carried from place to place. For weaving the elements are

mounted in length wise and kept at a distance in parallel. The weaver sits behind one of

the rods and weft element is made to pass, through a shuttle over and below each

alternate thread. By drawing the heddles upward and downward the shuttle is made to

pass in between, it takes many days to complete one weaving of the cloth. Women weave

clothes like rinai used by women around waist, risa, used to cover the breast, basie, to

carry the child, pandri used by men, kutai is a type of shirt for men. These are weaved

for their daily use. The women make clothes not only for themselves but also for sale.

These hand-woven clothes are not in demand among the non-tribal populations, but there

are takers among their own and other tribal groups.

The production of cotton and the climatic conditions created a beneficial

atmosphere for the invention of colourful fabrics. These designs and patterns added to

the establishment of identity of their own. The Riang have a very unique way of

combining colour and creating designs. These designs and the production technologies

were handed over by the mother to the daughter. Often these designs had a story to tell.

Production of fabrics generated another avenue for economic growth within and with the

outside world. The colors used in these fabrics are mainly from fruits and plants growing

in the adjacent forest areas. Riangs had developed methods of extracting colour and

adding to it on the cotton threads for centuries. Innovative mind and availability of

colour providing fruits and plants contributed to the production of these beautiful designs

and patterns.

58

Marriage

The Riang are traditionally endogamous. They generally do not marry outside

their own community, though there have been some examples of inter-tribe marriages

among them. Endogamy indicates they love to preserve their exclusiveness. Once they

had cross cousin marriage as custom. They have two types of marriage: halakchaya and

halaksam. ‘Relations by marriage within the community and generation is known as

halaksam and the forbidden relation between different generations is known as

halakchaya’ (Acharya, 1999). Though all kinds of cousin marriages are prevalent among

the Riang, parallel cousin marriage is on the decline, while cross cousin marriage is very

few owing to disintegration of joint families. Curiously, the Riang treat widows,

widowers and divorcees as inauspicious and disallow them from participating in social

ceremonies. However, they allow marriage between a widow and the younger brother of

her deceased husband. Similarly, a widower is permitted to marry his younger sister-in-

law. Hence, both levirate and sororate are permissible among them.

The Riang generally accept marriage by negotiation conducted by the

matchmaker; marriage by service where the bride’s father receives the bride price in kind

or by service rendered by the bridegroom; love marriage and marriage by exchange

where the bride’s brother marries his brother-in-law’s sister to strengthen the bond

between the two families.

Religious practices

Riangs worship many Gods and Goddesses. One of the important deities is

Buraha, who is seen as being omnipotent and omniscient. He is roughly equivalent of the

Hindu God Shiva. They believe in spirits and the existence of the soul. Their animistic

beliefs and thoughts are the colourful ethnic components of tribalism and primitive

59

culture. The Riang came directly under the influence of Hinduism in the 19th

century

and embraced Vaishnavism in good numbers. According to Acharyya (1999), the

influence of Lord Krishna on the Riang is tremendous. The Vaishnava among the Riang

gave up eating meat and fish. Moreover, the Riang believe that Lord Shiva is their own

God, who used to be a tribal. Thus one can see Shivism is on the rise among the

Riangs(ibid).

The Riang cremate their dead. Cremation is done on the bank of a river or rivulet.

But bodies are buried in cases of death caused by infectious diseases like cholera, small

pox, etc. The graves are dug up after a few months to collect bones, which are immersed

in the river. The corpse of children aged one year or below are also buried. The rituals

that begin before the body is taken out in a funeral procession till the finishing of

cremation includes purificatory bath and collection of residual bones, known as

boroksakma. The post-funeral rituals are called lukhlaimong. The post-funeral rituals

connected with unnatural deaths are known as kothainamang.

2.6. Setting

Data is mainly collected from two villages – Kalyansing and Bagafa to get a

comparative idea of traditional set up and in a changed situation. The following section

consists of description of the villages.

2.6.1. Kalyansing Village

The village Kalyansing is in the Gandachera sub-division of Dumburnagar block

of Dhalai District. Village is located in a very beautiful valley and is named after a river

Kalyansing. This is situated along the Bangladesh border. It is surrounded by hills

known as Hatimatha. Most of them are farmers and depend upon Jhum (Shifting

60

cultivation) for their livelihood. The literacy rate is very low compared to other villages

of the state.

Table 2.4.The distribution of population in Kalyansing ADC village

Name of Para Number of Families Population

ST OTHERS TOTAL MALE FEMALE TOTAL

Rajdhan 51 0 51 114 122 236

Gira Chandra 39 0 39 63 66 129

Prem Kumar 52 0 52 94 105 199

Daishyaram 178 0 178 359 341 700

Wanasa 226 0 226 376 353 729

Old Joyram 64 0 64 117 132 249

New Joyram 63 0 63 133 137 270

Purna

Kishore

25 0 25 31 36 67

TOTAL 698 0 698 1287 1292 2579

Source: Block Development Office Gandachera

Kalyansing is situated in Dumburnagar R.D. Block, which is one of the oldest

blocks of Tripura. It was started way back in 1st November, 1966. Initially it was known

as Multi-Purpose Block and the Officer-in-charge was known as Project Executive

Officer. At that time the Block was under South Tripura District and later in 1995 when

Dhalai District was created it became a part of it. At the beginning the Block head

quarter was at BolongBasa. Later it was shifted to Gandachera due to the establishment

of Dumbur Hydel Project. Geographically speaking the area of the Block is mostly hilly

with dense forest and with small patches of plain lands in between with an area of 596.22

61

sq. km. The main river is Gomati, which is also the principal river of the state. There are

two principal hill ranges in this Block namely Atharamura and Kalajhari hill ranges. The

thirteen ADC villages that form the Dumburnagar Block are Gandachara, Sarma,

Pancharatan, Dalapati, Ratannagar, Raima,Kalyansing, Kalajhari, Dhalajhari,

Ramnagar, Laxmipur, J. B. Para, Ultachara and Bhagirath.

62

Fig 2.3. Map of Dumburnagar Block showing the ADC villages.( Block office)

The total population of the Block is 68, 614 of which the Scheduled Tribe

population is 56,715; Scheduled Caste population is 6,130 and 5,769 as others. The male

63

population is 34,264 and the female population is 34,350; children below 6 years is 12,

246, and children between 6 to 14 years is 14, 525. In the whole Block area, natural

resources abound and plain agricultural lands are very less. Most of the tribal people are

jhumia. But gradually the tribal people are attracted to rubber and other horticultural-

based plantation. Apart from two main rivers Raima and Sarma, quite a few charra

(stream) flow through Gandachera making the land fertile. More importantly, there are

ample scopes for fisheries all over the Block. The scenic beauty of the Block is

enchanting. This Block with its beautiful Dumbur lake and natural forests attracts a

number of tourists. The literacy rate of the Block is 36.7 in which the male rate is 59.38

% and female is 40.62 %.

The district of Dhalai is distinctly hilly and the hills, which cover more than 70%

of the total area, are wrapped in green forests. The district is rich in natural resources.

The sight of these lush green mountains are really pleasant. Dhalai district has been sub

divided into four regions for the purpose of administration, namely Kamalpur, Longthrai

Valley, Ambassa and Gandachera. The district head quarter of Dhalai is situated at

Ambassa which is around 90 k.m. from the state capital, Agartala. It is connected

through National Highway No.44 and takes around three hours to reach. There is a newly

constructed railway station in this district.

64

Fig. 2.4. Map of Dhalai District

65

2.6.2. Bagafa village

Bagafa village is located in the Bagafa Block of South Tripura. Bagafa is a plain

land with large paddy field near the river Logom. This village is known as one of the

well-developed Riang villages of Tripura. It has high literacy rate, high employment rate,

proper housing, good communication and transport facilities.

Table. 2.5. Distribution of the population in Bagafa village

Name of Para

Number of Families No. of Population

ST SC OBC R.M. Other Total Female Male Total

Bedanta 95 15 Nil 05 09 124 262 223 485

Dhani Ch. 38 Nil Nil 21 Nil 59 149 118 267

Landhan 47 Nil Nil Nil Nil 47 124 77 201

Landhaha 30 Nil Nil Nil Nil 30 64 59 123

Nakuljoy 69 Nil Nil 33 Nil 102 265 210 475

Puipreha 82 Nil Nil Nil Nil 82 168 135 303

TOTAL 361 0 0 0 0 444 1032 822 1854

Source: Panchayat office of Bagafa village.

Bagafa R. D. Block was established in 1956 with a view to driving away the

poverty of the rural people and backwardness in terms of village communication,

agricultural production, literacy, drinking water, housing, employment generation, social

development, rural electrification and sanitation. In case of the aforesaid items Bagafa

Block has shown a great achievement to fulfil the aspiration of the people to a great

extent. It was declared as Gandhi Block during the year 1995-96 along with other 125

66

Blocks of the remaining parts of the country for remarkable achievement in the field of

development programmes and other fields. The total percentage of literacy is 94 per cent.

There are total of 45 panchayat / villages lying under this Block, out of which 21 belong

to gram panchayat and remaining 24 villages is under ADC area. The block is headed by

Block Development Officer (BDO) who is a cadre of state civil services.

Fig.2.5. Map of Bagafa Block showing Bagafa village.

67

South Tripura district of Tripura covers a total geographical area of 2,624 square

kilometres and is bordered by the Dhalai district, West Tripura and Bangladesh. Rainfall

in the area is brought by the south west monsoons which begin in the month of May and

rainfall is maximum between the months of July and October. The autumn and spring

seasons in the district of South Tripura are very pleasant. The district is dotted with a

number of rivers and mountain ranges. There are three main hill ranges that dominate the

physical features of South Tripura, the Deotamura hill range and the South Baramura

range begins and ends within the South Tripura district while only a part of the

Atharamura hill range lies in the district. There are a number of voluminous rivers that

crisscross the district of South Tripura; the most important among them are Feni, Muhuri

and Gomati.

68

Fig.2.6. Map of South Tripura District

69

Demographic profile of the study villages

Age wise distribution of the Riang population in the study villages were assessed.

The following table provides the age wise distribution of 400 households.

Table.2.6. The Age wise distribution of the population in the study villages.

It is found that in Kalyansing village 53.5% are male and 46.5% female among

the household that were studied. Similarly in Bagafa village, 52% are male and 48%

female.

Age

Group

Kalyansing (Rural)

Bagafa (Urban)

Male

Perce

ntage Female

Perce

ntage

Tota

l

Mal

e

perce

ntage Female

perce

ntage Total

0-9 159 29.83 127 27.43 306 91 18.57 74 16.30 175

10 -19 118 22.14 121 26.13 249 86 17.55 76 16.74 162

20-29 85 15.95 62 13.39 147 71 14.50 69 15.20 151

30-39 49 9.19 62 13.39 111 65 13.26 79 17.40 144

40-49 53 9.94 49 10.58 102 79 16.12 80 17.62 159

50-59 21 3.94 16 3.46 37 44 8.98 25 5.51 69

60-69 26 4.88 15 3.24 41 39 7.96 38 8.37 77

70

above 22

4.13 11

2.38 33 15

3.06 13

2.86 28

Total 533 100 463 100 996 490 100 454 100 944

70

Type of Family

The field data shows that nuclear type predominates in both the villages. The

families are small and the average size of the household in both urban and rural is 4.75

and 5 respectively. The qualitative data reveals that more and more people desire to have

nuclear families.

Table 2.7. Distribution of households by the type of family in the study villages

Rural Urban

Type of Family

Fammilymily

Number

Percentage Number Percentage

Nuclear

1

31

65.5 161 80.5

Joint family

6

9

34.5 39 19.5

Total

2

00

100 200 100

In Kalyansing 65.5% of the household are nuclear type and 34.5% of the families

are joint families. Similarly, in Bagafa 80.5% are nuclear families and the rest 19.5%had

joint families.

Settlement Pattern

The Riang choose for their homestead land, the flat top of a medium height hill in

view of protection from wild animals, snakes and enemies. Since Riangs do jhum, the

hill tops are a convenient place to have a house. They settle in a village closer to a water

source. The Riang nouk(houses) are traditionally placed far away from each other and in

each of the hamlets there will be about 40 to 50 houses. The reason for having house

away from one another is to facilitate the search and gathering of food and to have a

71

place to do jhum while preventing accidental fires. The Riangs generally live in separate

hamlets at a distance from other communities. Normally villages are named after its

Choudhuri (the headman or clan chief), or in the name of nearby river or any other

topographical features like hill slope or a hill. A hamlet is called kami, but Bengali

words like pada and badi are commonly used.

There is no specific formation for a village. It depends on the layout of the

terrain. Almost all of the Riang villages are located on hillocks or elevated areas having a

patch of forests. Houses are scattered in an area as every family is free to select their

house site. Riang dwelling houses are rectangular in design. Houses are generally built

on a raised platform which is about 5 feet above the ground. It is raised with pillars,

beams and bamboos. Normally, most of their dwelling huts are supported by wooden

sticks and bamboo splinters. Platform is made with bamboo splints. Traditional houses

have two verandas, one at the front and other at the side which is generally a place for

washing. Front veranda has roof on top and the other one is open. Each house has two

openings. The door is made of bamboo. It has a single panel.

The size of the house is not uniform. It depends on the number of persons in the

family. It is built by combined work of the villagers. All Riangs are not expert in making

houses. Those who are experienced and know the work cooperate with others in making

the house. It was a practice among them that no money is to be paid for work but they

have to provide a good meal. The roofs of the houses are sloped on to both sides. The

roof is thatched with Chan grass that is available in the forest, or with bamboo leaves.

Walls are made of flat bamboo splits. There are no windows. In earlier times houses

were built on platforms to protect them from wild animals. The houses were planned in

such a way that they are self- contained. Since the house is raised on platform, a log of

wood is placed slanting to the front veranda which is used as Yakli(stairway) to the

72

house. Most families cook in the same house that they live in. Some who can afford will

built a small hut to do their cooking and storing of the grains. All the activities like

cooking, eating, sleeping is done in one room. All know the utilisation of the space

within the house.

The Riang believe in dreams and the site is selected based on the dream. The

house owner keeps a lump of soil from the proposed site and keeps under his pillow. If

no dream appears then it is fine. If he dreams thunder, fire or cyclone then they do not

choose that site to build the house. They look for another site. They believe that the

dreams will come true and destruction will happen. They do not face west while sleeping

since sun dies in the west, which is equivalent to dying. Inside the room there is no

compartment. But they use one side for cooking, eating and other side for sleeping. They

preserve their treasures in one corner. Riangs manage same room for all activities and

people are welcomed and entertained in the same room.

At present the houses of the Riang in rural settlements have undergone certain

changes. There are few rooms for those who can afford and rooms are well ventilated

with windows and the doors. The houses are not necessarily built on a raised platform.

They are built at plinth level. The walls and floors are made of mud. A few families

have G.I. roof and a cement floor in some villages. They have separate kitchen outside

the house. Some even have cooking gas connection. Those who have moved from rural

village to the semi urban areas have improved their living conditions.

The field data have revealed a change in urban areas regarding the layout of a

village, housing pattern, and construction material. Houses in urban areas show a distant

pattern of settlement. All houses are constructed closer to road and it faces the road.

Plinth level dwelling against platform dwellings are seen in these Riangs settlements.

This may be due to the fact that the houses are built on plain land. Most of the houses are

73

of RCC types having cement flooring or tiles. Houses are spacious and have separate

dining room, kitchen, parlour and bed rooms. Each family will have plenty of land

surrounding their houses. They do have at least two hectares of land for kitchen garden,

paddy and for rubber plantation. Most of them have large plots of land under rubber

plantation in far off places.

Type of roof

Different type of roofing material is used by Riangs in both rural and urban

setting. The following table captures the households according to the types of roof found

in rural and urban areas.

Table 2.8.Distribution of Households according to type of roofs

Rural Urban

Type of roof Number Percentage Number Percentage

GI sheet 44 22 113 56.5

Concrete 0 0 87 43.5

Leaf 156 78 0 0

Total 200 100 200 100

In the rural setting most of the houses are built in their traditional pattern. They

are built with mud or bamboo wall and leaves for the roof. However, a few new houses

are built from the schemes provided by State government. They were given GI sheets

and Rs.40,000/- per household to build a house. At least 40 households have benefited

from this scheme from the interior village of Kalyansing. In Kalyansing village 78%of

74

the houses have leaves for roof and the 22% houses have G I sheets. In contrast Bagafa

has large number of houses with GI sheet that is 56.5% and 43.5%have concrete roof.

Source of Household Lighting

There are various sources of household lighting in rural and urban setting. The

following table provides an idea of the source of lighting in both the villages.

Table: 2.9. Source of household lighting in the study villages

Kalyansing Bagafa

Electrification Number Percentage Number

Percentage

Electricity connection 0 0 200 100

Kerosene/solar/candle 200 100 0 0

Total 200 100 200 100

In Kalyansing village there is no electric connection so far. People use alternative

means of power such as solar lamps (distributed by the government), kerosene lamps and

candles. Most of the households retire by sunset. In Bagafa village people have

electricity connection in all houses and they also have backup battery power.

Type of cooking fuel

Riangs in rural setting are mostly dependent on firewood for fuel which is easily

available. In urban periphery, Riangs have more exposure to the urban way of life, use

LPG gas and other source of energy for cooking. Many of them use kerosene or

induction stoves. The following table provides the type of cooking fuel used in the study

villages.

75

Table 2.10. Distribution of households according to type of cooking fuelused

Kalynsing Bagafa

Cooking fuel Number Percentage Number Percentage

Fire wood 197 98.5 9 4.5

Kerosene (stove) 3 1.5 56 28

Natural Gas (LPG) 0 0 135 67.5

Total

200 100 200 100

In Kalyansing villages 98.5% use firewood remaining 1.5%usekerosene stove. In

Bagafa village 67.5% of the villagers use gas for cooking and the 28% of them use

kerosene stove and 4.5%manage their cooking with firewood.

Educational Qualification

Education leads to the progress of a community. The following table gives the data on

educational qualification of the Riangs in study villages.

Table 2.11.Educational qualification of the Riangs in the study villages.

Level of

Education

Kalyansing

Bagafa

Male Female Total % Male Female Total %

Not

attended/minimum

schooling

187 192 379 57.2 4 7 11 1.5

Primary 101 96 197 29.8 34 29 63 8.5

76

High School (8-

10)

34 31 65 9.8 89 82 171 23

Higher Secondary

Class 12

9 6 15 2.2 68 42 110 14.8

Graduation 5 2 7 1 123 91 214 28.8

Post Graduation 22 11 33 4.4

Technical and

Diploma holders

125 17 142 19

336 327 663 100 388 356 744 100

In Kalyansing village 57.2% of the people have not gone to school; 29.8% have

studied up to primary; 9.8% of them have studied up to high school; 2.2% have managed

to reach the higher secondary and 1% has an undergraduate degree. In Bagafa village

education has come in the year of 1946. Researcher met the first student of that school.

In Bagafa village 19% have technical training; 4.4% are post graduates; 28.8% are

graduates; 14.8% have higher secondary education; 23% have completed high school;

8.5% have only have primary education and 1.5% have only minimum schooling.

Occupational Status

In Kalyansing village the people are illiterate and have no professional jobs.

Good numbers of villagers are engaged in jhum cultivation, some work as agricultural

laborers, and others do any type of labour that is available. In Bagafa, people have

government jobs as they are qualified for different government services. Majority of the

Riangs at Bagafa are enjoying Government jobs. The educational qualification leads to

77

the occupational status of the people under study. The following table illustrates the

occupational status.

Table 2.12. The occupational status of the study villages.

Kalyansing Bagafa

Occupation Number

Percentage Number Percentage

Jhum Cultivation 111 55.5

Agricultural Laborer 22 11 19 9.5

Plantation 25 12.5 47 23.5

Government Service 123 61.5

Tree cuter 16 8

Small scale jobs 26 13 11 5.5

Total 200 100 200 100

In Kalyansing village the 55.5% are involved in jhum cultivation; 11% work as

laborers; 12.5% work in plantations; 8% live by cutting trees and selling wood; and 13%

manage their lives from the earning that have small shops. In Bagafa9.5 % work as

agricultural laborers;23.5% are engaged in plantation; 61.5% have government jobs and

the 5.5% manage with small scale jobs.

Income

Ownership of land shows the economic stability of the family. In Kalyansing

people are poor. They own small plots of land. Some of them migrate from one place to

another in search of fertile land for jhum cultivation. In Bagafa, Riangs own land and

have large cultivated areas. Paddy and rubber plantation is done in large scale. Many of

them employ non-tribal workers in their field to cultivate and manage the plantations.

78

The income generated from the rubber plantations is comparatively high. Riangs

purchase essential requirements from the market generally on a cash basis, though in the

past, some form of barter transactions had taken place. At present few of them work as

daily wage laborers. Their main source of income is the wage they receive. Among the

Riangs men and women go for work. It was observed that men are paid more than

women. Both men and women work to support the economy of the family. To assess the

monthly income of both the villages, the following table is given.

Table 2.13. Monthly Income of the two villages

Kalyansing Bagafa

Monthly Income Number percentage Number percentage

Rs. 1000 - 3000 29 14.5 - -

Rs. 3000 - 5000 123 61.5 9 4.5

Rs. 5000 - 10000 48 24 68 34

Rs.10000 above - - 123 61.5

Total 200 100 200 100

In Kalyansing village 14.5 % have a monthly income that is less than Rs.3,000;

61.5% have income in the range of Rs.3,000 to Rs.5,000; and 24% have an income

between the ranges of Rs.5,000 to Rs.10,000. In Bagafa village 4.5 % have income in

the range of Rs.3,000 to Rs.5,000; 34% have income in the range of Rs.5,000 to

Rs.10,000 and 61.5 % of then have an income above Rs.10,000.

Religion

The close interaction with Hindu Bengalis has influenced the religious practices

of the Riang. The recent statistics shows that there are only small numbers of Riangs

79

who practice Christianity. It is difficult to give exact numbers lowers in different

religions as there are many denominations of Christianity, sects of Hinduism and the

traditional religious practices. The following table gives the data regarding the religious

status of the study villages.

Table no. 2.14.Religious status of the Riangs in the study villages

Rural Urban

Religion Number Percentage Number Percentage

Tribal religion 70 35 7 3.5

Hinduism 87 43.5 102 51

Christianity 43 21.5 91 45.5

Total 200 100 200 100

The table illustrates that in rural village 35% of the people hold on to their

traditional religion; 43.5% of them are Hindus and 21.5% of them are Christians. In the

urban areas 3.5% of the people practice their traditional religion, 51% are found to be

showing some influence of Hinduism and 45.5% are Christians for the last three to four

decades.

The above description gives a general idea of the Riangs of Tripura, their

migration history and life in two settings one in rural and the other urban. The forth

coming chapters will deal with the Socio-political, Economics and Religion organization

of the Riang while highlighting their transformation to this date.