CHAPTER II Review of Related Literature - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/102629/10/10_chapter 2.pdf · Review of related literature presents the comprehensive

Review of Related Literature | 22

CHAPTER II Review of Related Literature

1.1. Introduction

Review of related literature is an important aspect of every study. It helps the

investigator to acquaint him with current knowledge in the area in which he is going to

conduct the research. It is a valuable guide in defining the problem, recognizing its

scope and significance, suggesting relevant hypotheses, gathering devices, making

appropriate study design and sources of data. The aim of Review of the Related

Literature in research, especially in educational research, is for providing a general

background regarding the important developments in the field of study. The reviewed

studies are therefore presented in that perspective.

Review of related literature presents the comprehensive development of the problem

background. It indicates what has already been studied by others which have a bearing

upon the present study. According to Best and Kahn (2009), “It provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is already known and what is still unknown and

untested. Because effective research is based on past knowledge, this step helps to

eliminate the duplication of what has been done and provides useful hypotheses and

helpful suggestions for significant investigation ... to sharpen and define understanding

of existing knowledge in the problem area, provides a background for the research (pp.

39)”

Literature review has been presented here as a whole on the relevant literature

pertaining to topic of the thesis. Lot of work has been done by different academicians,

educational thinkers, researchers, policymakers and educational reformers. The

researcher has examined the relevant published literature related to the present study of

research with a view to find out further scope of the objectives of the research. The

crux of the various studies, views and comments on the aforesaid topic is as follows.

1.2. Studies Conducted in the Field of Research

Chaudhary (2007) in her study “An Economic History of Education in Colonial India” studied the provision of schooling in British India from 1850 to 1917, when

education policy was under the direct control of the East India Company and the British

Crown. Although colonial policy made several recommendations to increase mass

schooling, the growth of primary education generally lagged behind secondary

education over most of the period. In addition to official policy, several local factors

were critical to the provision of schools at the district-level. While the level of caste and

religious diversity was negatively correlated with the number of public primary

schools, the share of Brahmans (traditional Hindu elites) was positively correlated with

secondary schools. Moreover, in more diverse districts there was undue private

emphasis on secondary versus primary education. Thus, the new public system was

successful in developing a network of secondary schools and colleges using public and

private sources of revenue as compared to expanding mass primary schooling.


This paper studied the provision of schooling in British India when education was

under the direct authority of the British Crown. The analysis combines qualitative data

from various official reports and commissions with previously under-utilized

quantitative data from the Quinquennial Reviews of Education, Indian district

gazetteers and colonial censuses. Although colonial policy made numerous

recommendations to develop mass primary schooling, public human capital

expenditures in British India lagged behind other colonies in the Dependent British

Empire and the Princely States. Human capital expenditures in British India averaged

0.01 pounds per capita from 1860 to 1912 and total budget over these decades.

Moreover, public expenditures on primary schools averaged 34.3% even though

literacy was as low as 7% in 1911. In addition to colonial policy, several local factors

were critical to the provision of primary and secondary schools. Using a new historical

data-set of 82 Indian districts in 1901 and 1911, the econometric analysis showed that

caste and religious fragmentation was negatively correlated with public primary

schools, in particular aided and unaided specifications with the ratio of primary over

secondary unaided schools indicated that there was an undue private emphasis on

secondary education. Finally, the analysis on literacy showed that the availability of

public primary schools in 1901 was positively correlated with 1911 literacy rates.

Taken together, the findings highlight the tradeoffs of decentralized provision of public

goods like primary schooling in the presence of numerous and unequal groups. Since

private efforts determined the number of schools, elites who frequently established

schools disregarded the spill-over of providing mass primary schooling to the

population. Although colonial policy recognized the need to improve the low levels of

schooling, official efforts were limited to establishing a few schools in areas heavily

populated by groups with below average literacy like the lower castes and aboriginal

tribes. However, these attempts failed to significantly increase literacy among these

groups or in the overall population. The provision of schooling, specifically at the

primary level, is often viewed as a public good because of the positive externalities

associated with an educated populace to any community or state. However it is unclear

whether it was in the interests of the British Crown to develop a system of mass

elementary schooling in British India. This was not a democracy that could benefit

from an educated electorate. In fact, an educated populace was only more likely to

demand self-government and threaten the stability of colonial rule. Though colonial

officers recognized certain social benefits of providing mass education, they were

unwilling to bear the costs of public provision. Consequently, they turned to private

Indian enterprise, which developed to meet the demands of a small elite population.

Though Indian elites had some political voice under colonial rule, they were not elected

representatives and until 1919 were relatively constrained in their ability to affect

colonial education policy. Since they were unlikely to directly benefit from mass

education, it was not in their interests either to develop or support a broad network of

schools. Thus, the lack of a viable political constituency willing to support mass

schooling severely hurt the development of mass primary education in British India.


Kumar (2007) undertook a study on “British Rule and Problems of the Present Education System” to investigate what was the system of education in pre-British

India, and what was the impact of British rule on it. The study suggested that the

education system prevailing in India today was not built in a day. Its development has a

history. Lord Macaulay laid the foundation of the education system here. The new

education system became a strong means to create the cultural system of imperialism in

India as well as in the other colonies. In this education system, knowledge was also

colonial. It was planned as per the requirements of the colonial rulers. The colonial

knowledge not only helped to maintain the hierarchical social system in Indian society

based on race and caste, but also greatly contributed towards strengthening British rule.

This education produced a feeling of inferiority about our culture and languages in the

minds of ordinary Indians. Even today we are not free from these shackles. To this day

the common educated Indians have a colonial mentality. To impose their education

system the British had to first destroy the education system prevailing in India since

ancient times. This was done at many levels and in many ways. It is obvious that the

native education system was neither ideal nor was it non-partisan, but its roots were I

being developed. It was not a static system, as is commonly said. The education system

prevailing in India before the advent of the British was broadly categorised the

researcher as follows: 1) Religious and moral education regarding life values. 2)

Education relating to skills, crafts and agriculture. 3) Education relating to philosophy,

science, technology and mathematics. 4) Education relating to arts. 5) Education

relating to politics and military art. 6) Medical education. Between 1757 and 1857 the

Company Raj made efforts to dig up and destroy these roots so that the roots of the

British rule could be strengthened. Government grants to all education activities were

stopped. During this period the colonial education system was slowly created and

institutionalized. The Charter Act of 1813, the education policy of Lord Macaulay, the

Woods dispatch, The Hunter Commission, University Act, the Sergeant Plan, all of

them show how the colonial education system was getting strengthened. He stated even

in the education system that the British established, the written English, through a very

special historical consciousness of the dual struggle waged by the working people in

the field of nature and social production. With time language becomes the repository of

the memories of collective struggles, which reflect both continuity and change. Apart

from being a medium of communication language is also a carrier of culture and

civilization. Language has a primary and very important role in determining the kind of

relationship one has with one's natural and social environment. As a medium of

instruction in education, English broke off the process of communication with the

people.

By expelling the knowledge of labour and life from the ambit of education, the English

education gave the knowledge of English the pre-requisite to the task of

administration, the education system was converted into a machine to produce

“educated slaves” of the British. In addition to this, English education performed the

task of producing a new historical outlook. According to this outlook the natives have

no history, no culture. The culture had to be imported from Europe. Divided into castes,


religion, tribes in conflict with each other, this society was basically considered as

being in uncivilized stage. It was through the arrival of Europeans that enlightenment,

culture and justice had been brought to this society. In the society that was gradually

moving towards unity, division and discord was deliberately encouraged and

institutionalized, becoming a cancer to our society. The period 1757-1857 was marked

by destruction of the social, economic, political and educational fabric of the Indian

society. The education system that was established after this destruction has nothing to

do with the workers, peasants, language, culture, traditions, history, literature, science,

medical science, religion, or philosophy of the soil of this land. This is entirely a system

imposed from outside. The present education system has its origin in this system. All

the various commissions that were set up in the post-independence period for education

reforms did not come up with any change that would make a break with the old

structure of education and re-establish its link with the land and its people. All that was

done was to include what was necessary in the new system. To sum up none of the

commissions on education made an attempt to decolonize the education system.

Education has been totally cut off from the lives of people, labour and collective need

of the society, and converted into a commodity. To conclude, what Gandhi said about

English education is very relevant: “We must realize that by adopting English education we have made our nation a slave. English education has resulted in

arrogance, anger, oppression and so on. English educated people have not spared in

fooling and tormenting common masses. And if we do something for their benefit we

are but repaying a small portion of the debt that we owe to them".

Chaudhary (2007) in her study “Determinants of Primary Schooling in British India” has explored the provision of schooling in colonial India when British

administrators dictated education policy. Although public and private funds were used

to expand and improve the public education system, there were fewer than 3 primary

schools for every 10 villages as late as 1911. To explore the impact of the funding

system on the provision of schools, he empirically analyzed the links between local

factors and schooling using a new historical dataset. He has found that districts with

higher levels of caste and religious diversity had fewer privately managed primary

schools and fewer total primary schools. Heterogeneous preferences across groups,

unequal political power in more diverse districts and low demand for education by

lower castes are all potential explanations for this pattern. Broadly, the results highlight

the challenges involved in the provision of primary education in the presence of

numerous and perhaps unequal groups.

This paper studies the provision of schooling in British India when education was under

the direct authority of the British Crown. The analysis combines qualitative data from

primary and secondary sources with previously under-utilized quantitative data from

the district gazetteers and colonial censuses. Although colonial policy made numerous

recommendations to develop mass primary schooling, public human capital

expenditures in British India lagged behind colonies in the dependent British Empire

and the Indian Princely States. Human capital expenditures in British India averaged


0.01 pounds per capita from 1860 to 1912 and represented a mere 4% of the total

budget over these decades. Expenditures on primary education averaged 34% of public

education expenditures as compared to other countries where public investments in

primary schooling exceeded at least half the education budget. Using a new historical

data-set of 82 Indian districts in 1901 and 1911 the econometric analysis shows that

caste and religious fragmentation was negatively correlated with public primary schools

in particular aided and unaided schools. A variety of explanations can account for this

pattern including heterogeneous preferences across different castes and religions,

unequal political power and low demand for education by lower castes. They

highlighted the numerous challenges of providing primary education in the presence of

numerous and unequal groups. Additional specifications indicate that there was an

undue private emphasis on secondary education that was especially prevalent in areas

with greater fragmentation and larger populations of high caste Brahmans. The final

analysis on literacy shows that the availability of public primary schools in 1901 was

positively correlated with literacy in 1911 although secondary schools were statistically

uncorrelated with subsequent literacy. The findings of this paper suggest that private

interests interacted with colonial policy to promote private provision of secondary

schools in areas heavily populated by Brahmans and local characteristics such as the

level of caste and religious diversity negatively affected private provision of primary

schools. Since private efforts determined the number of aided and unaided schools,

elites who frequently established schools disregarded the spillovers of providing mass

primary education. Although colonial policy recognized the need to improve the low

levels of schooling, public efforts were limited to supporting a few schools in areas

heavily populated by groups with below average literacy like the lower castes and

aboriginal tribes. However, these attempts were largely unsuccessful in increasing

literacy within these disadvantaged groups or within the overall population.

Babu (2009) has done a study on “Universalisation of Elementary Education: A

Study of District Primary Education Programme from South India”. This study is

a modest attempt to understand policy, programme and expected outcomes of an

important educational intervention aimed at Universalisation of Elementary Education

implemented between 1998- 2003 through District Primary Education Programme

(DPEP) an intervention supported by World Bank, European Union and Department for

International Development (DFID), a consortium of aid giving agencies based in UK.

This research study is a piece of policy evaluation contributing to the ongoing

discussion on process of implementation of policy in the area of elementary education.

The problems of Universalisation are perceived by different policy scientist in different

perspectives. For example the minimum levels of learning (MLL) focused on quality,

while the Operation Blackboard looked at the need for provision of at least two

classrooms in the existing schools. DPEP that way has reportedly made a departure

from the beaten track and attempted a holistic view of issues determining Enrolment,

Retention, Achievement and Quality of school education. The researcher has explored

that DPEP makes a difference to the policy and programme content to the primary

education sector. The policy makers and administrators have taken a number of


initiatives beginning with Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) to provide

education for all. Despite these the outcomes are not commensurate with the efforts.

District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) is an important and latest intervention

in this direction. The present study is an attempt to validate structure, process and

outcomes of DPEP in one of the district in Andhra Pradesh. Several articles in the

Constitution of India bring into sharp focus on the general principles governing

educational development in the country. Though the constitutional provisions and

institutional arrangements are in place, the goal of making education accessible to all

appears to be eluding us.

Education was brought under the concurrent list through 42nd Amendment to the

constitution in 1970 to facilitate evolution of – national policies in the field of

education. It was decided in mid 80’s that there is need for a comprehensive review of the then existing education system and policy makers saw the need for a fresh National

policy of Education (NPE). It came into effect in 1986. Within the comprehensive

frame work enunciated by the NPE (1986) the developments and experiences since

their incorporation into the NPE, in 1992 and a revised Programme of Action (POA-

1992) was formulated. The NEP provides a comprehensive framework for guiding the

development of education. Overall, the NPE is committed to address all aspects of

education; Equity, efficiency, relevance, quality, content and progress; all those aspects

dealing with linkages, culture, values, society, polity and economy, besides

mobilization of resources and those dealing with management. Emphasis on organic

linkages with early childhood education, primary education, non-formal education,

adult education, and post literacy and lifelong continuing education was evident. NPE,

1986 tried to break away from stereotyped thinking and appears to have promoted a

thoughtful introspection. In the implementation sphere, one may notice a shift from the

state to the district as the unit of planning for organization of elementary education.

Thus there is a structural change in organizational aspects.

While the challenge that confronts in this sector is formidable, studies on successful

States like Kerala and Tamil Nadu provide useful lessons. The policy response ought to

be individually and collectively be faced. All the stakeholders i.e. public, teachers and

educators; NGO’s the industrial sector, the media, politicians, panchayat leaders, grass root workers and others have to regard it as achievable task. The researcher pointed out

the major interventions in primary education since 1986 such as Minimum Levels of

Learning (MLL), Operation Black Board (OBB), Shiksha Karmi Project, Bihar

Education Project (BEP), Uttara Pradesh Basic Education Programme (UPBEP),

National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE), Lok

Jumbish Project etc. He also described the role of international agencies in

strengthening of primary education.

Mahanty (1985) in his study entitled “Universalition of Elementary Education in

India: Lessons of Experience and Pointers for Action” attempted to find out the

problems concerning universalization of primary education have been going on since

the last three decades and to throw a certain amount of light on the removal of these


bottleneck and on revamping the existing educational system so that the rate of

universalization of primary education can be increased. According to him education is

one of the fundamental necessities of man. It is also instrumental in meeting other

needs. Universalization of primary education is intimately connected with the

development of living conditions of the people. When a significant number of citizens

are below the poverty line, the attempts made to provide free and compulsory education

to children in the age group 6-14 cannot be successful in the near future. There are, in

addition, certain educational and administrative bottlenecks that have been decelerating

the process. His study revealed that Universalization of primary education in India is

beset with constraints such as inadequacy of financial provision; poverty among

parents; indifference of parents; alienation of schools; inappropriateness of curricula;

ineffectiveness of teachers; inertia in administrative and supervisory machinery; and

multitude of languages and dialects. He stated that the constraints mentioned above are

to a very great extent responsible for the slow progress in the attempt for

universalization of primary education. Various committees and conferences such as

The PATEL Committee (Ministry of Education 1978), the National Seminar on

Compulsory Primary Education (Ministry of Education 1961), the Conference of

Education Ministers of States and Union Territories (Ministry of Education) have

discussed these problems and have given several suggestions for their solutions. Lastly

he made the following suggestions for stepping up the progress universalization of

primary education:

Provision of mid-day meals, reading and writing materials and clothing for

children from poor families and Freedom of teachers to develop school

curricula including school working days and school timetable.

Provision of compensatory pre-school education facility in each village/urban

slum having more than 15 children from disadvantaged communities and giving

preference to educated wives of concerned primary school teachers for

appointment as pre-school teachers and Abolition of the transfer system

among the teachers from one school to another.

Improvement of the quality of pre-service training programmes by making

teaching in schools part of the duty of staff members and by providing

experiences to trainees in various situations including visits to ideal educational

institutions such as the Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education at

Pondicherry.

Provision for in-service training of teachers by establishing such a centre in

every district so as to provide training to each teacher who has completed five

years of service.

Improvement of the quality of administration and supervision by making

teaching in schools for a few periods every week part of the duty of such

personnel and providing them pre-service training as well as in-service training.

Provision of a non-formal teacher or a teaching assistant in each single-

teacher school and giving preference to educated wives of teachers for such

appointments.


Conversion of primary into community schools and Provision of reading

material for neo-literates in primary schools.

Sarma (2011) conducted a study entitled “Universalisation of Elementary Education

among Tea-Tribe of Assam with special reference to Jorhat District” for Assam

State Commission for Protection of Child Right as a part of their monitoring activities.

Tea garden labours living inside the Tea gardens of Assam, presently know as Tea-

Tribe is a disadvantaged group of Assam whose educational and socio-economic status

is still very gloomy. This descriptive study attempted to analyse the present status of

elementary education in terms of universal enrolment, universal retention and universal

achievement. The study is reported in five chapters. The objective of the study was to

assess the status of universal Elementary Education among Tea Tribes and to know

whether the right of the children of this community is ensured as per RTE act 2009.

According to him, one of the basic rights of the child is his Right to Education. UEE

must be achieved to protect this right of the child. This study had been therefore

undertaken for the monitoring agency Assam State Commission for Protection of Child

Right to know the status of Universal Elementary Education, among Tea –Tribe which

is the basic right of the child to be ensured without further delay.

According to him, Eight years of elementary education can equip a child to become a

productive citizen of the country. The UEE must be ensured through the proper

implementation of the RTE Act, 2009. In the chapter I, he threw light on the Universal

Elementary Education and right to free education in India. The earliest attempt during

the British rule for compulsory primary education was made by William Adam in 1838.

Later in 1852, Captain Wintage, a Revenue Survey Commissioner in Bombay, when

called upon by Government to give his views on a proposal to levy a local fund on land

revenue, recommended the levy of such a cess and suggested that a part of it should be

spent in providing free and compulsory education for sons of agriculturists. After

independence, a number of schemes and programmes were launched in pursuance of

the emphasis contained in NPE (1986) and POA (1992). Those are OB, NFE, APPEP

in Andhra Pradesh, in Bihar BEP, LJP in Rojasthan, EFA project in UP, SK project in

Rajathan, SOPT for empowerment of elementary teacher, Nutritional support to

Primary Education i.e. MDM programme, formation of DIETS, DPEP project etc. As a

consequence of all these efforts, India has made remarkable progress in terms of

increase in enrolment, number of schools and number of teachers. The right to

education Act, 2009 is a landmark central legislation to achieve the UEE and to give

rights to the children. The National Commission for the protection of Child Rights an

autonomous body set up in 2007 is to monitor the implementation of this Act.

The National Commission for protection of child rights (NCPCR) was set up in March

2007 under the commission for protection of Child Rights Act, 2005. This commission

has been set up to protect, promote and defend the Rights of the Child in the Country.

Assam state commission for Protection of Child Rights has also been set up on 4th

March 2010. The commission’s mandate is to ensure that all laws, policies, Programmes and administrative mechanism are in consonance with the Child Rights


perspectives as enshrined in the constitution of India. These must also reflect the

declaration of the United Nations Convention on the Right of the Child. The RTE Act

has been effective in the whole country since 1st April, 2010. It is mandatory for the

ASCPCR to monitor the implementation of RTE Act. As Right to education is the basic

right of the child and to ensure it UEE must be achieved. This study attempted to know

the status of UEE among a disadvantaged group of Assam, the Tea-Tribe. This study

has been conducted among the Tea garden labour community of Jorhat District of

Assam. It constitutes about 20 percent of the population of Assam. The sample for the

study is 22 tea gardens of Jorhat district. In the chapter V, the findings and suggestions

of the study are summarized below.

All Tea gardens has at least one primary school within the garden. 80 percent of the

habitations are served by a middle school within a distance of 3 Km. In other words

there is a middle school outside the gardens within 3k.m. For girls it will be more

convenient if there is a middle school inside the gardens. Overall infrastructure of the

Tea-garden schools cannot be said to be adequate. Almost all the schools do not have a

class-room for each class. This problem is aggravated with inclusion of class V to the

lower primary schools. 78 percent schools cannot provide drinking water to the

children. Though 96 percent schools have hand pumps for water, most of those are not

in functional condition. Only 17 percent schools do not have a separate room for

cooking MDM. 48 percent schools do not have any boundary wall. 65 percent schools

do not have playground. All the schools have some type of play materials. But for want

of a playground the children cannot play outdoor games. Both qualification and

Training of teachers are not as per RTE norms. In 68.2 percent schools teacher pupil

ratio is higher than the norm prescribed by RTE. In 36.3 percent school T/P ratio is

unusually high. It is more than 70 per teacher. Authority should take immediate

measures for providing appropriate number of qualified and trained teachers to the tea-

gardens schools. Special allowance to teachers work in the tea garden schools or some

other incentive may attract teachers to serve in the tea garden schools. It is satisfying to

note that in the age group (6-10) 91.4 percent are enrolled. Out of this 89.5 percent boy

and 93.3 percent girls are enrolled. But the GER for upper primary level is only 79.2. It

is alarmingly low for girls i.e. 71.6 only. Though Retention rate is increasing after SSA,

59 during 2000-2003 and 70 during 2008- 2011. 30per cent drop out is discouraging.

Efforts need to be taken to improve school environment, quality of teachers,

supervision etc to ensure that the child who enrolled does not leave school before

completion of the course. The pupil’s achievement is not at all satisfactory. Their performance in the last annual exam clearly depicts that grade promotion is done

without achieving the minimum competencies. Special care should be taken to include

co-scholastic activities in school programme. There should be proper supervision in this

respect. MDM scheme is very important for Tea-Tribe Children of the Tea gardens. It

will protect their right to nutrition. There should be proper planning so that the scheme

is operated smoothly.


Gupta (2009) carried out a study “What are the different strategies and approaches to realize Right to Education (RTE) in India?” to answer to the key research

question: Does the new Right to Education (RTE) legislation matter for the realization

of education rights for the children of India? He said that since the UN Universal

Declaration of Human Rights over 50 years ago, there has been a proliferation of

international conventions on rights. Human rights are regarded as worth of respect and

protection but there are plenty of gaps in translating internationally recognized human

rights into entitlement for people in countries' national legislation. He has tried to

analyses the conditions which enable the realization of education rights for the children

of India. In this study he analyzes the potential scenario of the education rights on

ground after the commission of ‘Right to Education’ legislation. He is of the opinion

that decentralization in India divides education in a way that all levels of government

have concurrent power in oversight and regulation for different levels of schooling. The

decentralized system gives equal powers to the sub-national states but how they use

their discretionary powers and engender the implementation of policies is part of each

state's judgment. This is one of the circumstances which can make a difference in the

realization of the right to education. A huge regional disparity in case of educational

panorama in India is not a surprise. This is common to any country. But in places of

success in the realization of education, like Kerala, there are negative gaps and certain

groups are excluded from having the education they are entitled to as a right.

This study has been built more on the qualitative data as it requires a broad view of

education in the contexts under analysis. The main source of qualitative data has been

literature review. There is a wide body of literature regarding education, Right to

education legislation, human rights and development that can be drawn upon and

complemented by information from other sources - such as bilateral and multilateral

agents, NGOs and official country reports. With this collected data, an assessment of

the right to education in India is what this paper proposes to do. The proposed

assessment can be translated into measuring human rights and its implementation.

Chapter 2 explores the history of right to education bill and movement in India, from

the Supreme Court ruling in 1993 to the actual passes legislation in 2009 .Chapter 3

explores the link between human rights and development and its influence in the

effective realization of rights and achievement of goals, such as enshrined in the UN

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Chapter 4 analyzes the India’s Right to Education legislation on various aspects Chapter 5 explores the question: Why Right

based approaches and why now? Chapter 6 concludes with a summary of the study,

restating its main findings and emphasizing the enabling conditions for the realization

of the right to education and answering the question of whether legislation matters for

the realization of a right.

This study finds that legislation is not an imperative for realizing rights but it a useful

tool, which can assist on the claiming of a right. It is not however a determinant of

whether or not people have their right to education realized but it can be used as a

mobilization tool to transform rights and policies into reality. On 15 December 2008


the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Bill was introduced in the Rajya Sabha

and in Lok Sabha in August, 2009. So as of today Indians have one more fundamental

right i.e. Right to Education. Throughout this paper the analysis of education

demonstrated how people are still excluded from receiving what they are entitled to as a

human right; a life in dignity, freedom and equality. Negative gaps on its realization,

however, are perceptible around the world. In India the situation is not different as

many children and adults are excluded from having the substance of their right

translated into reality. In order to understand the degree to which the right to education

is attained, an analysis of different aspects of the India’s RTE legislation has been done in the paper. It is identifiable that the Indian legislation is quite aligned to the

international norms on the right to education and enshrinement of the right to education

into national legislation rests clear. National norms also assure the education rights

which are available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable.

Legislation can be a tool for enhancing the realization of the right but it does not ensure

instant realization. In specific cases the Indian judiciary played an important role in

assuring the realization of the right to education but to follow such a route does not

ensure a sustainable educational system in which education is available, accessible,

acceptable and adaptable. Each case is individual and the costs of using this method for

accomplishing rights are high. Having coherent policies in practice, however, is a more

stable way of ensuring the realization of the right to education. Regional disparities

continue to be a trait of the Indian reality. Policies, however, have to be implemented

rather than just resting on rhetoric to change reality and make rights effective in

practice.

Many of the current policies relating to education in India are not designed to enable

available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable education to all and even if some of the

policies are comprehensive and all inclusive, they are not implemented to their full

extent. Many policies aim at resource distribution and at promoting equality among

different regions and states, for example, but the achievement of the expected effects of

these policies is not seen as other variables influence the realization of the right to

education. Some of these variables could be believed to be socio-economic conditions,

educational tradition, and availability of resources and the way in which the duty-

holders of educational provision develop their actions and the implementation of

policies. Having good policies which aim at a holistic approach to education is very

important but it is not enough as they, just as well as legislation, have to be translated

into practice. To translate the current RTE bill into practice, national and state

governments of India, will be dependent on SSA (Sarva Siksha Abhiyyan). Since the

states are at different levels of development in their educational, their needs would also

be different. The challenge would be to craft flexible and decentralized norms that suit

the needs of each state, in contrast to the way the SSA is being currently implemented

with rigid norms. The current SSA is incompatible with the fundamental rights based

requirements of the bill; the central government would have to decide whether to

reformulate the SSA appropriately or to bring in a completely different funding

mechanism to implement the fundamental right.


Acharya (1994) made a study entitled “Problems of Universal Elementary Education” to explore why the cherished goal of achieving universal elementary

education has been unfinished even after 46 years of independence. Acharya analysed

comprehensively a good number of studies on universal provision of facilities,

universal enrolment and universal retention such as Fifth All India Educational Survey

over the years from 1978 to 1986, Selected Educational Statistics, I990 (MHRD),

Annual Report of the Ministry of Human Resource Development, 1990-91, The Indian

Year Book of Education, 1964, Wastage, Stagnation and Inequality of Opportunity in

Rural Primary Education by K V Eswaraprasad and Ramesh C Sharma (1987) etc to

extract the problems of the universalation of elementary education.

Firstly, he cited one by one the landmark national policies in favour of providing free

and compulsory education to our children to achieve UEE. He pointed out that the

Constitution of India made provision for free and compulsory education for all children

up to the age of 14 years. The National Policy on Education 1968 emphatically stated

that "Strenuous efforts should be made for the early fulfilment of the Directive

Principle under Article 45 of the Constitution seeking to provide free and compulsory

education for all children up to the age of 14. Suitable programmes should be

developed to reduce the prevailing wastage and stagnation in schools and to ensure that

every child who is enrolled in school successfully completes the prescribed course".

The NPE 1986 also reiterated that 'The new thrust in elementary education will

emphasise two aspects: (i) Universal enrolment and universal retentions of children up

to 14 years of age; and (ii) a substantial improvement in the quality of education- It

shall be ensured that all children who attain the age of about 11 years by 1990 will have

had five years of schooling, or its equivalent through the non-formal stream. Likewise,

by 1995 all children will be provided free and compulsory education up to 14 years of

age."

By universal elementary education he meant universal provision of facilities, universal

enrolment and universal retention. Universal provision of facilities, however, may not

necessarily ensure universal enrolment and universal enrolment may not guarantee

universal retention. According to him, universal provision of facilities is often taken to

be universal provision of schools. This view overlooks the difference between physical

access to school and equality in access to education. Equality in access should be the

aim; universal facilities would include universal provision of schools, universal supply

of teaching-learning materials and desired quality of actual teaching-learning in

schools. Universal provision of facilities, as has been stated above, no doubt depended

to a large extent on proper mobilisation of resources and development of a well-

structured management system and administration. There are other factors like

availability of competent and committed teachers, functional programme of teachers

training and development of life-centric school curriculum. In other words, the school

should have the right ambience for education.

Equality in access to elementary education has been one aspect of the problems of

UEE. He stated that access means liberty to enter and at the same time ability to enter.


Universal provision of facilities may ensure liberty to enter but ability to enter depends

on many other factors like socio-economic conditions of a learner, educational

background of parents, attitudes, and above all relevance of education imparted in

schools to the life situation of the prospective learners. Professor Acharya said that

successful planning for Universalization of elementary education, no doubt, depends to

a great extent on proper identification of reasons for non-enrolment and drop-outs.

Most of the causes of wastage are economic in origin. The social reasons are Betrothal

or marriage, unwillingness of parents to send grown-up girls to a mixed school, lack of

appreciation for the education of girls and lack of women teachers are some of the

causes of this wastage. The educational reasons include: (a) existence of incomplete

schools which do not teach the full course; (b) large prevalence of stagnation which

discourages children from staying longer at school; (c) dull character of most of the

schools and their poor capacity to attract students and to retain them; d) absence of

ancillary services like school meals and school health and (e) failure of the average

parent or child to see the good of attending schools. The chief causes of stagnation are

poor attendance, inefficient teaching, defective method of examinations and faulty

curriculum. Irregularity of attendance is due to the indifference of parents and also to

the failure of the school to adjust its hours and vacations to local needs.

Acharya’s review of primary education - the facilities available, enrolment and drop-

out rates, and the quality of teaching – has shown that we are a long way from

achieving the goal of universal primary education. He concluded that universalisation

of elementary education not only means universal facilities, universal enrolment and

universal retention, but also the availability of a universally high quality of teaching.

Rai & Kumar (2010) in their book entitled “Right to Education: The Way Forward” nicely sums up the silent features of the RTE Act, 2009 and its limitations,

loopholes, criticisms and challenges before it and also the way forward as how to

implement it successfully. The book is a roadmap for the successful implementation of

the RTE Act in right spirit. The book discusses the key provisions of the Right to

Education Act and analyses the huge challenges ahead in implementing it on various

fronts — funding, infrastructure, public awareness, motivation and so on. In their

“Prescription for Success”, the authors suggest, inter alia, a massive infusion of funds

to spruce up government schools and the adoption of Public-Private-Partnership model.

This book captures the essence of the Act by explaining its relevance to an aspiring

India and millions for whom the legislation is a key tool for emancipation. The authors

underline the fact that the responsibility of the implementation of Act lies as much on

civil society as on the government.

The book draws attention to the fact that more funds and resources have to be

mobilised and special initiatives must be made for bringing back the school dropouts,

child labourers and children belonging to marginalised sections and weaker sections. It

also welcomes some of the pragmatic clauses of the Act like making it obligatory for

all private schools to reserve 25% seats for children belonging to underprivileged and

weaker sections of the society. They in their book advocate the public-private


partnership to reduce the burden on public schools and increase the quality of

education. For successful implementation of this Act, they advise us to go beyond the

legislation. Parents, teachers, civil servants, private entrepreneurs, executive officials

all need to come together and share the burden. The book covers all the pros and cons

of the RTE Act, 2009.

Niranjanaradhya, V. P. (2004) authored a book entitled “Universalisation of School

Education — the Road Ahead” to throw some reflections on the unversalisation of

school education in India. This book comes at a time when the 86th Constitutional

Amendment has made free and compulsory school education a fundamental right.

Fifty-four years later, the country has only legislation and is yet to evolve a practical

framework for its implementation. In 1950, the founding fathers of the Indian

Constitution envisaged in the Article 45, "The state shall endeavour to provide, within a

period of 10 years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and

compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years." They

also called for the "state, within its economic capacity to make effective provisions for

education."

The book not only looks at the road ahead, but also the road behind, sketching the paths

that education has taken since the Vedic period. It is the author's contention that

education for the masses took a beating in British India, with its elitist educational

policies. Since then, the decline has been rapid with alarming literacy levels all over the

country, indicating that free and compulsory education has been furthest in the policies

of the rulers. The book advocates universal access, enrolment, retention, achievement

and community participation and a relevant institutional structure to achieve the above.

It is particularly valuable to anyone serious about the issue, providing as it does an

exhaustive list of existing international, central and state legislations on education. It,

however, steers clear of the simultaneous debate on providing special facilities for

certain children including girls, disabled and those from socially disadvantaged groups.

Aggarwl & Gupta (2010) in their book entitled “Right to Education and

Revitalizing Education” wrote about the different aspects of Indian education related

to particularly school education. First chapter of this book “A brief history of Education Reforms in India” has been written with the aim of highlighting the Educational reforms in India. The authors have adopted Historical and Analytical approach in

discussing the educational history of India. In this chapter, the authors have analysed

some landmark initiatives in the field of Educational reforms beginning with the

Wardha Scheme of education which was approved by Gandhiji. Second chapter “Sarva Siksha Abhiyan” explains the major features, significance and importance of the Sarva

Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) to universalise elementary education. Third chapter “Rights of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009” has been written on the above Act. The Act was formulated after making some amendments in the constitution. Then

it provides general information about the Act. Fourth chapter “School Education: ‘Report to Nation’ – National Knowledge Commission 2006-09, is a report on the

status of education level in India. It gives a detailed account on the current scenario of


education, facilities, problems of curriculum, pedagogy in India. It is further

supplemented by some major recommendations and observation on the reforms of

education in India The fifth chapter “Secondary Education; Universalizing Opportunity: World Bank Report, 2009” includes the major observations and recommendations made in a report published by Human Development Unit – South

Asian Region, World Bank. It gives details as to why we should invest in secondary

education in India and what are the key challenges and chances of investing in

Secondary education in India. Experts have also given the idea that how the expansion

in Secondary education should take place and it is followed by some valuable

recommendations on improving the level of Secondary education of India. The sixth

chapter “National Knowledge Commission (2006): Major Observations and Recommendations” includes the observation & recommendations of NKC which was constituted by Prime Minister of India on June 13, 2005, to assist Prime Minister’s Office on the matters of education, research institutes and reforms needed in education.

The commission gave its recommendations & observations on Right to Education,

Higher Education & Vocational Education. The observation is followed by some

valuable recommendations and further in this chapter report of NKC is discussed and

some important suggestions on the various aspects of the report are also given. Chapter

seven “Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education: Prof. Yash Pal Committee Report (2009) is a report of the advice on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher

Education. The Committee was formed to review the role of statutory bodies like the

University Grants Commission (UGC) and All India Council of Technical Education

(AICTE) in the context of changes in higher, professional and technical education in

the country and demands of new knowledge economy. The chapter includes the list of

all recommendations made by the Committee on the status & reforms needed in Higher

Education in India. The eighth chapter “Grading System” of this book is about the adoption of the grading system in the education system in India. The Secondary

Education Commission was constituted in 1952-53 by Government of India to make

some recommendations on the adoption of grading system in Indian Education system.

Later in this chapter the demerits of the grading system are discussed and some

observations are made. The chapter consist of some major announcement made by

CBSE Chairman Dr. Ashok Ganguly in 2005 and the proposal of introducing some

reforms in the education system of India. The ninth chapter “Follow up Action on Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation by CBSE 2009” of this book is about the implementation of some reforms as suggested by HRD Minister. This chapter gives the

whole information about the new scheme of Continuous and Comprehensive

Evaluation (CCE) in class IX and X introduced by CBSE. The chapter contains all the

relevant extracts from the document. It thoroughly gives the details about the objectives

of the scheme and also explains about the evaluation process that what should be

assessed and how it should be done, types of assessment, functions of Comprehensive

and Continuous evaluation. Chapter tenth “Overview of Development and Recent Initiative in Education” is an assessment of all the educational reforms and Initiatives introduced in education system by Government of India. It gives all the details of

outcomes and drawbacks about the initiatives launched by Government of India that


what is the current status of the scheme and up to which level it is completed. And this

chapter further contains some exclusive important extracts from the RTE Act, 2009 in

the last followed up with a table of International comparison of Indian education on

certain other key Educational Parameters. Last chapter “Essential Points Relating to Education Reforms and Implementation of the Act in the Present Scenario” contains a few essential points which need to be undertaken into consideration while planning and

implementing new schemes and educational reforms. The most important point is that

every educational institution should be provided with adequate staff, infrastructure and

teaching – material before launching any new reform or scheme and it should be

ensured that teacher teach and the learners learn. The entire book gives an idea about

the status of education in India, new initiatives launched and what is the status of these

schemes and the need for any kind of reform. The book also contains some important

reports by MHRD, Human Right Development Commission etc. on the state of

education in India.

Tarafdar (2007) wrote an article entitled the “Universalisation of Education: A

Study in the Indian Context” to highlight the existence of inequality of educational

opportunities for generations in India. She substantiated it by stating that in our ancient

India education was the prerogative of the upper caste and in British India English

education was for the elite class resulting in direct neglect of mass education.

Unfortunately inequalities still exists though after independence, our constitution

emphasized on the equality of opportunities of all irrespective of caste, race, religion,

sex and place of birth.

Later she cited some strategies of our nation to universalise elementary education. To

her, the National Policy on Education 1986 was a landmark in the history of Indian

education as it visualised education as a dynamic and life long process, providing

diversity of learning opportunities to all of the society. She also added to it that

overriding priority to providing compulsory primary education, coverage of children

with special needs, special focus on the education of SC, ST and Minorities are the

major strategies to achieve the national goal of Universalization of elementary

education (UEE). When the Supreme Court of India in a judgement declared that the

citizens of the country have a fundamental right to education, she commented that the

constitution could not compel the government and the society to have universal

elementary education whereas the result of the judgement assumed utmost significance

as to fulfilling the constitutional commitment to provide free and compulsory education

to all the children as fundamental right. Lastly she suggested that the socio –economic

cultural condition, illiteracy and lack of awareness on the part of the parents, lack of

proper governmental policies are the causes for the present condition of our

Universalization of education.

Kothari (2004) examined the challenges of universalization of elementary education in

India in his study entitled “Challenges of Universalisation of elementary education

in India”. The study was conducted by National Institute of Educational Planning and

Administration (NIEPA) to elucidate the elementary education scenario in India by


using a variety of data sources such as Census Report of India, the National Sample

Survey, National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) and NFHS

surveys. The overall development situation was evaluated with respect to gender, age,

rural-urban divide, expenditure groups, village amenities, and health status of children.

Kothai in the concluding part emphasized that we are far from attaining the goal of

universal enrolment of children 6 to 14 years of age. To him, malnutrition, severe

morbidity and physical disability are delaying their entry into school. For girls and for

first generation learners school atmosphere should be more attractive. Unless we take

adequate steps, our country are likely to remain fixed at 80%-85% enrolment rates,

while most of the developing countries would be heading towards 100% enrolment.

The study revealed the marginalised section of the society like female, disable person

and so called low caste children should have been brought at any cost under

Universalization of elementary education.

S. Ojha Seema (2013) has tried in her research study to explore the status of the

implementation, awareness and understanding of the provisions of RTE amongst

teachers, parents and children in some rural schools of Haryana. Two years have

already passed since implementation of the RTE Act in Haryana but so far there has

been some progress only in terms of enrolment/basic infrastructure but towards

guaranteeing quality education in terms of student learning the state has not achieved

much. By providing some recommendations and further scope of research the paper

calls for an urgent intervention by the government to strengthen the operational aspect

of the Act in the state.

This study, which is designed to investigate the status of the implementation of the

RTE Act and its awareness among teachers, parents and children, is a descriptive study.

The data was collected through participant observation method. Formal structured and

informal interactions with headmaster, two to three teachers, parents and children were

carried out. Besides observing and recording, questionnaires i.e. one each for head

masters, teachers and parents were prepared on the basis of some important provisions

as provided in the Act. Questionnaires contained both close ended and open-ended

questions. Exercising the power granted by section 38 of the Right of Children to Free

and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, the Government of Haryana formulated and

implemented “The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Rule, 2010”. It came into force in Haryana on 1 November, 2010. The rule consists of eight parts.

The findings show that so far there has been some progress only in terms of Enrolment

/basic infrastructure but towards guaranteeing quality education in terms of student

learning the state has to go a long way. The researcher concluded that most of the

parents are aware about the free education provided to the students of elementary

schools. But, many of them are not aware of the benefits provided to the children.

Similarly students are also not aware of their rights. On the basis of the findings the

researcher suggested that parents and children should be made aware about the benefits

and provisions provided in the Act. There is a need to forge partnerships among state,

school functionaries, voluntary agencies, parents and other stakeholders. Concerted


efforts are required at all levels since isolated efforts do not bring the desired results.

Two years have already passed since the implementation of RTE Act in Haryana but

the study reveals still there is long road ahead. The potential of the RTE depends a

great deal on the advocacy and mobilization campaigns initiated by government, and

the ability of parents and children to understand and exercise their new role

relationships as far as elementary education is concerned.

Dhar (April 1, 2010) wrote an article entitled “Education is a fundamental right

now” on the verge of implementation of the RTE Act, 2009. She said that the Right to

Education Act, 2009 was a historic law making education a fundamental right of every

child, directly benefiting close to one crore children who did not go to schools at

present. The Right to Education Act would be binding on the part of the government to

ensure that all children in the six to 14 years age group get schooling. On April 1, 2010

India joined a group of few countries in the world, with a historic law making education

a fundamental right of every child coming into force.

She cited the words of the then Union Human Resource Development Minister Kapil

Sibal that “Nearly 92 lakh children, who had either dropped out of schools or never been to any educational institution, will get elementary education as it will be binding

on the part of the local and State governments to ensure that all children in the 6-14 age

group get schooling”. She pointed out some provisions of the RTE Act one by one. As per the Act, private educational institutions should reserve 25 per cent seats for children

from the weaker sections of society. The Centre and the States have agreed to share the

financial burden and the school management committee or the local authority will

identify the drop-outs or out-of-school children aged above six and admit them in

classes appropriate to their age after giving special training. As per the Act, the schools

need to have minimum facilities such as adequate teachers, playground and

infrastructure.

Bhattacharya (2000) made a study on “National Education Movement – Analysis of

the Role of Bengali Intelligentsia and its impact on Indian Education”. The purpose

of the study was to critically analyse the role of Bengali intelligentsia in the National

Education Movement and its after effects on the development of educational system of

India. The main objectives of the study were (i) to analyse the socio –political and

educational background of Bengal at the time of National Education Movement, (ii) to

analyse the contributors of the Bengali intelligentsia in the formulation and execution

of the first phase (1905-1910) of the National Education Movement and (iii) to analyse

the effects of the Movement on the development of education system in India during

pre and post – independence period. The study adopted historical and analytical method

of research. Background materials have been drawn freely from primary and secondary

sources. It is evident from the study that the defects of colonial system of education

diagnosed by the leaders of the National Education Movement such as neglect of

Universalization of primary education, poor growth of women education and more

emphasis on elite education through the English medium and neglect of vernacular

languages as medium of instruction. The researcher opined that the then political and


socio-economic reasons were the main reasons for these issues and its impact exerted

on shaping the system of National Education.

Nanda (1998) made a study on “The School System in India – A Critique”. This

article is a critique on the system of education introduced in India by the British and

further expanded and developed by the Indian government. The article however has not

been written from the point of view of those who have benefitted from the system. The

author wrote this article from the point of view of those who have failed to receive

benefit from the system. It has been written on behalf of the illiterate, the

underprivileged, the drop-outs and also of those who are struggling to join the ranks of

the privileged. The article explains that the educational system in India has faced a

basic dilemma ever since its introduction by the British. The essence of this problem

was summed up by Mahatma Gandhi in his historic statement at Chatham House,

London, in 1931. The author stated the summary of Gandhi’s speech that the British administrators when they came to India, instead of taking hold of things as they were,

began to root them out. They scratched the soil and began to look at the root and left

the root like that and the beautiful tree perished. The village schools were not good

enough for the British administrator so he came out with his own programme. The

schools established after the European pattern were too expensive to fulfil a programme

of compulsory primary education and this very poor country was ill able to sustain such

an expensive method of education.

Free India did not have the will to fulfil Mahatma Gandhi’s dream of reviving the ancient tradition of the village schoolmaster, supported by the community, his status

and survival as a guru being embedded within the culture and ecology of his immediate

environment. The article concluded with the opinion that instead the government chose

to continue with efforts to educate the masses through a vast, centralised machinery and

superstructure of staff, infrastructure and resources. Successive efforts at

Universalization of primary education, ranging from Operation Blackboard to DPEP

and Education For All, have only reinforced the strength of the challenge posed by

Mahatma Gandhi in his statement at Chatham House. The author made a critique of the

prevailing school system which are summarised below that -

free India has no will to fulfil Mahatma Gandhi’s dream of reviving the ancient tradition of the village;

instead, the government educates the masses through a vast centralized

machinery and superstructure of staff, infrastructure and resources;

universalization of primary education, the adult literacy campaign, and the

investment thrust on primary education to produce the literate child, carry

within themselves the logic that the goal is unattainable;

in the public perception the system of mass government-sponsored education

appears to have failed to deliver the goods, increasing expansion having led

apparently to decreasing quality;


by initiating the expensive Navodaya Vidyalaya Scheme for rural children, the

government simply brought the process of handling contradictions inherent

within the systems to its logical climax; and

the search for alternatives by the government and non-governmental

organizations suffers from all the general weaknesses of the state system.

Gopalan (1998) made a study on “Indian Strategies to Achieve Universalisation of

Elementary Education”. He stated that since 1950, determined efforts were made

towards the achievement of this goal. Over the years, there have been very impressive

increases in the number and spread of institutions as well as enrolment. The Indian

elementary education system is thus one of the biggest such systems in the world,

providing accessibility within 1 km to over 825,000 habitations covering 94 per cent of

the country’s population.

However, Universalization of elementary education (UEE) in its totality is still an

elusive goal and much ground is yet to be covered. In the National Policy on Education

(NPE) 1986, with revised modifications in 1992, we resolved to achieve the goal of

UEE by the turn of the century, emphasising three aspects: universal access and

enrolment, universal retention up to 14 years of age, and a substantial improvement in

the quality of education. The resolve is spelt out unequivocally and emphatically in the

programme of action (POA) 1992, which gave unqualified priority to UEE. The

purpose of this study is to briefly describe some of the new innovations and strategies

that are being applied in India today to achieve UEE. Admitting that UEE is still an

elusive goal, he narrated India’s strategies to achieve the universalization of elementary education (UEE), which has three aspects, namely, universal access and enrolment,

universal retention up to 14 years of age, and a substantial improvement in the quality

of education. Some of the major initiatives and strategies are:

Disaggregated target setting and decentralized micro planning, which will

provide the framework of universal access and community participation.

Strengthening alternative channels of schooling such as the non-formal

education (NFE) system for those who cannot avail of conventional full-time

schooling.

Introduction of minimum levels of learning (MLLs) at primary and upper

primary stages to improve learner’s achievement.

Improvement of school facilities by revamping the scheme of Operation

Blackboard (OB) and connecting it to the MLL strategy.

Establishing linkages between programmes of early childhood care and

education (ECCE), primary education, literacy and UEE.

Addressing the more difficult aspects of access, particularly to girls,

disadvantaged groups and out-of-school children.

Restructuring of teacher training in view of the changed strategies and

programmes.


Availing of external financial support for basic education.

Launching the National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM) and

Disaggregated Target Getting and Decentralized Micro planning

Bapat & Karandikar (1998) executed a study “Rural Context of Primary Education -Searching for the Roots”. This study focused on the fact that the present

system of education in India, from the preschool stage to higher education, has been

imported from the West in bits and pieces over the last 200 years. The overall cultural

contexts of Indian society and the cultural specialities of its varied segments have been

ignored by this system, with the result that it has never been fully accepted by the

people. The researchers observed that it hardly needs to be pointed out that the

ecological inheritance, ethos and cultural commitment of Western societies have been

quite different from those of oriental societies. The climate, natural environment, types

of settlements, their historical evolution and the resultant goals and occupations, and

the life-views of these societies have always been poles apart. According to them, this

is the main cause of the continuing discord between education and society in India.

The authors stated that the indigenous system was studied by some British officials and

scholars in the early nineteenth century. Even though their enquiry was restricted to

British occupied territory, their reports serve to give quite a clear picture of the state of

indigenous education even after the British had imposed their rule on most parts of the

Indian subcontinent. They also pointed out that the British administrators of education

had failed to notice the special characteristics of Indian culture which had a tradition

thousands of years old of education and instead of taking hold of things as they were,

they had begun to root them out. They scratched the soil and began to look at the root,

and left the root like that, and the beautiful tree perished. The imported system had

created two new classes in Indian society: the elite and the masses.

The researchers revealed that the driving forces behind the indigenous system of

primary education were mainly three: (a) an extension of the rites of induction of the

child — especially boys — into the wider arena of skills leading to adulthood functions

in the family and the community, (b) opening the doors to indigenous sources of

wisdom encased in written materials and in the learning orally transmitted by the

master through stories, poems and admonitions on personal and social behaviour, and

(c) weaning the child away from dependence on the mother and other female caretakers

at home. The driving force behind this imperially prescribed system was the

subordination of natives and stabilisation of colonial rule. Even on the eve of

Independence, it became obvious that the imperial government had eminently

succeeded in subjugating Indians not simply during its direct rule over them but for a

much longer period. The gap between the culture of India’s educated elite and that of the rural masses persists and has gone on widening. It persists, and the Indian mind is

now confused. The question is whether this confusion can be overcome without

reverting totally to the cultural past, which has now become irrelevant or accepting the

ways of the West which also are equally irrelevant to India’s development needs and goals.


They pointed out that one feature of the imperial style of government that has continued

to prevail with detriment to the people’s values, aspirations and freedom to decide their educational system is bureaucratic paternalism and its attachment to the principle of

centralised control. This is seen in every sphere of administration and especially so in

education, where even the village school teacher, being a government servant, is

steeped in the bureaucratic spirit. Teacher-training curricula, decided more by

government officers than by thoughtful educationists, promote this bureaucratic linkage

from the top to the bottom. According to them, indigenous basic education consisting

of elements was local and culture-friendly. Indigenous child education had a strong

moral and social goal.

Lastly, they concluded that the configuration of education, particularly foundational

education needs to consist of elements which are local and culture-friendly. At the same

time, widening of the learners’ horizons should be possible through multimedia

programmes. There could be programmes having diversified curricular offerings,

taking the learner from the local level to the regional, national and even international

levels of knowledge acquisition through a process of life-long learning. It is becoming

clear that the very concept of school has to change, whether Western or Eastern. But

whatever may be the learning opportunities opening out henceforth, they need to be

shaped and used by people everywhere from their own cultural moorings, in the context

of their integrated civilisation view. There would then be educational diversity which is

essential for overcoming the control of the state and for handing back to the people the

future of their cultures and their children’s destinies.

Banerjee (Das), (2014) made a study on ‘A Study on the History of the Development of English Education during British Period in India’ to

estimate the nature of English Education in India during the period of the East

India Company (1800-1858)

estimate the nature of English Education in India during British---

a) late nineteenth century (1858-1900)

b) early twentieth century (1902-1947)

Patronage of the Indians for the development of English Education in Pre-

Independence and Post-Independence India.

Need and practice of English Education in present day India.

The problems and expected solutions of English Education in present day India.

The methodology applied in this research is purely historical and analytical. Published

books, journals, website, letters and other relevant credence were used as sources of

data. Following findings were drawn on the basis of analysis of data and records to

verify the objectives of the study. The followings were found from the analysis of the

sources:


1. English is in India today a symbol of people’s aspiration for quality in

education and a fuller participation in national and international life. Hence

there is a great need of knowledge of English for present and coming

generations of India.

2. The English language made its appearance in India through the Portuguese.

Alexander Duff can be credited with creating a framework that influenced

educational policy and practice during the nineteenth century and beyond.

3. Thomas Macaulay rejected the claims of Arabic and Sanskrit as against

English, because he considered that English was better than either of them. His

minutes was accepted and Lord William Bentinck issued his proclamation inn

march 1935 which set at rest all the controversies and led to the formulation of

a policy which became the corner stone of all educational programmes during

the British period in India.

4. It is of importance to note here that even before the British Government

decided to sponsor English education, the Hindu College was set up in India

by some Indian gentlemen. To facilitate interaction between the Englishmen

and the Indians Ram Mohan wrote the book entitled 'Bengali Grammar in the

English Language'. Thus Ram Mohan worked tirelessly for the introduction of

English education in India.

5. English occupies a place of prestige in our country, even after more than four

decades since Britishers left India. No indigenous language however has come

up to replace English, either as a medium of communication or as an official

language. Though Gandhiji was totally against English Education, but he also

appreciated the importance of foreign language especially English.

6. Nehru wished English to be studied as a second language and for most people

as a language of comprehension rather than as a language leading on to the

study of English literature. Even from the thirties Nehru had been an exponent

of Basic English.

7. The National Policy on Education of 1968 spoke about the regional languages

and the Three Language Formula which includes the study of a modern Indian

language, preferably one of the Southern languages, apart from Hindi and

English in the Hindi speaking states, and of Hindi along with the regional

language and English in the non-Hindi-speaking states at the Secondary stage.

8. All over India, there is no single language to unite the whole country. Since, in

India, several languages are spoken and also one set of people are reluctant to

learn one common Indian language, we have to borrow a new non-Indian

language. Considering the above facts, learning English, the universal

language, as a Second Language, becomes inseparable branch as also

unavoidable in Indian education system.


9. The problem of teaching English as a second language, to the Indian students

starts from the pre-schooling. Officially English has a status of assistant

language, but in fact it is the most important language of India. After

Hindi it is the most commonly spoken language in India and probably the

most read and written language in India.

Shiva Kumar & Rustagi (2010) made a study entitled – “Elementary Education in India: Progress, Setbacks and Challenges” and provided a review of progress and

shortcomings in India’s march towards Universalization of elementary education

(UEE), while addressing concerns of equity, inclusion, and quality from the central

focus based on the dimensions of locational disadvantage, social exclusion, gender

disparity, and special needs for children of other neglected groups. It began with a

stocktaking of progress and shortcomings in India’s march towards UEE. It focused on gaps in enrolment, infrastructural provisioning, equity concerns in terms of being

inclusive in the context of schools functioning, teachers (social group, training,

motivation, transaction and so on), management, and governance issues. The study

found the extent and manifestations of non-inclusion or exclusion in the educational

context is also related to the capacity of the State. Finally, as the way forward, a

section is devoted to addressing some of the areas for public action. Apart from

structural reforms, the researchers suggested a much stronger public pressure backed

by better and shared public reasoning for overcoming the challenges for attainment of

compulsory and free education to all children.

Mehrotra (2006) undertook a study entitled “Reforming Elementary Education in

India A Menu of Options” on reforming elementary education in India and has

reported the findings from a large sample survey in the states of India that account for

two thirds of the children out of school. It then examined the feasibility of the central

government’s goals to ensure all children complete 5 years of schooling by 2007, and 8 years by 2010. These goals more ambitious than the global EFA goals are unlikely to

be achieved without significant reforms by the central and state governments. The

author examined key reform options: in the public spending pattern; improving demand

for schooling; and the private sector. It argued that central to universalizing elementary

education will be improving the level, equity and efficiency of public spending.

However, even with these reforms, improving teacher accountability will still remain

key to the achievement of the goals.

The study tried to explain the scenario through the use of variety of data sources such

as the census, the NSS, NCERT and NFHS surveys in terms of gender, age, rural-urban

location, expenditure groups, village amenities, supply and health and disability status

of children. He found that the shortfall was not confined to low expenditure groups and

also low enrollment was found among 6 – 9 age group. Since village infrastructure and

health and disability status seem to be important, specific measures are required to

tackle these problems.


Shukla (2000) in his study “Non-Enforcement of Compulsion in Elementary

Education in India” held the view that it would be wrong to enforce compulsion in the

present context, with the discussion that in universalizing elementary education in India

the policy of persuasion and incentives has been deliberately adopted instead of

enforcing legal compulsion. In the hope of accelerating progress of universalization and

in the context of the recent decision to abolish child labour, the desirability of enforcing

compulsion was been re-examined. The indication in this regard was from quarters,

which matter. Some international organizations are also understood to support the

change. The matter therefore needs serious considerations.

Rajput & Aziz (2013) conducted a study “Awareness of Right to Education Act

among Urban Slum Dwellers: A Case Study of JJ Resettlement Colony of

Madanpur Khadar of New Delhi” to examine the level of awareness regarding Right

to Education Act, 2009 among urban slum dwellers. The study was a case study of JJ

Resettlement Colony of Madanpur Khadar of New Delhi. This study was based on data

collected from the slum survey through a questionnaire developed by the researchers.

The result was very disheartening to observe that there is lack of awareness regarding

the Right to Education Act, 2009. A sample of 200 people of JJ Resettlement Colony of

Madanpur Khadar of New Delhi was selected purposively by the researchers. The study

revealed that 80% parents in JJ Resettlement Colony Madanpur Khadar were sending

their children to school, out of which 80% children were going to Government school,

15 % were going to private school and only 5% were going to NGO’s. Out of the sample, 20% were not sending their children to school because of lack of birth

certificates, lack of fund to spend on their child’s education, lack of interest, lack of regular livelihood and lack of awareness about the RTE Act among the parents. 88%

parents of the sample were unaware of the provisions of the RTE Act.

Gandhi & Jadav (2013) undertook a study entitled “Study of Awareness among Primary School Teacher’s Towards Right to Education Act, 2009” to analyse the

awareness among primary schools teachers towards RTE Act, 2009. A sample of 100

primary schools teachers was selected by the researchers from 4 blocks of Gurgaon

District of Gujarat. Out of 100 teachers, 42 government and 58 were private school

teachers. The self-made questionnaire - “Right to Education Awareness Questionnaire for the Teachers” was used as a data collecting tool. The study revealed that there is

significant difference in awareness of male and female primary school teachers

working both in government and private schools towards Right to Education Act, 2009.

Again there is no significant difference in awareness of teachers working in

government and private schools towards Right to Education Act, 2009.

Vithalrao (2011) conducted an enquiry entitled “Child Rights as a Part of Human Rights – A Comparative Study” to know the awareness about child rights among

teachers in Mumbai city. A sample of 150 teachers was selected randomly. The study

revealed that significant difference was found in the awareness level of male and

female teachers but all the teachers were aware of the child rights more or less.


Kumar & Sharma (2011) have conducted a study on “A Study of Parents and Teachers Awareness towards Right to Education Act 2009” to assess the level of

awareness of teachers and parents of primary to upper primary level students towards

the RTE Act, 2009. The findings of the study reveal that the teachers are more

significantly aware than that of parents. They have conducted the study on 320 parents

and teachers of primary to upper primary level at Sardarshahar town in the Churu

district of Rajasthan to assess their awareness towards RTE Act. The study revealed

that teachers are significantly more aware than that of parents. Among the teachers

72.12%, 11% and 13% were found moderately, high and low aware of the RTE Act.

Sunita (2010) executed a study entitled “Teachers Literacy towards the Child

Rights” and she found that the secondary school teachers were aware about the child

rights at satisfactory level. The reviewed studies showed that there is a few studies on

the Awareness among Elementary School Teachers about the Right of Children to Free

and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. However, there has been no such study that

explores the awareness of teachers of the Elementary Schools about the Right of

Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 in the two districts of West

Bengal – Nadia and North 24 Parganas. The study has been made to fill up the existing

gaps in research in the areas related to the RTE Act, 2009.

Anagol (nd.) in her study entitled “Compulsory Primary Education Challenges and

Opportunities” found out multifarious uses of Universalization of education. They are:

Education is an end in itself. It enables people to enrich their lives by providing

access to literature, philosophy, science, technology, religion etc.,

Empowerment of weaker sections like the poor/backward castes/rural folks/

women/scheduled castes/scheduled tribes etc., is unthinkable without mass

education.

Greater literacy and educational attainments of disadvantaged groups can

increase their ability to resist oppression to organise themselves politically and

to get a fair deal.

The benefits of educating women are: It enhances the age of marriage of girls

thereby eliminating child marriages. Marriage at the appropriate age contributes

to the health of the mother and child. It reduces maternal as well as infant

mortality rates. It improves the health of women and thereby their life

expectancy. Female literacy combined with high labour participation rate as the

most effective means of controlling the growth of population. It not only

motivates women to limit their families but also equips them with the

knowledge of using the methods of family planning efficiently.


Education will help in preparing citizens to take part sensibly in the multi-

lingual, multi-religious and multi-ethnic democratic and secular policy of India.

Compulsory Primary Education up to the age of 14 is a very effective means of

getting rid the scourge of child labour.

The benefits of education are not confined only to the person who receives

education. For example, one person’s educational ability can be of use to

another (e.g., to get a pamphlet read, to get a petition written). It is found that an

illiterate farmer having his farm adjacent to a literate farmer can absorb

technological developments better.

All levels of education give high rates of return both to the individual (private

returns) and society (social returns.) However the rates of return to individuals

are much higher in case Primary Education than the rates of return in the cases

of Secondary and University Education.

The two most important policy instruments available to induce productivity

growth agriculture are irrigation and primary education. Unfortunately even to-

day there is lack appreciation in India of the importance of education for

reaping the benefits of technology advance in agriculture.

For a participatory and wide spread economic development basic education for

a very substantial part of the labour force is a must.

She also stated that the caste system, child labour, women’s education lags far behind and backwardness of the SCs, STs, and rural people continue to be the biggest hurdles

for the spread of education. Lastly, he opined that students, parents and teachers are the

key players on the educational stage. The performance of all the three of them

contributes to the ultimate educational outcome.

1.3. Important Findings of the Reviewed Studies

The important findings which emerged from the above cited investigations have been

listed below:

The provision of schooling in British India from 1850 to 1917 under the direct

control of the East India Company and the British Crown were subject to

several local factors beyond the British policy. Although colonial policy made

several recommendations to increase mass schooling, the growth of primary

education generally lagged behind secondary education over most of the period.

In addition to official policy, several local factors were critical to the provision

of schools at the district-level. While the level of caste and religious diversity

was negatively correlated with the number of public primary schools, the share

of Brahmans (traditional Hindu elites) was positively correlated with secondary

schools.


The system of education in pre-British India has exerted tremendous impact on

the present education in India and created a good number of problems. The

education system prevailing in India today was not built in a day. Its

development has a history. Lord Macaulay laid the foundation of the education

system here. The new education system became a strong means to create the

cultural system of imperialism in India as well as in the other colonies. In this

education system, knowledge was also colonial. It was planned as per the

requirements of the colonial rulers. The colonial knowledge not only helped to

maintain the hierarchical social system in Indian society based on race and

caste, but also greatly contributed towards strengthening British rule. This

education produced a feeling of inferiority about our culture and languages in

the minds of ordinary Indians. Even today we are not free from these shackles.

The education system prevailing in India before the advent of the British was

broadly categorised as follows: 1) Religious and moral education regarding life

values. 2) Education relating to skills, crafts and agriculture. 3) Education

relating to philosophy, science, technology and mathematics. 4) Education

relating to arts. 5) Education relating to politics and military art. 6) Medical

education.

Although colonial policy made numerous recommendations to develop mass

primary schooling, public human capital expenditures in British India lagged

behind colonies in the dependent British Empire and the Indian Princely States.

Human capital expenditures in British India averaged 0.01 pounds per capita

from 1860 to 1912 and represented a mere 4% of the total budget over these

decades.

Private interests interacted with colonial policy to promote private provision of

secondary schools in areas heavily populated by Brahmans and local

characteristics such as the level of caste and religious diversity negatively

affected private provision of primary schools. Since private efforts determined

the number of aided and unaided schools, elites who frequently established

schools disregarded the dire necessity of providing mass primary education.

Although colonial policy recognized the need to improve the low levels of

schooling, public efforts were limited to supporting a few schools in areas

heavily populated by groups with below average literacy like the lower castes

and aboriginal tribes.

DPEP attempted a holistic view of issues determining Enrolment, Retention,

Achievement and Quality of Indian school education. DPEP has been making a

difference to the policy and programme content to the primary education sector.

The outcomes are not commensurate with the efforts of District Primary

Education Programme (DPEP). The policy response ought to be individually


and collectively be faced. All the stakeholders i.e. public, teachers and

educators; NGO’s the industrial sector, the media, politicians, panchayat leaders, grass root workers and others have to regard it as achievable task.

Universalization of primary education in India is beset with constraints such as

inadequacy of financial provision; poverty among parents; indifference of

parents; alienation of schools; inappropriateness of curricula; ineffectiveness of

teachers; inertia in administrative and supervisory machinery; and multitude of

languages and dialects.

Provision of mid-day meals, reading and writing materials and clothing for

children from poor families, Provision of compensatory pre-school education,

Abolition of the transfer system among the teachers from one school to another,

Improvement of the quality of pre-service training programmes Provision for in-

service training of teachers, Improvement of the quality of administration and

supervision, Provision of a non-formal teacher or a teaching assistant in each

single-teacher school are the suggestions for stepping up the progress

universalization of primary education.

The earliest attempt during the British rule for compulsory primary education

was made by William Adam in 1838. Later in 1852, Captain Wintage, a

Revenue Survey Commissioner in Bombay, when called upon by Government

to give his views on a proposal to levy a local fund on land revenue,

recommended the levy of such a cess and suggested that a part of it should be

spent in providing free and compulsory education for sons of agriculturists.

Legislation is not an imperative for realizing rights but it a useful tool, which

can assist on the claiming of a right. It is not however a determinant of whether

or not people have their right to education realized but it can be used as a

mobilization tool to transform rights and policies into reality. Legislation can be

a tool for enhancing the realization of the right but it does not ensure instant

realization. Many of the current policies relating to education in India are not

designed to enable available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable education to

all and even if some of the policies are comprehensive and all inclusive, they

are not implemented to their full extent.

Universal elementary education means universal provision of facilities,

universal enrolment and universal retention. Universal provision of facilities,

however, may not necessarily ensure universal enrolment and universal

enrolment may not guarantee universal retention. Universal provision of

facilities is often taken to be universal provision of schools. This view

overlooks the difference between physical access to school and equality in

access to education. Equality in access should be the aim; universal facilities


would include universal provision of schools, universal supply of teaching-

learning materials and desired quality of actual teaching-learning in schools.

Equality in access to elementary education has been one aspect of the problems

of UEE. Universalization of elementary education not only means universal

facilities, universal enrolment and universal retention, but also the availability

of a universally high quality of teaching.

The public-private partnership can reduce the burden on public schools and

increase the quality of education. Foe successful implementation of this RTE

Act, we should go beyond the legislation. Parents, teachers, civil servants,

private entrepreneurs, executive officials all need to come together and share the

burden.

Few studies revealed that the levels of awareness on the RTE Act, 2009 among

the parents, teachers both in rural – urban and female and male are not up to the

mark. Even teachers under the private unaided schools are not fully aware of the

provisions embedded in the Act. Consistent awareness building programmes are

highly necessitated.

The desirability of enforcing free and compulsory education Act in order to

accelerating progress of universalization should have abolition of child labour in

India.

The key reform options are enhancement of the public spending pattern;

improving demand for schooling; and the private sector. Universalizing

elementary education will improve the level of equity and efficiency of public

spending. However, even with these reforms, improving teacher accountability

still remains key to the achievement of the goals.

Thomas Macaulay rejected the claims of Arabic and Sanskrit as against

English, because he considered that English was better than either of them. His

minutes was accepted and Lord William Bentinck issued his proclamation inn

march 1935 which set at rest all the controversies and led to the formulation of

a policy which became the corner stone of all educational programmes during

the British period in India.

The defects of colonial system of education diagnosed by the leaders of the

National Education Movement such as neglect of Universalization of primary

education, poor growth of women education and more emphasis on elite

education through the English medium and neglect of vernacular languages as

medium of instruction. The researcher opined that the then political and socio-

economic reasons were the main reasons for these issues and its impact exerted

on shaping the system of National Education.


The Right to Education Act, 2009 was a historic law making education a

fundamental right of every child, directly benefiting close to one crore children

who did not go to schools at present. The Right to Education Act would be

binding on the part of the Government to ensure that all children in the six to 14

years age group get schooling. On April 1, 2010 India joined a group of few

countries in the world, with a historic law making education a fundamental right

of every child coming into force.

1.4. Evaluation

Reviewing the previous studies carried out by different academicians, educational

thinkers, researchers, policymakers, columnists and educational reformers, it has been

found that the studies related to the present research topic are very few in number and

they left the research questions of the present study unanswered. There was a lack of

systematization in terms of presentation, authenticity and continuity. Most of the

previous works have been executed on the based on the secondary data. Few works try

to answer to some of the research questions without comprehensive analysis. Most of

the previous works have thrown light on the challenges to universal elementary

education, policy perspectives and initiatives for universalising elementary education,

schooling system during the British regime, impact of Mead Day Meal programme,

history of the development of English during the British period and the study on

awareness of the teachers and parents about the RTE Act, 2009 and its challenges to

implementation. The reviewed literature is not sufficient to answer and analyse the

research questions of the present study. The investigator believes that the present study

will fill the gap and may become a sound document among the future researchers and

stakeholders of education.

1.5. References

Acharya, P. (1994). Problems of Universal Elementary Education. Economic

and Political Weekly. 29(49): 3098-3105.

Aggarwl, J. C. & Gupta, S. (2010). Right to Education and Revitalizing

Education. New Delhi: Shipra Publication.

Anagol, J. (nd.). Compulsory Primary Education Challenges and Opportunities.

CMDR Monograph Series No. – 22. Jubilee Circle, Dharwad, Karnataka, India:

Centre for Multi-Disciplinary Development Research.

Babu, J. R. (2009). Universalisation of Elementary Education: A Study of

District Primary Education Programme from South India, 2009. Newcastle

upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Retrieved on 10.12.2013 from

http://www.cambridgescholars.com/download/sample/61377

Bapat, S. & Karandikar, S. (1998). Rural Context of Primary Education

Searching for the Roots. In Saraswati, Baidyanath (1998). The Cultural


Dimension of Education. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the

Arts.

Mahanty, S. B. (1985). Universalition of Elementary Education in India:

Lessons of Experience and Pointers for Action. Paris: UNESCO.

Best, J. W. & Khan, J. V. (2009). Research in Education. New Delhi: PHI

Learning Private Limited.

Bhattacharya, S. (2000). National Education Movement – Analysis of the Role

of Bengali Intelligentsia and its Impact on Indian Education. Ph. D. Thesis

(Unpublished), Department of Education, University of Kalyani.

Chaudhary, L. (2007). An Economic History of Education in Colonial India,

Hoover Institution. April 28, 2007 Retrieved on 10.03. 2014 from

http://economics.ucr.edu/seminars_colloquia/2007/political_economy_develop

ment/LatikaChaudhary5-6-07.pdf

Chaudhary, L. (2007). Determinants of Primary Schooling in British India,

Hoover Institution, August 2, 2007. Retrieved on 23.04.2013 from

http://eml.berkeley.edu/~webfac/cromer/e211_f07/chaudhary.pdf

Chaudhary, L. (2009). Determinants of Primary Schooling in British India,

Journal of Economic History 69, No. 1 (2009): 269-302.

Dhar, A. (April 1, 2010). Education is a fundamental right now, The Hindu.

Retrieved on 20/02/2013 from

http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/education-is-a-fundamental-right-

now/article337111.ece

Gandhi, V. & Yadav, N. (2013). A Study of Awareness among Primary School

Teacher’s Towards “Right to Education Act, 2009”, Shodh, Samiksha Aur

Mulyankan.IV(48):48-49.

Gopalan, K. (1998). Indian Strategies to Achieve Universalisation of

Elementary Education. In Saraswati, Baidyanath (1998). The Cultural

Dimension of Education. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the

Arts.

Gupta, S. (2009). What are the different strategies and approaches to realize

Right to Education (RTE) in India? Brighton, United Kingdom: Institute of

Development Studies, University of Sussex.


Islam, N. & Chakraborty, A. (2013). A Study on the Awareness of Equitable

Quality in the Light of RTE Act ‘09 among In-Service School Teachers, Indian

Journal of Applied Research, 3(6):142-143.

Kothari, V.N. 2004. Challenges of Universalisation of elementary education in

India Journal of Education Planning and Administration XVIII (3) 363-378.

Kumar, D. & Sharma, S. (2011). A Study of Parents and Teachers Awareness

towards Right to Education Act 2009. Journal of Educational Research. Vol.2,

Number-2, 129-132.

Kumar, N. (2007). British rule and problems of the present education system.

Ghadar Jari Hari. 1(2):30-32.

Lall, M. (2005). The Challenges for India’s Education System. London:

Chatham House, the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Retrieved on

12.09.2013 from http://marielall.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/Chatham-house-

indiaeducation.pdf

Mehrotra, S. 2006. Reforming Elementary Education in India. A Menu of

options. International Journal of Educational Development 26(3).

Nanda, N. (1998). The School System in India - A critique In Saraswati,

Baidyanath (1998). The Cultural Dimension of Education. New Delhi: Indira

Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.

Niranjanaradhya, V. P. (2004). Universalisation of School Education — the

Road Ahead. Bangalore: Books for Change.

Rai, V. & Kumar, N. (2010). Right to Education: The Way Forward. New

Delhi: Perfect Publications.

Rajput, G. & Aziz, T. (2013). Awareness of Right to Education Act among

Urban Slum Dwellers: A Case Study of JJ Resettlement Colony of Madanpur

Khadar of New Delhi. Advanced International Research Journal of Teacher

Education, 1(1).

S. Ojha Seema (2013). Implementing Right to Education: Issues and challenges.

Research Journal of Educational Sciences. 1(2): 1-7.

Sarma, N. (2011). Universalisation of Elementary Education among Tea-Tribe

of Assam with special reference to Jorhat District. Assam: Assam State

Commission for Protection of Child Right Guwahati. Retrieved on 12.04.2012


fromhttp://righttoeducation.in/sites/default/files/elementary_education_researc

h.pdf

Shiva Kumar, A. K. & Rustagi, Preet (2010).Elementary Education in India:

Progress, Setbacks and Challenges. New Delhi: Oxfam India.

Shukla, P.D. (2000). Non Enforcement of Compulsion in Education in India.

Journal of Indian Education XXVI (1).

Siddiqui, S. (2008). Universalisation of Elementary Education in India. Journal

of Educational Research. 11(1): 4-12.

Sunita, M. (2010). Teachers Literacy towards the Child Rights. Edusearch-

Journal of Educational Research: 1(2).

Tarafdar, M. (2007). Universalisation of Education: A Study in the Indian

Context. Our Education – Journal of Educational Ideas and Research, Volume

– 8, pp.61-62.

Vithalrao, M. S. (2011). Child Rights as a Part of Human Rights – A

Comparative Study, International Education E-Journal (Quarterly).1(1):13-17.

Documents

CHAPTER II Review of Related Literature - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/102629/10/10_chapter 2.pdf · Review of related literature presents the comprehensive