30

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

“The literature in any field forms the foundation upon which all future work will

be built”

-WALTOR R. BORG

Having specified the problem, listing the objectives, formulating the hypotheses

in previous chapter, the present chapter deals with review of the relevant literature. The

review of related literature is an essential part of any investigation. Its importance

cannot be denied in any research. According to William Wiersma (1986), “The review

of related literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It

should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer has knowledge

about his own area”.

Review of related literature also point out the gaps that exist and the direction it

should take along with providing necessary background in the light of which the results

of the present study are to be interpreted. The main purpose of survey of the literature is

not compilation but analytical review of the various researches.

Although it was not possible for on the part of the investigator to get access to

the entire published and unpublished researches in the field, yet an attempt has been

made to review the available literature on the area under investigation in an exhaustive

manner. For the sake of convenience, the investigator has divided the work under the

following sequence.

1 Studies related to Educational Diagnosis

2 Studies related to Instructional Modules

3 Studies related to Diagnosis and Remediation

2.1 STUDIES RELATED TO EDUCATIONAL DIAGNOSIS

In this section, an attempt has been made to review the studies related to

diagnosis of difficulties faced by the students in different school subjects. The review

of these studies will help in planning the present study. It is with this view that studies

conducted in India and Abroad are given here.

Sankara (1957) studied the difficulties experienced by Pupils of Standard IX in

factorization. The study revealed that a great majority of the pupils experienced

difficulties in dealing with negative numbers, applying rules of signs, factorization of

polynomials and in recognizing common factor.

31

Chaudhary (1958) investigated into difficulties of class X pupils of Delhi High

Schools and Higher Secondary Schools in solving geometrical exercises and identified

the following difficulties: lack of understanding and interpreting geometrical exercises;

reasoning and interpreting the geometrical figures.

Singh and Srivastava (1960) conducted a diagnostic study of common errors

committed by students of standard VlII in written English, their prevention and cure.

The study revealed that lack of remedial and preventive techniques in english is one of

the major reasons for committing errors in english.

Krishne Kurnari (1964) studied the difficulties experienced by the pupils of

standard VII in fundamental operations with decimals. The study revealed that many of

the common types of errors committed by students were either due to lack of mastery of

concepts or due to insufficient practice in operation with decimals.

Jacob (1965) studied the errors committed by the students of standard Vlll in

addition and subtraction in algebra. The study revealed that majority of students under

study had difficulty with terms having powers and were not able to distinguish between

like terms and unlike terms and showed difficulty to follow the symbolic representation

of algebra.

Elias (1966) conducted a study to identify the common errors committed by the

pupils of standard VI in fractions using a diagnostic test. The major findings revealed

that a great majority of students experienced difficulty in division of fractions,

especially with mixed fractions and multiplication and division.

Lndapurkar (1968) conducted a diagnostic study of errors in learning english of

middle school pupils of Chandrapur district. The study revealed that verbal inflection

errors were frequent in Standards VI, VII and VIII.

Lype (1969) constructed a diagnostic test in square root for pupils of standard

IX. The difficulties experienced by the pupils in different operations were the

following: fundamental operations especially in multiplication and division and units of

measurements.

Luke (1970) studied the difficulties faced by X standard students of Kollam

District in learning English grammar. A diagnostic test was administered to 600 pupils

of standard X. The study revealed that the majority of the students under study had

difficulties with English grammar.

Ammal (1972) analyzed the linguistic difficulties in learning Hindi, on a sample

of 600 Secondary School pupils in Kerala. Linguistic analysis through a specially

32

designed test revealed the relative difficulty among 27 different linguistic areas. The

study revealed that the method of teaching Hindi language was inadequate and

uninteresting. It also revealed that the majority of the school children exhibited

deficiencies in learning Hindi language.

Jaleel (1975) conducted an experimental study to test the effectiveness of

diagnostic approach in teaching Mathematics in standard VIII. The study conducted on

a sample of 440 students revealed that diagnostic approach in teaching Mathematics

was effective for the total sample and sub samples.

Goraya (1979) conducted a diagnostic study in Mathematics at primary level.

The study revealed that most of the errors committed by students reflect the poor

formation of decimal concepts due to inadequate background. The study also revealed

that carrying in addition and borrowing in subtraction were considered difficult due to

the presence of decimal points.

Nair (1980) conducted a diagnostic study of the difficulties of university

entrants in the use of chemical equations. The necessary data were collected by

administering a diagnostic test in chemical symbols, formulae and equations. The study

revealed that the nature and extent of errors committed by the students in the learning

of chemical symbols, formulae and equations is influenced by certain selected socio-

personal factors.

Reeta (1983) conducted a study on the procedures adopted and the difficulties

experienced by pupils of Vl standard in solving verbal problems in arithmetic. The

study revealed that the pupils experienced difficulties in understanding the verbal

problems; meanings of items in the problem solving and the problems having more than

one part.

Saly (1984) studied the difficulties experienced by pupils in the learning of

arabic in the secondary schools of Kerala. The areas of difficulty identified were:

different types of word order; paraphrasing preposition, adjective and verbs and

reconstruction of sentences.

Mathew (1985) identified the difficulties in learning chemistry experienced by

educationally backward students at pre-degree level. The results of the study revealed

that the pre-degree students experienced a high level of difficulty in learning chemistry

and this is acute in the case of educationally backward students.

Sebastian (1985) studied the difficulties experienced by educationally backward

students at pre-degree level in learning Botany. The major causes identified were lack

33

of pre-requisite knowledge, knowledge in related subjects, ability in concept attainment

and comprehension of abstract knowledge. The study revealed that the low achievers

have more learning difficulty than high achievers

Uzhuvathu (1985) studied the difficulties experienced by educationally

backward students at pre-degree level in learning physics. The study revealed that

pupils experienced great difficulty in learning Physics at first year pre-degree level and

this was acute in the case of educationally backward students.

GSDGIE (1985) conducted a study of the courses of large failure in

mathematics at the S.S.C. examination. The sources of data were the mark-sheets of

S.S.C. examination and a sample of randomly selected answer scripts. The tool used

was questionnaire meant for school. The data was congested into largest. The sample

comprises 27990 people for the algebra and 19869 for geometry out of total of 256940.

The major findings of inquiry were:

i) Results in algebra and geometry were comparable and it could not be concluded

that more failures were due to more failures in algebra or in geometry.

ii) In algebra about 37% candidates secured less than 28 marks. The distribution

level was skewed in both cases indicating an unsatisfactory learning of the

subjects.

iii) The sampled schools were small in size. About 46% of the schools had a strength

fewer than 300 students and about 75% had a strength fewer than 500 students.

iv) The percentage of the successful candidates in mathematics in 1979 was lower

than 1976 and 1975. Reasons for failure in mathematics were inadequate attention

paid to some difficult topics, inadequate motivation for study and inadequate

guidance provided to the pupils for study.

Mohammed (1986) conducted a study to identify the errors committed by the

pre-degree students in writing English and found that the majority of the students

committed errors in tenses, preposition, noun and relative clauses, passive voice and

auxiliary verbs.

Harlem and Treagust (1987) constructed a two-tier multiple choice instrument

for the secondary school students. The result of the study revealed that a high

percentage of secondary students do not comprehend the nature and function of

respiration and have little understanding of the relationship between photosynthesis and

respiration in plants.

34

Scott (1988) studied the effectiveness of a Computerized Diagnostic Inventory

on Basic Mathematical skills. A Computerized Diagnostic Mathematics Instrument

(CDMIIMS) was designed parallel to the commercial paper and pencil inventory

published by McGraw Hill. Analysis of the findings revealed that the CDMIIMS

requires significantly less time and fewer questions than that of the paper and pencil

inventory.

Treagust (1988) developed Diagnostic tests in Chemistry and Biology to

evaluate students' misconceptions and errors committed in Science. Analysis of the

results of the tests revealed that Diagnostic tests were very much effective for

identification of errors and misconceptions of both teachers and students in Chemistry

and Biology.

Peterson et. al. (1989) studied the misunderstandings of grade XI and grade XII

students in Chemistry (co-valent bonding and structure) using a Diagnostic instrument.

The results of the study indicated that the two-tier Diagnostic instrument provided a

feasible approach for evaluating students' understanding and for identifying

misconceptions and misunderstanding in the Chemistry.

Jose (1990) studied the difficulties experienced by Vocational Higher

Secondary students of Kerala in learning Botany. The study revealed that VHSE

students experienced difficulty in the skill of hierarchical learning and in attaining

concepts of Botany.

Varghese (1991) studied the difficulty in learning fractions by pupils of standard

VI. The study revealed that the following areas are difficult for the majority of students

due to the lack of understanding of fundamental concepts: changing the whole number

into a fraction; changing an improper fraction into a mixed fraction and addition and

subtraction of improper and mixed fraction.

Banerjee (1993) assessed the students' and teachers' understanding of Chemical

Equilibrium. A Diagnostic test on Chemical Equilibrium was administered to collect

necessary data. The study revealed that both teachers and students committed errors in

the following concepts in Chemistry: Le Chatlier's Principle, rate and equilibrium,

applications of equilibrium to acids, base and ionic solutions.

Jasmine (1994) studied the difficulties experienced by the pupils of standard Ill

in computation by a Diagnostic test. The study revealed that the level of attainment of

students was very poor for the division of four digit numbers with one digit number.

35

Jayalakshmi (1994) studied the difficulties in computations experienced by the

students in standard IV. The study revealed that out of the fifty teaching points studied,

the level of attainment is very good in the case of six teaching points, good in the case

of twenty three teaching points, satisfactory in the case of fifteen teaching points, poor

in the case of five teaching points and very poor in the case of only one teaching point

due to the lack of understanding the basic concepts of computation.

Unisa (1994) identified the difficulties experienced by lower primary school

children in learning Science. The study was intended to prepare a diagnostic test in LPS

Science so as to identify the difficult areas of knowledge, understanding, application

and to arrange the various categories of difficult areas on the decreasing order of

difficulty. The study revealed that the most difficult area in the cited categories is

application.

Rani (1996) investigated the causes of difficulties experienced in teaching

English poetry at the secondary level. The study revealed that the difficulties

experienced by pupils were due to the inadequate library facilities, illiterate parents,

and un-interesting themes of poems and ineffective method of teaching.

Sindhu (1996) studied the difficulties experienced by V standard pupils in

learning fractions. The study revealed that many of the common errors made by pupils

were due to lack of understanding of principles involved in addition, subtraction and

multiplication with fraction and inadequate practice in doing problems in fraction

Jayasree (1997) identified the difficulties experienced by the pupils of standard

VIII in expanding algebraic expression using identities with the help of a diagnostic

test. The study revealed that the level of attainment is poor in the case of classification

of open and closed sentence, finding the always true sentences and product numbers

using identities. The study also revealed that there is no mastery of the rules of signs

and many pupils do not seem to have a clear grasp of the identities.

Beebar (1998) analyzed the difficulties experienced in learning science as

revealed through their understanding of gas exchange in plants. The study revealed that

during interviews, the students in the group below median were often able to recall

facts and apply knowledge, but they had failed to recall and apply the knowledge while

responding to the written questions.

Duchovic (1998) in his diagnostic study discussed two techniques which have

been utilized for five semesters in general chemistry courses. The techniques used were

re-package system and writing exercises based on the laboratory portion of the course.

36

Both the techniques were found to be equally effective for learning chemistry at

undergraduate level without any misconception and difficulties.

Dhanya (1999) conducted a diagnostic study to identify the difficulties

experienced in learning algebra at the secondary level. Majority of the students had not

understood the meaning of like terms and committed errors in concepts of like and

unlike terms.

Sushma (1999) analyzed the factors affecting reading difficulties of the students

of college of Micronesia. The study revealed that the factor contributed to the problems

fall in the following areas: language, educational background, culture, motivation,

learning and reading strategies of the students and the teaching methodologies,

institutional policies and sociopolitical conditions of the school.

Vasudevan (2003) conducted a Diagnostic study to identify the difficulties

experienced by pupils studying in Standard VIII, in the computation of negative

numbers. The study revealed that majority of the students faced difficulty in carrying

out the fundamental operations involving negative numbers due to lack of clarity on

rules of fundamental operations.

Sushma (2004) conducted a comparative study on arithmetic errors of primary

school students in government and public school. The study revealed that students

committed maximum mistakes in addition of decimals. Many students committed

mistake while applying tables which show that tables were not learnt by them and

majority of the students did not know how and where to apply unitary method.

Sarita (2005) conducted a study on development and empirical validation of

algorithms on laws of logarithm for XI grade students. The main objectives of the study

were to evolve ‘Algorithm’ on law ‘Logarithms’ and empirical validations of the

algorithms. The study revealed that students achieve 95% accuracy in calculating

problems on laws of logarithm. and students achieve 85% success on criterion test

prepared for assessing achievement on laws of logarithm.

Effandi Zakaria (2010) conducted a study to determine the students’ errors in

learning quadratic equations. Diagnostic test was used as the instrument of this study

that included three components factorization, completing the sequence and quadratic

formula. Diagnostic interview was also used to identify at which level student errors

occurs in solving problems. The findings showed that most students make error in

transformation and process skill in solving quadratic equation. There were no errors

found in reading. The number of students who made encoding error and carelessness

37

was small. The students’ error in solving quadratic equation was due to their

weaknesses in mastering topics such as algebra, fractions, negative numbers and

algebraic equations.

Gunawardena Egodawatte (2011) conducted a study to investigate secondary

school students’ errors and misconceptions in algebra. The results indicated a number

of error categories under each area. Some errors emanated from misconceptions under

variables. The main reason for misconceptions was the lack of understanding of the

basic concept of the variable in different contexts. Inadequate understanding of the uses

of the equal sign and its properties when it is used in an equation was a major problem

that hindered solving equations correctly. The main difficulty in word problems was

translating them from natural language to algebraic language. Students used guessing or

trial and error methods extensively in solving word problems.

Vijaya Bhaskar (2014) conducted a study to diagnose errors committed by VIII

class students in Geometry. The study revealed that students committed more number

of errors under the objective application when compared to other objectives. Students

committed more number of errors under the content area “Angles”. Students were

found to be very poor in skills required in geometry.

After going through the studies mentioned in the preceding pages, it seems that

almost in all the important school subjects such as Hindi, English, Chemistry, biology

etc., difficulties faced by the students are diagnosed. Some studies were conducted to

diagnose the difficulties faced by students in the subject of mathematics and a few

studies were conducted to diagnose the difficulties faced by students in geometry.

2.2 STUDIES RELATED TO INSTRUCTIONAL MODULES

The studies related to instructional modules will be reviewed in this section. It is

acceptable that studies conducted in different socio-cultural context may have

limitations in wider generalizations. In spite of this, the review of these studies is very

likely to have a bearing on the present investigation, more so because the study is of

experimental nature. This will help not only in planning the study but also in discussion

of results and drawing conclusions. It is with this view that the studies conducted

Abroad and in India are given here in two parts. In the first part, the related studies

conducted abroad will be presented and the second part will deal with the review of the

studies conducted in India.

STUDIES CONDUCTED ABROAD

38

Merwin and Donald (1972) conducted an experiment to find out the

effectiveness of self-instructional modules in preparing secondary school social studies

teacher trainees. He found significant differences between the control group learning

through conventional method and the experimental group learning through self-

instructional module on the acquisition of knowledge and skills essential in planning,

questioning and testing for higher cognitive process, favoring the experimental group.

The experimental group found the module to be an enjoyable and effective device for

developing understanding and skills in planning, questioning and testing.

Todd (1972) developed and evaluated a module for individualized self-directed

instruction at the college level. The study showed that the students using instructional

module were able to achieve objectives of the course in a manner different from normal

college instruction. In addition, the instructional module was found to be better than the

instructor's method in another class.

Williams and Keilkkar (1973) studied the effectiveness of module and the

findings indicated that the teacher acquired the skills of the modules and used these

skills in their classrooms. Teacher's use of the skill had an effect on the learning of the

students. An experimental study to investigate the feasibility of the modules, by

comparing students who were taught by proficiency modules, with students taught by

traditional approach was conducted by Dishner (1973) also.

Donald and Mervin (1973) conducted a study to investigate the effectiveness of

a series of self-instructional modules (SIMS) for training secondary level social studies

teacher trainees to develop and ask higher level questions. The study showed that self-

instructional module is more superior to conventional methods for developing concepts

and skills.

Hurst (1974) designed flexible competency based learning module to change

elementary teacher trainee's knowledge, skills and attitudes towards enquiry teaching.

The effectiveness of the module was compared in three classroom settings,

individualized group and control group. The modules are used as syllabus for the

course and as a guide for classroom and out of class activities. The control group

received no instructions related to enquiry teaching. The pre-test, post-test treatment as

control group design was used to analyze the results. The statistical tests employed

found that there were:

i) Significant gains in the number of objectives achieved after instructions of social

studies in the treatment group.

39

ii) Social studies in the two treatment groups have significant gain in attitudes

towards enquiry.

iii) In both individualized and group settings, teaching learning modules may serve as

means to creative instruction in teacher education in the future.

Sasscar (1974) made a study of the development, implementation and

evaluation of a modularized, student centered general biology curriculum at the college

level. In the curricular design, major units of study were isolated and broken into units.

In each one of them, a basic module was planned to be exercised by all students. In that

module a concept was introduced with a minimum of information, following that there

was a set of option modules from which the student could select one to several to

complete the unit, the minimum path being the basic module and one option module.

The experimental group used the modules whereas the control group used a standard

method. The findings of the study were the following.

i) Highly significant differences in test scores means favored the modular students

in the option area.

ii) T-test comparisons of attitudes towards Science showed significant differences

between modular students and control students, favoring modular students.

Lamb (1975) developed and evaluated a module designed to train science

teachers to ask a wide variety of cognitive questions. Three experiments were designed

to evaluate the effectiveness of the module. Group I worked through the module and

were supervised by co-operating teachers who were module trained. Group II worked

through the module and were supervised by untrained co-operating teachers. Group III

did not work through the module and their co-operating teachers were untrained. The

result of the study showed significant increase in the cognitive variety of questioning

for Group I and Group II and a slight increase for Group III.

Windell (1975) from his study with self-instructional teacher training module

revealed that the modules were effective to produce reliable changes in trainee's

knowledge and skill in the use of techniques for detaining the reading level of the

exceptional children.

Pultroak (1975) worked on the development and field testing of a lab module

for instruction in vascular plant taxonomy. A self-paced lab module in vascular plant

taxonomy was developed to aid undergraduate biology students in understanding both

traditional and contemporary activities of the plant taxonomist. Results showed that the

40

general biology students preferred the modular method of instruction than the

traditional type.

Anderson (1975) made an experimental study on the effects of a modular

biology course on attitudes towards biology. His findings were the following:-

i) There is significant difference in attitude between students who completed the

modular course of study and the students who had traditional lecture classes.

ii) Students who had the modular course showed higher attitudinal gain scores than

the students in the control group.

iii) There is a significant difference in achievement between the experimental group

and the control group with the experimental group scoring higher.

On the basis of the findings, he concluded that some evidences for the

effectiveness of the modular course of study in changing student’s attitude as well as

improving achievement were found.

Heller and Gate (1976) conducted a study to compare the effectiveness of

instruction using a learning module approach with that of instruction using a traditional

lecture discussions method in an undergraduate course entitled 'Psychology of

Exceptional Child'. The study revealed that it is possible to experiment within a

traditional college of educational framework with learning modules. Both approaches

could benefit students and a combination of the two might be a viable and justifiable

strategy.

Kazerani (1977) compared a modular system to a Professor/Lecturer system as a

method of proceeding in-service education. An alternative delivery system

(development of modules and supporting media with the course taught by a person

from geographical area) was developed and compared with the traditional

Professor/Lecturer method. The students who studied through the alternative delivery

system scored significantly higher on the knowledge of the module concept than the

control Group on each of the eight modules except one.

Vaughan (1977) compared modular textbook instruction in an individualized,

competency-based teacher education program. The results showed that all subjects in

both treatment groups were able to master each of the teaching competencies involved

in the study. However, the result of the study indicated a lack of significant differences

between treatments.

Halyard (1977) did an experimental study to determine empirically if the use of

biology module which made available optional learning materials resulted in greater

41

achievement than the use of a module containing the same content with no optional

learning materials. Two modules and all divisions were developed by the investigator.

One was a control module and the other, the experimental one. The modules were used

for one week. The pre-test and post-test were given. The major findings of the study

were the following.

i) Achievement differences were detected at any cognitive level between the

groups.

ii) Most of the students using experimental module did not use the opinion available

to them.

iii) Modules that lacked optional learning materials were equally as effective as

module that made optional learning material available.

Amien (1979) conducted a study in an Indonesian school in standard VIII. The

control class was taught through a traditional teacher centered method using a lecture-

cum-demonstration approach. Two treatment classes were taught through a student

centered method and using a modular approach. The findings of the study revealed that

in achievement and retention the treatment classes were significantly higher than the

control classes. There were no significant differences in the personality factors between

groups. The correlations between pre-test scores and post-test scores revealed no

significant differences in the effect of the instructional methods.

Broome (1980) prepared a module on "Spherical Trigonometry" to provide

fresh challenging and unique topic for high school students and to enrich the

mathematical background of the students by exposure to a non-Euclidean geometry, the

geometry of a sphere. This module is designed for use at the high school level as a 4-8

hour topic.

Ames (1981) developed a videotaped self-instructional complete training

module to prepare parents, para-professionals in the use of behavior modification

techniques for work with profoundly, severely and moderately retarded adolescents and

adults learning self-care skills, home living skills. The revision committee was of the

opinion that such a self-teaching module would be a useful training instrument for

retarded persons, college students in human services curricular as well as para-

professional technicians and professionals working with the developmentally disabled.

Madjiman (1982) investigated the implication of peer tutors and module

mediated mastery learning. The basic question was: Can teachers using modules and

peer tutors apply the mastery learning strategy? The result showed that modules and

42

peer-tutors were effective mediators of the mastery learning strategy when the student

index of learning effectiveness was used to measure achievement. Peer tutors and

module mediated mastery learning was more effective than the other strategies in

responding to the complexity of learning materials.

Poecoraro (1982) developed a module on interpersonal skills for home

economics teachers and Louisiana and valuated it in two teaching modes. The study

involved two phases-phase I consisted of the development of the module and phase II

consisted of the implementation of workshops in ten parishes at which the module was

tested and evaluated. Cognitive and affective pre-tests and post-tests were administered

to both groups. Analysis of data involved ‘t’ tests and analysis of co-variance. There

was a significant difference at the 0.05 level of confidence between the mean cognitive

and affective adjusted post-test scores of the teachers when the groups were compared.

Results indicated that completion of the module in each mode produced significant

differences in the cognitive and affective development of teachers.

Lampe (1984) developed and evaluated five self-instructional modules to

provide basic knowledge on the identification and correction of reading difficulties.

The modules were used for diagnostic prescriptive reading instruction, word

recognition skills and the informal assessment of reading difficulties and the correction

of reading difficulties. Results from the evaluation showed that the modules were

suitable for the intended purpose.

Greenberg (1984) investigated the effectiveness of a multimedia functional

reading module. Use of the videocassette lesson with computer practice was compared

to videocassette use with paper and pencil practice. The modules focused on the

functional reading skill. The t- test, Pearson-product moment correlation and chi-square

test were applied to analyze the data. The findings revealed that no significant

difference existed between the post-test performances of the two groups. There was

significant correlation between strategy scores and application scores. There was a

significant score favoring the computer treatment in response to a question about

enjoyment of the follow up practice.

Hansberry (1985) developed and evaluated an independent learning module that

a nursing instructor can use as an adjunct teaching aid for teaching the exchange system

for meal planning in a medical surgical nursing course. Findings revealed that the

experimental group performed better in the post cognitive examination than those

taught in a regular medical surgical nursing class.

43

Rae (1985) conducted a study on "The development and evaluation of a self-

instructional learning module" for associates of science degree nursing students. The

purpose of the study was to determine the effects of self-instructional module and the

study employed a non-equivalent control group design with random assignment of

intact groups. The sample for this study consisted of 78 associate degree nursing

students. Submitting the scores to an analysis of covariance at the 0.05 significant level,

revealed that the experimental group performed better on the post-cognitive

examination than those taught the exchange system for real planning in a regular

medical-surgical nursing class.

Ward (1985) conducted a study on modular access and progression routes

support issues and student directed learning. The effectiveness of modularizing access

provided by the University of Derby was examined for 299 adult students. No

significant differences appeared in retention, but the modular approach had increased

retention of unskilled and low achieving students. Students with lower entry

qualification had higher achievement than similar students did before modularization.

Mohammad (1988) developed and evaluated a modularized individualized

instruction science course in Kuwaiti secondary schools. The purpose of the study was

to develop, implement, and evaluate a science course in accordance with modularized,

individualized instruction principles. Samples included 497 pupils and 16 teachers.

Both treatment groups were administered pre-test, post-test, achievement and attitude

tests. Major finding of the test was that modularized, individualized instruction was

significantly effective in producing overall achievement.

Al-quattan (1989) developed, implemented and evaluated a science course in

accordance with modularized individualized instructions principles in Kuwait

Secondary Schools. The modularized individualized instructions were found to be

significantly effective in producing overall achievement in the first grade pupils at

secondary schools when compared whereas traditional instructions were not effective in

introducing favorable attitude toward science in the pupils. A remarkable decline was

observed in their attitudes.

Greager and Murray (1991) offered modules to the teachers. They found that the

modules helped the students to learn as well as provided better chances to the students

to interact with the teacher because it reduced the routine instruction time.

44

John (2000) conducted a research on self- instructional methods as a

reinforcement strategy in learning genetics among high secondary students. The

objectives of the study were to develop and evaluate the programmed instructional

packages (PIM) and computer instructional packages (CAIM) on ‘Genetics’ for

teaching the standard XII students selected for the study, to develop tools to measure

the effectiveness of self - instructional packages on ‘Genetics’ through programmed

instructional packages (PIM) and computer instructional packages (CAIM) and to study

and compare the effectiveness of self- instructional methods and materials i.e. PIM and

CAIM as a reinforcement strategy on achievement and retention of cognitive skills in

‘Genetics’ such as knowledge, understanding and application among the students

selected for the study. It was found that both the reinforcement strategies are equally

effective in learning and retaining the same in the experimental groups.

Aggabao (2002) conducted a study aimed at developing individualized self-

instructional modules on selected topics in basic mathematics for instructional use at

the teachers college in Isabela State University. After making use of the experimental

method, it was concluded that the students as well as teachers have a positive attitude

towards the use of self-instructional materials as a mode of instructions in basic

mathematics.

Ali (2005) conducted a study to check the development and effectiveness of

Modular teaching in biology at secondary level. The ultimate result of the study

indicated that modular approach was more effective instructional paradigm for biology

as compared to the traditional teaching.

John (2006) conducted a study on preparation and testing of learning modules in

environmental science at higher secondary level. The major findings of the study were

that:-

(i) The learning modules prepared on the environmental science areas are very

effective in enhancing environmental awareness among higher secondary school

students.

(ii) The retention capacity of the students who learnt with the help of learning

modules is higher than those who learnt in the conventional textbook oriented

method.

Riasat Ali (2010) conducted a study on the effectiveness of the Modular

Teaching in Biology at secondary Level. The major findings of the study were that:-

45

(i) Modular teaching is more effective as teaching-learning process as compared to

traditional teaching method. Because in modular teaching the students are

provided the opportunities of learning at their own pace, according to their

ability level and needs.

(ii) It is a self-learning style in which immediate reinforcement is provided in the

form of feedback task, which motivate the student. Hence the modular approach

is considered to create interest among students as they are free to learn at their

own pace.

Abeer Rashed Alelaimat (2012) conducted a study on the effectiveness of the

Educational Modules Strategy on the Direct and Postponed study’s Achievement of VII

primary grade students in Science, in comparison with the Conventional Approach. The

study’s results revealed that students in the experimental group are superior over

students in the control group in both types of achievement. At the same time results

showed the lack of difference between the male and female students in direct and long-

term achievement test.

Sadia Sadiq (2014) conducted a study on effectiveness of Modular Approach I

teaching at University Level. The major findings of the study were that:-

(i) Modular Teaching is more effective in teaching-learning process as compared to

ordinary teaching methods.

(ii) Modular Approach helps to maximize the chances of student participation in

classroom in respect to fulfill the given task at the spot.

STUDIES CONDUCTED IN INDIA

Sansanwal (1978) developed an instructional strategy for teaching research

methodology at M.Ed. and M.Sc. (Home Science) level. Various components of this

strategy were PLM, library work, discussion, unit tests and discussion on unit tests. In

this study the effectiveness of each component was studied on the basis of reactions of

students involved in the experiment. Each component and the sequence in which these

were used in the instructional process were found to be effective. Since the objectives

of teaching the subject, differ from subject to subject, there is a need to evolve an

instructional strategy for teaching a subject at a particular level. The objective of this

study was to develop and study the effectiveness of instructional strategy in terms of (a)

achievement of students on criterion test (b) reactions of students towards each

component as well as the whole of Instructional strategy. This study was conducted on

46

B.Ed. students admitted during 1978-79 in the Department of Education, University of

Indore. All the admitted students were divided into three groups, each consisted of 60

students. Of these two groups were selected randomly, designated as experimental and

control groups. Both groups included students from different disciplines like arts,

science, life science, home science etc. There were graduates and postgraduates in both

the groups. The medium of instructions was Hindi. For developing instructional

strategy an analysis of "Learning" a topic from Educational Psychology was carried

out. For this topic specific objectives were stated in behavioral terms. The conclusions

were:

i) The instructional strategy was found to be effective to the extent that 70% of

students got above 70% marks on criterion test.

ii) Individual component and instructional strategy as a whole was found to be

effective in terms of student’s reaction.

Shajahan (1980) designed and developed modules for teaching science in

standard VI and VII and studied the effectiveness of the modules as an instructional

method with respect to the conventional method. The findings of the investigation

revealed that modular way of learning was more effective than the conventional method

in the case of some modules while in the case of other modules, it was found as

effective as the conventional method. An overwhelming majority of students possessed

a favorable attitude towards modular instruction. The teacher's reactions to modular

approach of instruction were favorable.

Justus (1981) conducted a study on "Preparation and comparison of supervised

study module with textbook approach in the teaching of biology in schools of Kerala

state". The objectives of the study were

i) To determine the effectiveness of supervised study module in teaching biology.

ii) To compare the effectiveness of supervised study module over textbook approach

in the teaching of biology under the categories of objectives- knowledge,

understanding, application and skill.

The results of the study were :

i) Supervised study module is more effective than textbook approach in the teaching

of biology in high schools.

ii) Supervised study module is more effective than textbook approach in the teaching

of biology under the categories of objectives- knowledge, understanding,

application and skill.

47

Mukhopadhyay (1981) studied on microteaching vs modular approach. The

objectives were:

i) To study the development of selected teaching competencies through

microteaching and modular approaches,

ii) To compare the effectiveness of microteaching and modular approaches in

developing selected teaching competencies.

It was hypothesized that there would be no significant difference in the

performance of the groups trained through microteaching and modular approaches. The

study was conducted on 24 teacher trainees. Random sampling was done. Post-factor

analysis was done to match the two groups. The self-learning modules, one each on

questioning and reinforcement, were developed and used as training material for one

group. The other group was trained through microteaching. At the end, both groups

appeared for a performance based post-test. The major findings of the investigation

were:

i) In questioning, ten from each group satisfied the criterion referenced test, whereas

on reinforcement, nine from microteaching group and seven from the modular

approach group satisfied the criterion reference test.

ii) Both the treatments were equally effective.

Gabriel and Pillai (1981) conducted a study which reports an attempt to

modularize learning at collegiate level in India. A difficult unit in Biology was

identified and modular learning material was developed, using local resources. The

feasibility of this approach over the traditional teaching approach in terms of learning

efficiency, learning time and mastery level is reported. The students who experienced

modular scheduling were found to be superior in understanding of concept and

retention of concept. Time taken by the modular group as a whole to gain 80 percent

mastery, as compared to the control group was found to be in the ratio 2:5. It was also

found that the students preferred individualized learning and more number of and

different types of multimedia approaches rather than the usual classroom lecture.

Dyer (1982) developed an art curriculum design using curriculum modules as a

means of improving instruction in urban schools. Using instructional modules as a

mechanism, this design attempted to provide more scientific guidelines for art

instruction. Three self-contained modules were designed and presented. The

respondents expressed satisfaction towards the new instruction.

48

Hopper (1982) designed and developed modules for teaching certain units in

biology in standard XI. The effectiveness of three modular approaches of teaching viz.

self-learning, peer group learning and peer group learning with teacher intervention was

evaluated through an experiment adopting the rotation group design. The major

findings of the study were:

(i) All the three structured modular approaches of teaching were effective in terms of

mean gain. However, the self-learning approach was more effective than the other

two modular approaches.

(ii) The modular approach in teaching biology led to significant increase in the

academic motivation of the student.

(iii) There was no relationship between intelligence and mean gain in achievement

through modular instruction.

Sharma (1982) conducted a study on developing instructional materials in civics

at 10+2 level for pre-service and in-service teachers. The main findings of the

investigation were:

(i) 99 percent of student teachers obtained distinction marks after studying module

I whereas 85 percent of them reached distinction level after studying module II.

(ii) A majority of the student-teachers expressed favorable opinion about the

different aspects of the modules.

(iii) The mean achievement scores of experimental group differed significantly from

that of the control group.

Dhamija (1985) conducted a comparative study on the effectiveness of three

approaches of Instructions- conventional, radio-vision and modular approach on

achievement of students in social-studies. The major findings of the study were-

(i) The students achieved highest total, knowledge and comprehension achievement

scores and retention in geography when taught through radio-vision, in the civics

when taught through modular approach and in history when taught through

conventional approach.

(ii) Self-confidence among the students increased when they were taught through the

modular approach.

Anita (1989) conducted a study on “Preparation of modules for teaching the

topic ‘Analysis of Basic Data’ in basic mathematics for standard VIII”. The main

objectives of the study were

(i) To prepare a module for teaching the topic ‘Analysis of Basic Data’.

49

(ii) To find out the effectiveness of modular approach in teaching mathematics and to

compare the effectiveness of modular approach with the traditional method of

teaching.

The findings showed that the modular approach is more effective than

traditional approach.

Santosh Kumar (1990) conducted an experimental study on the effectiveness of

teacher assisted modular approach in teaching physics in secondary schools of Kerala

state. The study intended to find out the effectiveness of modular approach in teaching

physics. The findings showed that the teacher assisted modular approach is more

effective than textbook approach for student’s achievement in teaching physics.

Madhu Mohan (1990) conducted a study on the effect of teacher assisted

modular approach in teaching chemistry in secondary schools of Kerala state. The

findings showed that the teacher assisted modular approach is more effective than

textbook approach for student’s achievement in teaching chemistry.

Arunachalam (1991) developed an instructional module in learning the history

by students of standard X. The major objectives were to develop the module and

comparison of effectiveness of module over traditional approach in history. 300 pupils

formed the sample for the study. Two groups were equated on their achievement

available. The experimental group learnt the topic using the module and the control

group in the conventional way. Achievement test was administered to both group and

the scores were compared. The results showed that the experimental group served high

in achievement test. As far as the total group is concerned, with the use of instructional

module definitely improved their learning of history. Same result is obtained when the

objectives knowledge, Comprehension, application and skill are tested. The study

revealed that instructional module is superior to the traditional approach for it

contributes to the attainment of knowledge, comprehension, application and skill.

Mollykutty (1991) studied the effectiveness of modular approach in teacher

education and requisites for implementation. The study revealed that modular approach

has not been introduced formally and structurally in any of the teacher education

institutions. And the UGC Curriculum Development Committee which was entrusted

with the task of the preparation of model curriculum for the postgraduate and under-

graduate courses in teacher education have advised the use of modular approach and

also presented the model curriculum as modules.

50

Hazeena (1995) conducted a study on the comparison of modular approach and

traditional textbook approach in teaching physics in standard IX. The major findings of

the study were:

(i) The modular approach was more effective than traditional textbook approach.

(ii) The modular approach and textbook approach seems equally good for developing

the objective knowledge.

iii) The modular approach is more effective than the traditional method in developing

the objective understanding.

Dutt (1998) conducted a research on effect of self-learning modules on

achievement of senior secondary students in relation to their sex and place of residence.

It was found that sex accounted for differential achievement in economics. Male

students got significantly higher mean post achievement test scores than female

students. Students belonging to both rural and urban places of residence achieved

almost identical mean post achievement scores.

Kohal (1999) conducted a research on the effectiveness of self-learning modules

on achievement in geography in relation to mastery and non-mastery teaching

strategies, intelligence and study habits. The objectives of the study were to develop

self-learning modules in geography as a subject at 10+1 level in arts stream and to

study the effectiveness of self-learning modules in geography in terms of achievement.

It was found that the students taught through mastery teaching strategies attained more

geographic concepts than the students taught through non-mastery teaching strategy.

So, mastery strategy proved more superior to non-mastery strategy in teaching

geographic concepts.

Binumon (2000) conducted a study entitled “Effectiveness of three approaches

in instruction – modular, lectures cum modular and conventional lecture in learning the

topic ‘Fisheries’ at plus two level”. The study concluded that modular approach is more

effective than the other two methods i.e. lecture cum modular and conventional lecture

method.

Rastogi (2003) developed self-instructional material on educational statistics for

B.Ed. students. In this experimental research, a comparison was seen between two

strategies as traditional classroom teaching and self-instructional material. The

statistical analysis revealed that a significant change in level of knowledge regarding

educational statistics was obtained in both the groups. Also, learning in both the groups

was enhanced to a significant level, and there was more retention through self-

51

instructional material strategy. This indicated that self- instructional material strategy

was more effective than traditional classroom teaching strategy.

Shetty (2004) conducted a research on the development of a self-instructional

module on staff development for the secondary school principals. The objectives of

study were :

i) To develop instructional material on self-development for secondary school

principals.

iv) To try out the instructional material developed for secondary school principals on

staff development.

v) To evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional material on staff development

for secondary school principals.

It was found that the modules helped the principals to enhance their abilities of

organizational management. These helped the principals to have better and effective

communication, wherever required technology was used. They were active listeners,

effective negotiators and were able to conduct meetings effectively after learning the

various techniques of communication from the modules.

Arora & Singh (2005) conducted research on development and evaluation of

self-learning modules to enhance the learning of students at CMC Ludhiana. The results

(post-test average of 84%) indicated that self-learning modules were an effective

method of studying and reinforcing learning. Comparison with other teaching methods

indicated that the students would prefer self-learning modules as an additional method

of learning but not a replacement for lectures and text-books. Students recommended

that SLM experiment should continue and suggested an SLM library for self-study.

Puri (2009) conducted a study on effect of self-learning modules on

environmental awareness in elementary school students belonging to different socio-

economic status and school systems. It was found that self-learning modules proved

effective when compared to conventional teaching in private, gurukuls and govt.

schools.

Kamini Gupta (2014) conducted a study entitled “Effectiveness of self-learning

modules on Environmental Education on level of awareness of perspective Teachers”.

Findings of the study revealed that the self-instructional module was sufficiently

effective and has significant effect on the awareness level of perspective Teachers.

Kanchan (2014) conducted a study entitled “Effectiveness of self-learning

modules on the achievement and retention of undergraduate students in commerce”.

52

Findings of the study revealed that the students exposed to self-learning modules

achieved higher in the specified units of Business Management than those exposed to

conventional mode of teaching and retained higher in the specified units of Business

Management than those exposed to conventional mode of teaching.

After going through the studies mentioned in preceding pages, it seems that

studies related to development and evaluation of instructional modules were conducted

at elementary level, secondary level and even college level too. The trend of the

researches conducted in India as well as Abroad reveals that most of the studies are of

experiment type and comparison of effectiveness of module with traditional method in

the area of teacher training courses, special education for teachers as well as parents,

nursing course and different school subjects. It is also clear from the review of related

literature that majority of the studies were related to subject like science and social-

science and very few were related to mathematics.

2.3 STUDIES RELATED WITH DIAGNOSIS AND

REMEDIATION

In this section, an attempt has been made to review the studies related to

diagnosis of difficulties faced by the students in different school subjects and their

remediation in Indian school context.

Rastogi (1983) conducted the study of diagnosis of weaknesses in the basic

arithmetic skills and their remedial measures. The main objectives of the study were-

i) To establish a relationship between achievements in mathematics and command

over basic skills.

ii) To establish a relationship between achievements in mathematics and attitude

towards mathematics.

iii) To establish a relationship between general intelligence and the three attitudes

viz. command over basic skills achievements in mathematics and attitude towards

mathematics.

iv) To develop a diagnostic test to determine specific weakness of students backward

in basic arithmetic skills.

v) To develop a suitable program for remedial work in basic arithmetic skills.

vi) To investigate other causes of backwardness in mathematics and their treatment.

The design of study was essentially experimental in nature. A test of basic

skills in arithmetic and attitude towards mathematics was constructed and standardized.

53

A diagnostic test of basic arithmetic skills was also constructed. Apart from these tools,

Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices, a mathematics achievement survey test made

by NCERT and a course of self- help in basic arithmetic skills which was a program of

remedial work developed to use as a treatment for the study were used. The major

findings were-

i) One of the important causes of backwardness in mathematics was the poor

command over basic arithmetic skills. Attitudes were closely linked with

achievement.

ii) When command over basic arithmetic skills improved, attitude towards

mathematics and achievement in mathematics increased.

iii) Basic arithmetic skills could very quickly and conveniently be mastered through

the course of self-help in basic arithmetic skills as developed during the study.

iv) There were no significant sex differences found either attitude towards

mathematics or achievement in mathematics.

v) The course of self- help in basic arithmetic skills was equally effective with either

sex.

Gosh (1984) conducted a study on the scholastic backwardness in the basic

operations of arithmetic - Diagnosis and Prevention.

The objectives of the study were-

i) To diagnose children’s disability in specific areas of addition and subtraction in

arithmetic with the help of specially developed diagnosis tools.

ii) To suggest preventive measures for renaming the expected learning disability in

those areas.

The sample consisted of 200 students of II of 6 primary schools.

An individual structured interview was conducted with 20% students selected at

random from the sample to validate the tools. Experimental groups treated by piagetian

methods of instruction and controlled groups were taught conventionally.

Conclusions of the study were-

The experimental group should significantly show better achievements than the

controlled groups when both groups were evaluated 15 days after the experiments.

i) The experimental groups taught by the Piagetian methods achieved more than the

controlled groups.

ii) The experimental groups showed greater motivation in learning.

54

Dutta (1996) conducted a study in learning disabilities in the reasoning power of

the students in geometry – Diagnosis and Prevention.

The main objectives of the study were

i) To diagnose the major pattern of disabilities in a specific area of geometry with

the help of tools specially developed for the purpose.

ii) To try out experimentally teaching methods which would prevent development of

learning disabilities in the area under study?

The major findings were :

i) Thirty three major patterns of disabilities were identified.

ii) The experimental group taught by audio visual aids and techniques achieved

significantly more than the controlled group taught by conventional methods.

Thakur (1999) conducted a study on the construction of diagnostic test and

preparation of remedial material as well as testing its effectiveness on fractions and

decimal fractions for the students of grade V of Gujrati medium schools in great

Bombay. The major aim was construction of diagnostic test followed by preparation of

remedial material and testing its effectiveness. The test and follow-up remedial material

were prepared for students of class V who did not have clear concept of fractions. It

was difficult for them to convert one type of fraction into another. Simplification was

found to be a difficult process for them. They could not easily find out the smallest and

biggest fraction and many simple principles like; zero multiplied by zero is zero,

divisions are inverses of multiplication. As for decimal fractions, the students did not

understand the place values of the figures in decimal fractions. They did not understand

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of decimal fractions.

Sudha (2000) conducted a study on the specific errors committed by primary

class students in learning mathematics and their remedies.

The major aims of study were

i) To find out the errors committed by the students in translating verbal statements

(a) into mathematical form using appropriate symbols (b) and diagrammatically.

ii) To find out the problems of the students in applying mathematical concept .i.e. to

prepare bills, find simple interest, percentage, drawing geometrical figures and

their areas and perimeter.

iii) To find out their skills to solve simple problems of addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division, L.C.M. and H.C.F.

55

iv) To suggest probable modulations to overcome the difficulties faced by the

students in learning addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, simple interest,

percentage, drawing geometrical figures and their areas and perimeter.

The study revealed that

i) There was significant difference in the performance of boys and girls in math, the

difference being in favor of boys.

ii) The urban pupils were superior to rural pupils in math.

iii) Intelligence and interest in math were higher in boys and urban pupils than in

their respective counterparts.

Raj Kumar (2003) conducted a study on the specific errors committed by IX

class students in learning mathematics and their remedies.

The main objectives of the study were

(i) To study the errors committed by both the private and government school

students in math.

(ii) To study the errors committed by the girl students of both private and government

schools in math.

(iii) To study the errors committed by the boy students of both the private and

government schools in math.

The study revealed that

(i) There is no significant difference between errors of both the private and

government school students in math.

(ii) There is no significant difference between errors of both the private and

government school girl students in math.

(iii) There is no significant difference between errors of both the private and

government school boy students in math.

Vikrant Mishra (2008) conducted a study on errors committed in English by IX

class students and evaluation of the effectiveness of remedial measures. The main

objectives were

i) To find out different types of percentage of errors in written English committed

by IX class students.

ii) To find out the incidence of errors of difference by IX class students.

iii) To develop for IX class students a remedial package to remove errors in written

English.

iv) To find out experimentally the effectiveness of the remedial package.

56

The study revealed that

i) Of all the nine JNV’s under sample, the students of JNV Niwarsi and JNV

Kaulan have committed ‘High incidence of errors’ while the remaining students

of 7 JNV have committed ‘low incidence of errors’.

ii) The results of t-ratios between the experimental group and the control group on

pre-test have shown ‘no difference’ on errors. Since no treatment was given to the

experimental group.

iii) The results of t-ratios between the experimental group and the control group on

post-test have shown difference in the positive direction i.e. the students of

experimental group have shown less errors on post-test than the students of

control group. This happened because the experimental group was given

treatment in the form of remedial teaching which proved to be effective.

Satish Kumar (2012) conducted a study which was intended to diagnostic

testing and remediation in reading and writing components in English with the help of

self – instructional–materials at upper elementary level. For the purposes, a sample of

310 students, learning in grade VII in self – financing and govt. schools of district

Sonipat (Rohtak Division) of Haryana was randomly selected. Diagnostic test and self -

instructional material (SIM) made by the investigator himself and for assessment of

personality and intelligence of the students, M.P.I. by S. Jalota and S.D. Kapoor and

Samuhik Mansik Yogayata Priksha by R.S. Tandon were used to collect the data.

The major findings of the study were :

i) The diagnostic test prepared is developed effectively.

ii) The self – instructional material has been found to have a significant positive

impact on the students on the basis of comparison between scores of experimental

and control group on the post-test and also on pre-test and also on pre-test and

post-test experimental group comparisons.

iii) On the basis of comparison of scores of experimental group on pre-test and post-

test, it was revealed that self- instructional material has been found to have a

significant positive impact on the components ‘passage’, ‘poem’, ‘word’,

grammar’, vocabulary’, ‘composition’, ‘comprehension’.

iv) The pre-test and post-test differences in the scores of control group on the

diagnostic test were found to be insignificant. It shows that in the present study

intervening variable does not affect much the achievements of the children.

57

The trend of the researches conducted in India reveals that most of the studies

related to diagnosis of difficulties in various school subjects and their remediation were

conducted in English and Mathematics but the studies related to mathematics were

conducted at primary level only.

2.4 IMPLICATION OF THIS REVIEW ON THE PRESENT

STUDY

The review of related literature empowered the investigator to have extensive

information on the history of researches conducted in the field of diagnosing student’s

difficulties in various subjects and effectiveness of modular instructional strategy for

their remediation.

Most of the researches quoted for diagnosis of difficulties faced by students

have been conducted in almost all school subjects such as Hindi, English, Chemistry,

Biology etc. but a very few studies were conducted in mathematics. Moreover they

were also conducted at primary level. There is a scarcity of researches in mathematics.

It is a necessity to conduct research in this field and implement it is in order to

eliminate or at least reduce the learning difficulties in mathematics found in secondary

school students. The analysis of studies related to diagnostic testing revealed that

diagnostic testing in teaching can be used, as a technique for finding out the frequency

and types of errors committed by students, for the correction and elimination of

individual weaknesses, as a tool for finding out the reason for committing errors.

Keeping in view the seriousness of this problem of prevailing learning difficulties in

secondary school students, an attempt has been made by the investigator to identify the

difficulties faced by secondary school students in mathematics.

It is also clear from the review of related literature that studies related to

development and evaluation of instructional modules as teaching method were

conducted at elementary level, secondary level and even college level too for the

subject like science, social science, languages, mathematics etc.

The review further reflects that the evidence regarding studies conducted

particularly in Indian context on the diagnosis of difficulties of students and their

remediation through modular instructional strategy in mathematics is scare. This was

the most important point why investigator had selected this topic for the purpose of the

research. Therefore, the present study was taken up to diagnose the difficulties faced by

student in mathematics and their remediation through modular instructional strategy at

secondary school level in the state of Haryana.