6

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE, CONCEPT, AND THEORETICAL

BASIS

This chapter explains three things. First, Review of Literature which is

some studies which is considered relevant to this study. Second, the explanation

of word-formation, derivational, discourse, corpus, morpheme, root, stem and

base which is presented in Concept. Third, theory used in solving the problems in

this study that is presented in Theoretical Basis.

1.1 Review of Literature

Research relating to this study was done by Suardana (2002) entitled The

Analysis of Class-Changing Affixes in English. Problems discussed in that

research were the form of class changing affixes and their function. The data of

the research were taken from two novels, A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

and Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne. There were two theories applied in

that research. Firstly, in analyzing the form of affixes, he used theory of

Morphology developed by Laurie Bauer (1984) and used theory of Morphology

developed by Quirk (1973) in analyzing the function of the affixes. He found that

there are six types of class changing affixes, they are prefixes forming adjectives,

prefixes forming verbs, suffixes forming nouns, suffixes forming verbs, suffixes

forming adjectives, and suffixes forming adverbs. The strength of that study is he

can explain the concept of class-changing affixes clearly and provide the

explanation with example. The weakness of that study is the study only focuses on

7

class-changing affixes. The relevance of that study with this study is that the topic

taken, namely about Morphology.

Another research relating to this study is a study done by Darma (2005)

entitled The Analysis of Derivational Suffixes in English with Special Reference to

Red Leaves by Paulina Simons. Forms of derivational suffixes in English and how

derivational suffixes can bring a shift in the grammatical class of a base and

possible change in meaning became the problems discussed in that study. Theory

applied in that research were theory proposed by Laurie Bauer in his book entitled

English Word-Formation (1983) and theory proposed by Randolph Quirk and

Sidney Greenbaum in their book entitled A University Grammar of English

(1973). The results of that research showed that there were some class maintaining

derivational suffixes found, namely –hood, -ship, and –ette. There were class

changing derivational suffixes found also, namely suffixes forming noun, verb,

adjective, and adverb. Among these, there were suffix –ation, -ure, -al, -ary, -ize, -

en,-able, -less, -ful, -ly, and –wards. The strength of that research is it is easy to

understand as she presents the process of the word-formation and result one by

one and clearly. The weakness of that study is only a few derivational suffixes

found. The relevance to this study is the topic arose by the writer, namely about

derivational suffixes.

There is also a study done by Natha (2010) entitled The Analysis of Noun

Class Maintaining Suffixes in English. The problems discussed in the study were

the form, function and meaning of noun class maintaining suffixes. The data were

collected from novel entitled the Eagle and the Dove by Lewis Orde. The theory

8

used in analyzing the data were Laurie Bauer (1983) in his book entitled English

Word Formation and Matthews (1974) in his book entitled An Introduction to the

Theory of Word Structure. The result showed that there are a non-productive and a

productive noun class maintaining suffixes. The productivity of the suffixes were

determined by the number of base the suffixes can be attached. The noun class

maintaining suffixes found were: -hood, -ship, -dom, -ocracy, -ery, -ster, -eer, -er,

-let, -ette, -ess, -y, -ing, and –ful. The strength of that study is the analysis of this

study is very deep. The weakness of that study is this study only focus on noun

class maintaining suffixes. The relevance of that study to this study are the topic

discussed, namely suffixes and the research questions discussed.

There is an article written by Fleta (2011) entitled Suffixes in Word-

Formation Processes in Scientific English. The comparison of suffixes

productivity between medicine and computer science registers and the difference

in the behaviour of these suffixes in the specialized registers of medicine and

computer science compared to a wider, more general corpus namely the British

National Corpus (BNC) became the concern of that study. Theory applied in that

study were theory proposed by Biber (1995) in his book entitled Dimensions of

Register Variation: A Cross-Linguistic Comparison and Plag (1999) in his book

entitled Morphological Productivity: Structural Constraints in English

Derivation. The result showed that suffixes are a productive word-formation

resource in scientific registers and that their productivity differs in the registers

under study. Findings ranked in scientific registers is higher than the BNC in the

case of productivity of abstract noun-forming suffixes like -ity, -ion and –ness.

9

The scientific corpora also showed that the suffix –ize is fully productive; values

is higher than the ranking drawn from the BNC. On the other hand, the BNC

showed an outstanding productivity rate of –free and -like, suffixes which proved

to be fully unproductive in the scientific registers under study. The strength of that

study is the writer can explain the discussion and the result clearly with the help of

statistic. The weakness of that study is the writer does not state theory applied in

that study. The relevance with this study are the topic discussed, that is suffixes

and the data source used, namely corpus.

There is also an article written by Liu (2012) entitled A Corpus-Based

Analysis of English Suffix –esque. That study discussed about the etymology, the

semantic meaning, the formation rules, the orthographic properties, the

productivity and the stylistic tendency of the English suffix –esque with the help

of corpus. The theory applied to determine the productivity of the suffixes was

theory proposed by Plag (2002) in his book entitled Word Formation in English.

The result showed that, first, the suffix –esque originates from the French suffix –

esque which means like, in the manner of. Second, the suffix –esque mainly

possesses two semantic meanings, one is used with proper noun to make

adjectives describing things relating to that noun and the other is used with some

nouns to make adjectives describing things that have a particular quality relating

to that noun. Third, the most common used base words of the suffix –esque are

proper names, either names of people or places or even festivals. Fourth, hyphen

is not a compulsory element in word formation of the suffix –esque, and the letter

e at the end of a base tends to be deleted when the suffix –esque is attached to the

10

base. Fifth, the suffix –esque is productive. Sixth, the suffix –esque is more

common to form new words in formal contexts, for example, in fictions,

magazines, newspapers and also academic works; while it is used relatively less in

spoken context. The strength of that study is the problem discussed is very deep.

However, the weakness of that study is the topic discussed is too narrow. The

relevance to this study are the used of COCA as the data source, the use of theory

proposed by Plag (2002) and topic discussed, namely suffix.

1.2 Concept

There are some concepts that will be presented in this study, namely: the

concept of word formation, morpheme, root, stem and base.

1.2.1 The Concept of Word Formation

Morphology can be divided into two main branches, inflectional

morphology and word-formation – also called lexical morphology – (Matthews,

I991: 41). Word-formation can thus be defined as the ways in which new complex

words are built on the basis of other words or morphemes (Plag, 2002:17).

1.2.2 The Concept of Morpheme

Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units which may constitute words

or parts of words (Nida, 1949:1). In the previous chapter, morpheme has been

divided into two types, namely free and bound morpheme. The example of free

morpheme is run which is a verb. It could not be divided into smallest meaningful

unit again, meanwhile if we add suffix /–s/ to the word run, the suffix /–s/ is

11

called bound morpheme because it would not have any meaning if it is not

attached to a free morpheme. Suffix /–s/ there also called inflectional morpheme

because it does not change the word class of the produced word. When run is

attached by a suffix /–er/, it would become a noun. The suffix there is called

derivational morpheme because it changes verb into noun.

1.2.3 The Concept of Derivational Morpheme

Bauer (1983:33) states that derivation is concerned with the formation of

new lexemes by affixation. Derivation can be divided into class-maintaining

derivation and class-changing derivation. A class-maintaining process of

derivation produces lexemes which belong to the same form class as the base,

while a class-changing process of derivation produces lexemes which belong to a

form class other than the form class of the base.

According to Katamba (1993:49), Derivational morphemes form new

words either by changing the meaning of the base to which they are attached or by

changing the word class that abase belongs to.

1.2.4 Concept of Suffix

Suffix is one type of affixes. There are three types of affixes, namely

prefix, infix and suffix. However, there is no infix found in English. Suffix,

according to Katamba (1993:45), is affix attached after root or stem or base. For

example, a word kindly has two morpheme namely, kind and ly. Kind here is a

free morpheme and is the base word. While –ly is a bound morpheme and is a

suffix. It attached after a base, namely kind, to form an adverb.

12

1.2.5 The Concept of Root, Stem and Base

A root, stem and base are terms used in linguistics. A root is a form which

is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional

morphology. A stem is a form that concerns only when it is dealing with

inflectional morphology. A base is any forms to which any kinds of affixes could

be added (Bauer, 1983:20-21).

For example, word drive is a root as there is no affix attached to it. If

suffix –s is attached to it to indicate that the subject is third person singular in the

simple present tense, the word drive is called a stem. If the word drive is attached

by suffix –er and becomes driver, the word drive is called base.

1.2.6 The Concept of Discourse

Discourse is the organization of language above the sentences, or above

the clause, thus it is the larger linguistic units (Stubbs, 1985). Discourse’s

structures take the form of written or spoken communication or debate. A

discourse’s structure is any set of connected sentence. Sentences in discourse are

related one another.

1.2.7 The Concept of Corpus

A corpus can be described as a large collection of authentic texts that have

been gathered in electronic form according to a specific set of criteria (Bowker,

2002:9). There are four important characteristics to note here: ‘authentic’,

‘electronic’, ‘large’ and ‘specific criteria’. If a text is authentic, that means that it

13

is an example of real ‘live’ language and consists of a genuine communication

between people going about their normal business. A text in electronic form is one

that can be processed by a computer. It could be an essay that you typed into a

word processor, an article that you scanned from a magazine, or a text that you

found on the World Wide Web. Basically though, ‘large’ means a greater number

of texts than you would be able to easily collect and read in printed form. Finally,

it is important to note that a corpus is not simply a random collection of texts. The

texts in a corpus are selected according to explicit criteria in order to be used as a

representative sample of a particular language or subset of that language.

1.3 Theoretical Basis

Theory applied in this study was theory of Morphology proposed by Plag

(2002).

1.3.1 Form of Suffixes

According to Plag (2002), suffixes are divided into four forms, namely:

1. Nominal Suffixes

/-age/ : This suffix derives nouns from verb or noun and are often

monosyllabic such as leakage, spillage, voltage.

/-al/ : A number of verbs take -al to form abstract nouns such as

arrival, referral, and renewal. Base words for nominal -al all have their main

stress on the last syllable.

14

/-ance/ : Attaching mostly to verbs. -ance creates action nouns such

as absorbance, riddance, retardance. This suffix has variants such as -ence, -

ancy and -ency.

/-ant/ : This suffix forms count nouns applicant, defendant, and

attractant. Most bases are verbs of Latinate origin.

/-cy/, /-ce/ : This suffix attaches productively to adjectives in -ant/-ent

(e.g. convergence, efficiency, emergence), but also to nouns ending in this

string, as is the case with agency, presidency, regency. Furthermore,

adjectives in -ate are eligible bases (adequacy, animacy, intimacy).

/-dom/ : -dom attaches to nouns to form nominals such as

clerkdom, studentdom, kingdom.

/-ee/ : It derives nouns from verbal bases such as in employee

and standee, but nominal bases are not uncommon (e.g. festschriftee,

pickpocketee).

/-eer/ : This is another person noun forming suffix, such as

auctioneer, budgeteer, cameleer, mountaineer, pamphleteer. Many words

have a depreciative tinge. The suffix -eer is auto stressed and attaches almost

exclusively to bases ending in a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed

syllable.

/-er/ : The suffix -er can be seen as closely related to –ee. The

example of this suffix are teacher, singer, blender, mixer, diner.

15

/-(e)ry/ : This suffix forms nouns from noun or adjective such as in

bakery, fishery, greenery.

/-ess/ : This suffix derives a comparatively small number of

mostly established nouns referring exclusively to female humans and animals

(princess, stewardess, lioness, tigress, waitress).

/-ful/ : The nominal suffix -ful derives measure partitive nouns

(similar to expressions such as a lot of, a bunch of) from nominal base words

that can be construed as containers: bootful, cupful, handful, tumblerful,

stickful.

/-hood/ : Similar to -dom, -hood also derives nouns from noun such

as adulthood, childhood, beggarhood.

/-an/ : Nouns denoting persons and places can take the suffix –an

as in Mongolian, Scandinavian, Anglican, Chomskyan.

/-ing/ : Examples of pertinent derivatives are abundant since -ing

can attach to practically any verb as in begging, running, sleeping.

/-ion/ : Verbal bases are by far the most frequent as in

personification and classification, but there is also a comparatively large

number of forms where -ation is directly attached to nouns without any

intervening verb in -ate. These forms are found primarily in scientific

discourse with words denoting chemical or other substances as bases (e.g.

expoxide - epoxidation, sediment - sedimentation).

16

/-ism/ : Forming abstract nouns from other nouns and adjectives,

as in Parkinsonism, conservatism, revisionism, Marxism.

/-ist/ : This suffix derives nouns denoting persons, mostly from

nominal and adjectival bases (ballonist, careerist, fantasist, minimalist).

/-ity/ : Words belonging to this morphological category are nouns

from Latinate adjectives (e.g. curiosity, productivity, profundity, solidity). All

adjectives ending in the suffixes -able, -al and -ic or in the phonetic string

[Id] can take -ity as a nominalizing suffix (readability, formality, erraticity,

solidity).

/-ment/ : This suffix derives action nouns from (mainly) verbs, with

a strong preference for monosyllables or disyllabic base words with stress on

the last syllable (e.g. assessment, endorsement, involvement, treatment).

/-ness/ : The suffix can attach to practically any adjective, and

apart from adjectival base words as in kindness, happiness, sadness.

/-ship/ : Base words are mostly person nouns as in apprenticeship,

clerkship, friendship, membership, statesmanship.

2. Verbal Suffixes

/-ate/ : There is a class of derivatives with chemical substances as

bases. However, a large proportion of forms in -ate do not conform to this

pattern, but show various kinds of idiosyncrasies, with -ate being apparently

17

no more than an indicator of verbal status. For example: methanate,

mercurate.

/-en/ : The Germanic suffix -en attaches to monosyllables that

end in a plosive, fricative or affricate. Most bases are adjectives (e.g. blacken,

broaden, quicken, ripen), but a few nouns can also be found (e.g. strengthen,

lengthen).

/-ify/ : This suffix attaches to base words that are either

monosyllabic, stressed on the final syllable or end in unstressed /I/. For

example: solidify, humidify, purify.

/-ize/ : Derivatives in -ize show rather complex patterns of base

allomorphy, to the effect that bases are systematically truncated (i.e. they lose

the rime of the final syllable) if they are vowel-final and end in two

unstressed syllables. For example: standardize, criticize, hospitalize.

3. Adjectival Suffixes

/-able/ : The suffix chiefly combines with transitive and

intransitive verbal bases, as in deterrable and perishable, respectively, as well

as with nouns, as in serviceable, fashionable.

/-al/ : This relational suffix attaches almost exclusively to

Latinate bases (accidental, colonial, cultural, federal, institutional, modal).

18

/–ary/ : -ary is a relational adjective-forming suffix, -ary usually

attaches to nouns, as in complementary, evolutionary, fragmentary,

legendary)

/-ed/ : This suffix derives adjectives as in broad-minded, pig-

headed, wooded.

/-esque/ : The suffix -esque is attached to both common and proper

nouns as in Chaplinesque, Hemingwayesque, picturesque, Kafkaesque. There

is a strong preference for polysyllabic base words.

/-ful/ : Adjectival -ful is typically attached to abstract nouns, as in

beautiful, insightful, purposeful, tactful, but verbal bases are not uncommon

(e.g. forgetful, mournful, resentful).

/-ic/ : Being another relational suffix, -ic also attaches to foreign

bases (nouns and bound roots). Quite a number of -ic derivatives have variant

forms in -ical (electric - electrical, economic - economomical, historic -

historical, magic - magical etc.).

/-ing/ : This verbal inflectional suffix primarily forms present

participles, which can in general also be used as adjectives in attributive

positions and as nouns. The grammatical status of a verb suffixed by -ing in

predicative position is not always clear. In the changing weather the -ing

form can be analyzed as an adjective, but in the weather is changing we

should classify it as a verb (in particular as a progressive form).

19

/-ish/ : This suffix can attach to adjectives (e.g. clearish, freeish,

sharpish), numerals (fourteenish, threehundredfourtyish), adverbs (soonish,

uppish), and syntactic phrases (e.g. stick-in-the-muddish, out-of-the-wayish,

silly-little-me-late-again-ish).

/-ive/ : This suffix forms adjectives mostly from Latinate verbs

and bound roots that end in [t] or [s]: connective, explosive, fricative,

offensive, passive, preventive, primitive, receptive, speculative. Some nominal

bases are also attested, as in instinctive, massive.

/-less/ : Semantically, -less can be seen as antonymic to –ful. The

example for this suffix are expressionless, hopeless, speechless, thankless.

/-ly/ : This suffix is appended to nouns and adjectives. For

example: brotherly, daughterly, fatherly, easterly.

/-ous/ : This suffix derives adjectives from nouns and bound roots,

the vast majority being of Latinate origin (curious, barbarous, famous,

synonymous, tremendous).

4. Adverbial Suffixes

/-ly/ : The presence of this exclusively de-adjectival suffix is for

the most part syntactically triggered and obligatory. Suffix /-ly/ is added

totally productively to adjective. For example: Happily, Nicely, Badly.

20

/-wise/ : This suffix derives adverbs from nouns, with two

distinguishable sub-groups: manner/dimension adverbs, and so-called view-

point adverbs. For example: Crabwise, Clockwise.

1.3.2 Function and Meaning of Suffixes

Based on Plag (2002), these are the functions and meanings of suffixes:

1. Class Maintaining Suffixes

a. Nouns Forming Nouns

1) /-age / means ‘a collective entity or quantity’ and ‘location of X’.

For example: Volt + /-age/ = Voltage

Orphan + /-age/ = Orphanage

2) /-cy/,/-ce/ means ‘the status or position of’.

For example: Chaplain + /-cy/ = Chaplaincy

3) /-dom/ means ‘state of being X’, ‘the group of’, ‘domain, realm, or

territory’.

For example: Clerk + /-dom/ = Clerkdom

Student + /-dom/ = Studentdom

King + /-dom/ = Kingdom

4) /-ee/ means ‘a person described as or concerned with’.

For example: Refuge + /-ee/ = Refugee

5) /-eer/ means ‘‘person who deals in, is concerned with, or has to do with X’.

For example: Auction + /-eer/ = Auctioneer

6) /er/ means ‘person or thing having to do with X’.

21

For example: Mix + /-er/ = Mixer

London + /-er/ = Londoner

7) /-(e)ry/ means ‘group of’, ‘the state of character of’.

For example: Machine + /-ry/ = Machinery

Slave + /-ry/ = Slavery

8) /-ess/ means ‘female’.

For example: Waiter + /-ess/ = Waitress

9) /-hood/ means ‘‘state of being X’, ‘the group of’, ‘area’.

For example: Child + /-hood/ = Childhood

Beggar + /-hood/ = Beggarhood

Neighbor + /-hood/ = Neighborhood

10) /-ship/ means ‘status’, ‘condition’, ’group’.

For example: Citizen + /-ship/ = Citizenship

Friend + /-ship/ = Friendship

Member + /-ship/ = Membership

11) /-ful/ means ‘the amount which noun contains’.

For example: Mouth + /-ful/ = Mouthful

12) /-an/ means ‘person having to do with X’, ‘being from X’, ‘being the

follower or supporter of X’.

For example: History + /-an/ = Historian

Mongol + /-an/ = Mongolian

Chomsky + /-an/ = Chomskyan

13) /-ing/ means ‘the substance of which N is composed’.

22

For example: Panel + /-ing/ = Paneling

14) /-ist/ means ‘member of a party, occupation’.

For example: Violin + /-ist/ = Violinist

15) /-ism/ means ‘state’, ‘condition’, ‘attitude’, ‘system of beliefs’ or ‘theory’.

For example: Blonde + /-ism/ = Blondism

Parkinson + /-ism/ = Parkinsonism

Conservative + /-ism/ = Conservatism

Revision + /-ism/ = Revisionism

Marxist + /-ism/ = Marxism

b. Adjective Forming Adjective

1) /-ish/ means ‘somewhat’.

For example: Green + /-ish/ = Greenish

2. Class Changing Suffixes

a. Verbs Forming Noun

1) /-age/ means ‘the activity or result of’.

For example: Cover + /-age/ = Coverage

2) /-al/ means ‘action or result of’.

For example: Refuse + /-al/ = Refusal

3) /-ance/ means ‘the action or state of’

For example: Assist + /-ance/ = Assistance

4) /-ant/ means ‘a person or thing that’.

For example: Apply + /-ant/ = Applicant

5) /-ee/ means ‘a person affected by action’.

23

For example: Employ + /-ee/ = Employee

6) /-er/ means ‘a person or thing that’’.

For example: Drive + /-er/ = Driver

7) /-(e)ry/ means ‘place where an activity is carried out’ or ‘place where a

specific article or service is available’

For example: Bake + /-ry/ = Bakery

8) /-ing/ means ‘activity’ or ‘result of activity’

For example: Build + /-ing/ = Building

9) /-ment/ means ‘‘event’, ‘result of processes’ or ‘action of’.

For example: Manage + /-ment/ = Management

10) /-(at)ion/ means ‘event’, ‘result of processes’ or ‘action of’.

For example: Explore + /-ation/ =Exploration

b. Adjectives Forming Noun

1) /-ness/ means ‘state’ or ‘quality’.

For example: Kind + /-ness/ = Kindness

Happy + /-ness/ = Happiness

2) /-ity/ means ‘state’ or ‘quality’

For example: Antique + /-ity/ = Antiquity

Pure + /-ity/ = Purity

c. Suffixes Forming Verbs

There are four suffixes which derive verbs from other categories (mostly

adjectives and nouns), -ate, -en, -ify and –ize.

1) /-ate/ means provide with X’ (ornative), or ‘make into X’ (resultative)

24

For example: Fluorine + /-ate/ = Fluorinate

Methan + /-ate/ = Methanate

2) /-en/ means ‘make (more) X’ (causative).

For example: Black + /-en/ = Blacken

Strength + /-en/ = Strengthen

3) Both -ize and -ify are polysemous suffixes, which can express a whole

range of related concepts such as locative, ornative, causative/factitive,

resultative, inchoative, performative, similative. Locatives can be

paraphrased as ‘put into X’, as in computerize, hospitalize, tubify.

Patinatize, fluoridize, youthify are ornative examples (‘provide with X’),

randomize, functionalize, humidify are causative (‘make (more) X’),

carbonize, itemize, trustify and nazify are resultative (‘make into X’),

aerosolize and mucify are inchoative (‘become X’), anthropologize and

speechify are performative (‘perform X’), cannibalize, vampirize can be

analyzed as similative (‘act like X’).

d. Nouns Forming Adjectives

1) /-able/ means ‘capable of being X’, ‘liable or disposed to X’ or

‘characterized by X’.

For example: Marriage + /-able/ = Marriageable

Reason + /-able/ = Reasonable

2) /-al/ means ‘connected with’.

For example: Culture + /-al/ = Cultural

3) /-ary/ means ‘connected with’

25

For example: Planet + /-ary/ = Planetary

4) /-ed/ means ‘having X, being provided with X’.

For example: Wood + /-ed/ = Wooded

5) /-esque/ means ‘in the manner or style of X’.

For example: Picture + /-esque/ = Picturesque

6) /-ful/ means ‘having X, being characterized by X’’.

For example: Beauty + /-ful/ = Beautiful

Insight + /-ful/ = Insightful

7) /-ic/ means ‘connected with X’

For example: History + /-ic/ = Historic

8) /-less/ means ‘without’.

For example: Child + /-less/ = Childless

9) /-ly/ means ‘in the manner of X’, ‘like an X’, ‘temporal’ or ‘direction’

For example: Brother + /-ly/ = Brother

Day + /-ly/ = Daily

East + /-ly/ = Easterly

10) /-ish/ means ‘belonging to’ or ‘having the character of’.

For example: Child + /-ish/ = Childish

11) /-ous/ means ‘having the nature or quality of’.

For example: Poison + /-ous/ = Poisonous

e. Verbs Forming Adjectives

1) /-ing/ means ‘make a person or thing become’

For example: Bore + /-ing/ = Boring

26

2) /-ive/ (also –ative, -itive) means ‘tending to’ or ‘having the nature of’.

For example: Affirm + /-ive/ = Affirmative

3) /-able/ means ‘able’ or ‘worthy to be V-ed’.

For example: Read + /-able/ = Readable

f. Suffixes Forming Adverbs

1) /-ly/ means ‘in a… manner’.

For example: Happy + /-ly/ = Happily

2) /-wise/ means ‘in the manner of’ or ‘as far as…is concerned’.

For example: Crab + /-wise/ =Crabwise