35

CHAPTER – II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

“A nation would not march forward if the women are left behind”

– Swami Vivekananda

The literature on the subject of Self Help Groups and Women Empowerment is

abundant and is burgeoning. An attempt is made here to touch upon a select review of

literature at the global, national and at regional levels, as a prelude to the present study.

In spite of safeguards provided in many of the poverty alleviation programmes, it

was observed that women, especially from poor families, could not be benefited. The

basic issue that prevents women from playing full participatory role in nation building is

the lack of economic independence. Planners and policy makers have been eagerly

searching for certain alternatives. The participatory approach to development has

emerged as a vital issue in developmental policies and programmes for women.

Self Help Groups (SHGs) are considered as one of the most significant tools to

adopt participatory approach for the empowerment of women. SHGs help in

empowerment of women both social and economically. The empowerment of women

through SHGs would give benefits not only to the individual woman but also for the

family and community as a whole through collective action for development.

2.1 Study of the SHGs – At the Global Level

Credit is the means of economic activity and foundation for growth and

development. Sambat (1988)1

while studying the SHGs in Thailand has observed that

SHGs, in addition to their normal savings and lending activities, diversified their

production activities. They established Rice Bank to deposit rice and store the members‟

36

produce. The study concludes that SHGs will be viable when they diversify their

activities.

In 1984 the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperative and the Agency for

Technical Co-operation in the Federal Republic of Germany undertook a series of studies

resulting in a new policy for promoting Self Help Groups (SHGs), which is different

from Grameen Bank model (Kropp 1989)2.

Ramanathan (1993)3 traces the origin of SHGs to the ineffectiveness of

supervised rural credit programs as felt by the members of Asia Pacific Rural and

Agricultural Credit Association (APRACA) in the workshop held in China in 1986. The

Sixth general assembly of APRACA held in Nepal decided to launch SHG linkage

program. In Srilanka, some of the operating SHGs emerged voluntarily and others took

birth due to Self Help Promotional Institutions. While in the former, members belong to

different income groups, in the latter membership was given to specific target groups. It

is observed that smaller the group, viability is brighter and also better managed. The

SHGs evolved many instruments to promote thrift among members. They generated a

common fund from internal savings to grant small emergency loans. Some SHGs

supplemented the common fund with the seed money or contributions from self help

promoting institutions (SHPIs). Upto 1993, the rate of loan recovery was around 90 per

cent. He concluded that on the whole, the performance of SHGs was fairly well compared

to other borrowers of the formal banking system.

In 1988 a project titled “Linking Banks and SHGs” was started in Indonesia as a

pilot project of the Central Bank of Indonesia through the involvement of Self Help

Promotional Institutions (SHPI). The SHPIs would provide training and consultancy

37

services to the SHGs and in some cases they also act as Financial Intermediaries (Koch

and Soetjipto (1993)4.

Khandker and others (1995)5 traced the origin of Grameen Bank which was

started in 1983 in Bangladesh by Prof. Mohammed Yunus. Yunus observed the role of

micro credit in facilitating women‟s potential.

Noor (1995)6 traces the linkage-Banking while studying the SHGs in Indonesia,

Thailand, Philippines, India, Nepal and Bangladesh. He observed that the seeds of

linkage banking were sown in 1986 and today SHGs are widely accepted as an alternative

for collective credit delivery to the poor. He discusses the variants of linkages and models

followed in Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines. His study reveals that the repayment

rate of SHGs was 100 per cent in Thailand, 99 per cent in Bangladesh, 96 per cent in

Indonesia and 68 per cent in Philippines.

2.2 Studies at the National Level

Ghosh (1995)7 has made a case study of Development of Women and Children in

Rural Areas (DWCRA) in Birbhum district of West Bengal. This district was brought in

the map of DWCRA in 1992-93. In that year, 18 women groups were formed in two

blocks of the district. Among these groups, only 10 groups were selected for the study by

the author on the basis of their performance in respect of undertaking income generating

activities. Socio-metric score of each group member of these 10 groups is calculated to

find out „Stars‟ and „Isolates‟ of each group. A „Star‟ is defined as a member who

obtained a socio-metric score significantly higher than the mean score of all the groups

combined. Similarly, the „Isolates‟ are defined as those who obtained a score

significantly lower than the mean score. Pattern of choices like reciprocated choices, i.e.,

38

mutual choices, and the number of choices received by individuals are the indicators of

group‟s cohesiveness, „Stars‟ and „Isolates‟ in a functional group.

Next, correlation coefficient between educational status and group cohesiveness is

calculated to find out whether it has any bearing. It is found to be 0.57, indicating a

positive relationship between educational status and group cohesiveness. Hence, for

enhancing group cohesiveness, it appears necessary that educational status of women

members must be improved.

For finding out the relationship between group cohesiveness and income earning,

correlation coefficient of group cohesiveness and share of each group in total earnings of

all groups is computed. Its value is 0.046 which signifies weak correlation, meaning that

there are other factors influencing income earning capacity of groups. It is clear from the

study that until group cohesiveness is adequately built-up, DWCRA groups cannot derive

the full benefits of the programme.

Yerram Raju and Firdausi (1995)8 have made an evaluative study of DWCRA

in Prakasam district of Andhra Pradesh. They have adopted a purposive/random sample

to capture the qualitative aspects of implementation of DWCRA. Out of 56 mandals in

the district, 20mandals have been selected for the evaluation study. They have chosen 30

groups and 120 beneficiaries covering 24 activities. Besides secondary data, they have

collected primary data through structured pre-tested schedules from the DWCRA

members, group leaders and Additional Grama Sevikas (AGS). They have also focused

their attention on group discussions with group leaders and AGS. They have reported on

different aspects of working of DWCRA groups in terms of not only income generation

and access to government programmes in general and IRDP in particular, but also social

39

awareness and interplay of group dynamics, degrees of participation in decision-making

regarding generation and mobilization of resources including thrift and savings, capacity

building, allocation of credit, repayment of loans, interaction with NGOs and allied

matters. The study provides a quantitative assessment of some of the areas of activity

and functioning of DWCRA units to the extent the variables are measurable.

Kropp (1997)9 in his study gives details of the emerging lessons from the

experiences of SHGs in Asian countries. NGO led credit programmes in Bangladesh,

Indonesia and Mutual Assistance Credit groups in other parts of Asia used group

responsibility and peer monitoring in guiding financial transactions. He opines that these

institutions have potential to lend rural people without any traditional form of collateral.

However, he frankly says that these institutions are yet to prove their sustainability for,

most of them now depend on Grants and subsidized (low interest loans) from multilateral

and bilateral donors.

National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) (1998)10

has explained the features of the innovative supplementary credit channels, objectives of

the SHGs, models of the credit delivery mechanism evolved in Andhra Pradesh (India)

which were tested successfully for replication. It has emphasized the strategy for

expanding the role of SHGs and made suggestions for improving bank linkage with

SHGs. The study has revealed several features such as efficient flow of credit, utilization

of credit for income generating activities, excellent loan repayment and improved

empowerment of SHG members.

Shakuntala Narasimhan (1999)11

in her study argues that the five decades of

economic planning has not done much to improve the status of Women in India. The

40

vital reasons leading to the disadvantaged position of women are their fear, ignorance,

powerlessness and vulnerability. The author emphasizes the need for bringing about an

attitudinal change among women as the most important step towards empowerment. She

discusses various State initiatives taken for rural upliftment. She concludes that besides

monetary resources, it is the mind set of the policy makers, bureaucrats and particularly

the women concerned that must change in order to assist the empowerment of women.

Karmakar (1999)12

has discussed the multi-agency approach to rural credit as an

integral component of the credit system. Various factors have led to the poor

performance of rural credit system such as poor resource base, low business and outreach

levels, poor loan recovery performance, poor income margins due to increasing

management costs and inadequate lending margins. Rural credit agencies are constrained

by inadequate managerial and operational skills, and weak human resources due to poor

training. Rural credit growth has been further hampered by the high loan default rate

(exceeding 50 per cent) and the rising level of non-performing assets. Unless banks gear

up their recovery mechanisms, the rural credit agencies will remain weak.

The high cost and halting flow of formal institutional credit has led to innovative/

alternative credit systems such as Self-Help Groups (SHGs) set up with the help of NGOs

and banks. These SHGs have emerged as viable credit mechanisms and have succeeded

in reducing transaction costs for banks and borrowers alike, apart from posting very high

loan recovery rates. The large number of women SHGs has also enabled women to have

easy access to credit in recent years. These initiatives need to be replicated so as to

involve the rural poor in rejuvenating the rural economy and ensure that they do not

continue to be marginalized. Karmakar has made an in-depth study of the existing rural

41

credit delivery system and has made many valuable suggestions for strengthening and

restructuring the system, based on Asian financial role models.

Laxmi R. Kulshreshta and Archana Gupta (2001)13

made an attempt to

emphasize the importance of financing the poor through Self-Help Groups as this would

lead not only to reduce the intensity of poverty but also promote gender equality and

socio-economic equality. The authors have discussed the problems faced by the formal

banking sector, the emergence of Micro-Finance and the role of SHGs. The authors have

concluded that for quick transformation of the poor from dependency to self reliance

through social mobilization and awareness creation, the most cost effective strategy

available is SHG strategy.

NABARD (2001)14

has made an attempt to bring forth the intricate challenges

viewed from a variety of perspectives, areas requiring attention and thrust which promise

remedies and multi-dimensional initiative and lessons from the experience of NABARD

in the field of Women Empowerment. This study has emphasized on issues related to

skill upgradation, training and technology transfer, marketing and exports, production of

specialized handicraft items by women, networking and collaboration of various

agencies, access to information and counseling, finally, simplification and popularization

of existing schemes. It has concluded that utmost importance should be given for

transformation of micro groups to Small/Medium Enterprises through strengthening

credit delivery to women groups.

The study of Dasgupta (2001)15

is a comprehensive work analyzing the different

dimensions of SHGs in India. He analyzed the role of government in rural development

through the involvement of formal Financial Institutions. The study also reviewed the

42

international efforts in linking formal and informal systems of lending, the initiatives

taken in India in this direction and the genesis and evolution of SHGs in India. Basing on

the field investigation of SHGs, the study concludes that “the major factor behind the

limited success of SHGs is the absence of any target approach. The involvement of

governmental agencies is not prominent, but the irony is that the Government with the

zeal of poverty alleviation has announced Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana

(SGSY) with SHG at the core”. The study suggests the creation of an environment where

genuine NGOs can perform effectively as SHPIs and banks can conduct business with

SHGs on their own.

Datta and Raman (2001)16

have evaluated the performance of SHGs in Andhra

Pradesh. The study is based on 30 sample SHGs and the important findings are

i) The number of members in the selected SHGs ranged from 8 to 16 with an

average of 12.

ii) The caste composition of the selected SHGs has indicated heterogeneous

nature of the groups at the aggregate level.

iii) Absence of formal education does not come in the way of working of SHGs.

iv) There is no homogeneity among and within SHGs with regard to the

occupation of members.

v) Stronger acquaintance among members is assumed to guarantee repayment of

loans borrowed from the SHGs by avoiding adverse selection of borrowers

and mis-utilization of borrowed funds and

vi) Eighty per cent of the members have reported that they are willing to put

group pressure for achieving higher performance levels.

43

The study concludes that the success of SHGs in terms of high repayment in the

study area is mostly related to the exploitation of the prevailing social ties and social

cohesion found among women members.

Namboodri and Shiyani (2001)17

in their study on the role of SHGs pointed out

the strengths and weaknesses of SHGs in rural financial deepening. The major strength of

SHGs as observed by them are (i) SHGs are self sustainable system of community

organizations free from Government and regular meeting of the group members enable

long lasting group relationship. (ii) As most of these SHGs are promoted by

NGOs/Banks, training, teaching of basic accountancy principles etc. would enable the

groups to have better administration. (iii) The social cohesion in the group and election /

selection of the group leader in rotation gives a sense of responsibility to each member of

the group. (iv) As consumption and production are intertwined among rural households,

credit portfolio covering both consumption and production purposes helps to maintain

labour productivity and income generating activities. (v) The transportation cost of the

financial intermediaries would be lower as they do not lend individuality. (vi) the

recovery performance would be better for the banks as the loan repayment mechanism is

at the group level rather than individual and (vii) financial deepening in terms of

coverage is achieved through small scale savers and borrowers.

The weaknesses of SHGs as pointed out by them are (i) the SHGs have limited

scope for future growth in membership (ii) the loan portfolio is dominated by

consumption loan and hence there is limited opportunity for income generating activities

and (iii) SHGs are informal institutions. Rapid expansion of these groups without close

monitoring by the sponsoring agencies may lead to their poor functioning.

44

The study of Dadhich (2001)18

on the evaluation of Oriental Grameena Project in

India has shown how micro-finance can be used as an effective vehicle to alleviate rural

poverty. He concludes that if properly designed and effectively implemented, micro-

finance can be a means not only to alleviate poverty but also to empower the women.

The study of Madheswaran and Dharmadhikary (2001)19

in Maharastra deals

with the role of SHGs in empowering rural women. The results of the study support the

theory of peer monitoring. However, they pointed out that the success of group lending is

attributable not only to peer monitoring but also to other factors such as lending for

consumption purposes, saving, rotation of saving by group members and not the least

because of an active NGO.

National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD) (2003)20

has projected the

need for capacity building as a tool to equip and enhance the ability of people to solve

their own problems through organized efforts. The study aims at understanding about the

capacity building function of community based organizations which work through social

mobilization to achieve sustainable development of rural poor. Community based

organizations help to develop necessary skills in order to nurture inherent capabilities and

potentialities of the poor, and also to encourage capital formation to obtain improved

quality of life through thrift and credit. The study conducted in the selected districts of

Kurnool and Mahaboobnagar in Andhra Pradesh has revealed the activities of village

organizations, Mandal Mahila Samakhya and SHGs. The study has shown that the poor

women members of SHGs are benefited from the Programme by improving their

economic and social status. The study has concluded that the development has also been

achieved by the members of SHGs in the aspects like health care, education, family

45

planning, elimination of child labour, courage and confidence to overcome their

problems.

Krishnaiah (2003)21

in his study, has highlighted the operations of the SHGs

engaged in the domain of income generation, human development, environmental

protection and natural resources management. The author has presented macro analysis

of SHGs based on State-wide data and has made an extensive study of the working of

women Self-help groups. He has provided an in-depth analysis of the evolution,

performance, problems and perspectives of SHGs. He has made an enquiry into the

socio-economic impact of the SHGs on poverty reduction and its manifestation in

Women empowerment. The author has concluded that identification of proper products

for manufacturing, use of appropriate technology and creating necessary marketing

channels will require greater attention for making the SHGs as viable credit depending

mechanisms.

Tripathy (2004)22

has discussed the vital role of SHGs in rural development by

saying that SHGs are instruments for social mobilization, economic empowerment,

capacity and entrepreneurship building, and community solidarity. The author has

observed that the SHGs provide a great opportunity for convergence of various

programmes of various ministries and organizations. He has argued that the groups,

while aiming at promotion of savings and credit, should work as pressure groups to

address social issues such as education, health, lack of access to natural resources etc.

The author has discussed various areas in which the services of SHGs could be tapped.

Nanda (2004)23

has focussed on the institutionalization of Micro Credit, the

difficulties faced by banking institutions to reach the rural poor, development of micro

46

finance and self-help groups and the progress of SHGs through SHG – Bank Linkage

Programme. He has concluded that higher income and employment generation in rural

areas is possible through the implementation of SHG Strategy.

Shylendra (2004)24

has made an attempt to critically evaluate the SHG – Bank

Linkage Programme by focussing on its very basic approach. He has analyzed the

appreciable role played by the NABARD in mobilizing a large number of NGOs and

financial institutions through cheaper refinance and its supportive role in promoting

capacity building among the rural poor. But it has been observed that the financial

institutions overall have lagged behind. The author has suggested for measures like

widening and deepening of the SHG base, protecting the credibility of SHGs, updating

the members' skills in order to retain the basic features and strengths of SHGs.

Kulandaivel (2005)25

in her study, opines that the sustainable development

process has to be based upon poverty alleviation programmes, which should envelop

empowerment as a goal of development projects as "the empowerment of women covers

both an individual and collective transformation." The objective of her study is to prepare

women to participate in planning, implementation and monitoring activities of village

level bodies. The author has analyzed the assistance given to the SHGs through various

Government and Private Organizations. The author has observed that the SHGs have

been facilitating income generating activities for socio economic upliftment and also

promoting qualitative aspects like group dynamics, collective action and awareness

generation. The study concludes that the SHGs have important roles in increasing

national productivity in terms of savings, internal lending and banking habits. This trend

if continued would pave way for self-reliance and economic empowerment of women.

47

Chandramani (2005)26

has argued that Women's empowerment is first step

towards social change. This begins with the awareness about their rights and capabilities

and the understanding as to how the socio-economic and political forces affect them. The

author opines that SHGs are the most powerful means to empower women and to

promote their income generation and bargaining power and improve the quality of life.

Dinney Mathew (2005)27

has discussed the indicators of empowerment of

women and facilitating factors and one of those being the formation of Self Help Groups.

He has argued that the concerns of rural women can be addressed through the village

organizations, i.e., SHGs by facilitating the formation of primary groups of women.

Suryanarayana and Nagalakshmi (2005)28

have observed that rural women

produce more than 55 per cent of all food grown in developing countries, the value of

women's unpaid house work and community work is estimated at 35 per cent of GDP

world-wide. However, rural women have acquired a secondary status everywhere due to

some socio-economic constraints. It has been observed that besides attending to their

routine household activities, rural women contribute to livestock rearing, food

processing, poultry farming, animal husbandry, bee keeping, tailoring, rolling, house

construction labour and in factory work etc. The authors argue that rural women are

subjected to some hindrances which impose limitation on their potential to play their role

effectively. They suggested that to overcome the drawbacks such as illiteracy, poverty,

lack of gainful employment opportunities, lack of infrastructural facilities etc, a much

integrated and balanced development oriented strategy is required.

Mahendra Varman (2005)29

has made a modest attempt to examine whether

there is any association between the growth of SHGs and the increase in female bank

48

deposit accounts and whether SHGs have a tendency to influence account holding in

banks. In this process the author tries to trace the socio-economic factors that determine

deposit and credit account holdings (banking habits) in banks, among individuals and

households. On the basis of the study conducted in two villages namely Kavarayapathy

(Dindigal District) and Pottapatty (Madurai District) of Tamilnadu, the author has

concluded that "banking habits are a positive function of the years of experience of micro

finance Programmes through SHGs” in that particular area. The analysis also reveals that

being a member in SHG and more importantly, having leadership experience in SHGs

greatly influences the bank account holding." Hence the author has suggested that the

leadership position of each SHG may be systematically rotated over appropriate time to

inculcate banking habits at a higher magnitude in rural areas.

Vijay Mahajan (2005)30

has observed that to serve the purpose of economic

growth, a new paradigm of livelihood finance with much larger levels of resource

allocation is needed. The author has opined that livelihood finance is a comprehensive

approach for promoting sustainable livelihood for the poor, which includes financial

services, agricultural and business development services and institutional development

services. He has concluded that micro-finance through SHGs is changing the lives of

rural poor women.

Deva Prakash (2005)31

has emphasized the importance of SHG-Bank Linkage

Programme and the growth of SHGs. The author has concluded that the quest for

promoting SHGs cannot become merely a number driven agenda and one and half

decades of experimentation on SHGs should gradually evolve into setting new bench

marks on the quality and standards of SHGs.

49

NABARD (2005)32

has emphasized the contribution of micro finance programme

at international levels on global economic situation, mainly of poorer households and

related effects on poverty reduction, education, health as well as social status of women.

It has designed Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and analyzed the role of rural

finance, SHGs and Bank Linkage Programme in the light of MDG.

Peerzade and Parande (2005)33

observe that "Empowerment covers aspects such

as Women's control over material and intellectual resources. Empowerment is process,

not an event which challenges traditional power equations and relations." The authors

show examples of inclusion of Women empowerment in Millennium Development Goals

(MDG) in Human Development Report 2003 and also have referred to Five Year Plans

right from 1st Five Year Plan till 10th Five Year Plan in which women welfare measures,

women empowerment programmes are envisaged. The authors have made an attempt to

assess the effectiveness of the empowerment programmes in Bijapur District in

Karnataka State. An in-depth study has been made in the light of land purchase scheme,

Sericulture Training Programme and self-employment scheme and suggested for a

combination of two or more schemes to be implemented and redesigning of some

programmes for effective achievement of economic empowerment of women.

Celine Sunny (2006)34

connects the SHGs and rural development and clearly has

reported about the activities of SHGs, effects of SHGs like social, economic and political

empowerment. "Self Help Groups have grown to be an effective organization that ensures

the overall development of the community and village. The rural communities have risen

to conquer the horizons of socio-economic progress bearing the lit candles of

empowerment through the path shown by the self-help groups." The author opines that

50

this is a step to include the so called excluded i.e., the rural women in the process of

development planning.

Alka Srivastava (2006)35

has studied the role of women self- help groups in the

process of rural development. "Self Help Groups have emerged in order to help the rural

poor, particularly credit and other services. It lays the foundation of Women in securing

inputs like self-reliance through the building up of an institution, which has the capacity

to sustain the development and empowerment process for women." The author has

studied the extent to which SHGs build up confidence and mutual support for women.

The SHG movement has been striving for social change by establishing a forum in which

women can critically analyze their situation and devise collective strategies to solve their

problems. The study has taken various dimensions of impact of SHGs such as economic

impact, health and education, capacity building, supervision and regulation of the group.

The author has appreciated self-help micro-credit schemes as the most effective

mechanisms to reach the poor and has suggested that care must be taken that the poor are

not excluded. The author has concluded that besides literacy and numeric training, it is

important to train the SHG members in legal literacy, rights and gender awareness to

complement micro-credit schemes.

Ramachandran and others (2006)36

have made a micro level examination in

Tamilnadu State in India to observe the role of SHGs in rural development. This study

briefly analyses the awareness of SHGs about socio-economic, demographic and health

dimensions, population dynamics, material and child health care, Knowledge about HIV,

AIDS, age of marriage, educated related services and many more socio-economic issues.

The author observes that, “after becoming members of the groups, outlook of women has

51

changed. Now they seem to have self-determination, self-reliance and self-empowerment

that are the encouraging factors for their efforts to generate income". “Their role is

appreciable in arresting demographic backwardness and poor health condition of the rural

people". “Therefore Self Help Groups are the ' Rural Development Agents' and could be

encouraged for Women's status enhancement and rural development."

Kiran Prasad (2006)37

has discussed various critical issues in the economic

development of the rural women. The author has discussed the role of women in rural

economy particularly in agricultural production and allied activities. The author has

narrated how the women are having little access to resources and the gender

discrimination. The author has traced the micro-credit movement in India. He narrates

how the various welfare programmes launched by Government of India to eradicate rural

poverty benefited the rural women. He has critically analyzed the project of

Development of Woman and Children in Rural Areas (DWACRA), which helped in the

socio-economic uplift of the poor rural women by providing income generating skills and

activities. He has discussed the origin of SHGs (Self Help Groups) as a means of Micro-

credit and the activities of SHGs. He has discussed the problems being faced by the

SHGs and measures taken by the policy makers. He concluded that greater innovation,

marketing facilities, diversification of production and upgradation of existing skills as

well as acquisition of new skills must form the core strategy of micro-enterprises that

must be strengthened to sustain women in the informal sector.

Abdul Raheem (2006)38

has highlighted the plight of Women in the unorganized

sectors and stressed the importance of empowerment of women in the success of poverty

alleviation programmes as observed in the World Bank Report(1991). He has narrated

52

the genesis of SHGs, their activities and their role in the transformation of lives of rural

women. In the words of Abdul Raheem" the SHGs have given a new lease of life to the

women in villages for their social and economic empowerment." The author concludes

that it is the duty of the promoting agencies, i.e., NGOs and Government to monitor the

attitude of SHG members on a continuous basis as success of any SHG depends on the

active participation of all members.

Gupta and Namitha Gupta (2006)39

have opined that the basic issue that

prevents women from playing full participatory role in nation building is the lack of

economic independence. The authors have considered that the SHG approach is the most

significant tool to take up participatory role of women as a means to empower them and

to improve their lives on various social components. The authors have emphasized that

the SHGs provide mutual support and cooperative group environment to the members.

The authors have studied three SHGs namely Shakti, Pragati and Prema at Janata Colony

in Punjab which were funded by Commonwealth Youth Programme Asia Centre,

Chandigarh. Their study has revealed that organized working of women of these three

SHGs has increased the income of the families involved which in turn has enabled them

to repay their old debts and to start asset building. Success of these SHGs has brought a

drastic change in their economic and social status and instilled amazing confidence in the

women concerned. The authors have concluded that many of them are now coming

forward to help other women in the locality thereby substantiate the saying "Educating a

woman means educating a family".

Gangaiah & others (2006)40

have noticed that perpetuation of poverty in India is

not because of lack of growth but due to the fact that some sections of the society are

53

excluded from growth. The authors have expressed that the Self-Help Group strategy,

which aims at bringing the excluded and neglected women into the mainstream of

economic development through "savings – investment – employment and income

generation” strategy. This would serve the twin purposes of alleviation of poverty and

achievement of inclusive growth process. "The effective organization of SHGs is a

significant instrument in the process of empowerment. The emerging changes in the

values and attitudes of the members of the SHGs are a clear manifestation of socio-

economic empowerment interventions yielding relatively quicker results." The authors

have observed that the SHG strategy is moving towards fulfilling its objective of bringing

all round development of the children, the women, the households and the communities.

The authors have made a case study in Karakambadi village in Chittoor District in

Andhra Pradesh which was adopted by the Rashtriya Seva Samithi (RASS), an NGO, to

ascertain the impact of SHGs on the generation of income and employment. The authors

finally, have analyzed that the finance provided by the SHGs has been creating a

favourable effect on employment and income generation. The study concludes that the

rural women acquire sufficient skill to mobilize and manage thrift, appraise credit needs

and financial discipline, awareness about Government programmes, some degree of

transformation of social outlook and also a sense of equality of status of women as

participants, decision makers in democratic, economic and social spheres of life.

Valsamma Antony (2006)41

has explained that empowerment of Women means

to equip women with economic independence and personal self- reliance with a positive

self-esteem. Moreover they should be able to contribute to further development of the

country. "Women empowerment is a dynamic process that consists of an awareness –

54

attainment – actualization cycle." The author has suggested some measures for the

empowerment of women such as compulsory education, gainful employment, credit

facilities, mental revolution and finally formation of Self Help Groups. According to the

author, women should unite themselves into social groups called Self Help Groups for

their own progress as well as that of the community. The author concludes that women

as a member of SHG can contribute towards social and economic progress and thereby

can enjoy security, emotional, intellectual and financial well-being to a great extent.

SU (2007)42

while discussing the growth and progress of SHGs as well as the

shortcomings of the SHGs has suggested for provision of productive and consumption

credit to the SHG members, and an appropriate financing tool to provide a currency

credit limit mechanism for small loans. Loan size should be in accordance with the credit

worthiness of the borrower as demonstrated by his involvement in and commitment to the

project and his past saving and credit history. The author has suggested for making

lending procedures borrower- led." One solution is to tie up government business with

banks to their achieving an overall limit of lending to poor households leaving selection

of projects to internal professional strategies of different banks." The author even has

commented that the main reason for exclusion of poor households from formal credit is

mainly the attitude of the banking community that led to procedures which do not fit the

needs of the borrowers and thereby suggests modifying them all down the chain from

policy makers to rural branch managers. The author has also discussed the issue of cost

of credit and suggested for methods, which provide for direct lending from banks to

individual borrowers using the SHG to which they belong as guarantors and facilitators

charging a much lower transaction commission for their services.

55

Subba Rao (2007)43

has explained how the commercial Banks were brought into

picture to cater to the needs of the priority sector and discussed the banking sector

reforms. The author has given a detailed account of the SHG – Bank Linkage

Programme and its development between the periods 1999 – 2005. "During the last

decade, micro credit provided by banks emerged as a major policy tool of financial

assistance in the area of rural credit, particularly to the poor sections of the society.”

Vasimalai and Narender (2007)44

have evaluated the Kalanjiam approach

promoted by DHAN (Development of Human Action – A Public Trust in Madurai –

Tamilnadu) Foundation for poverty reduction through Microfinance. Their study

analyses the effect of Kalanjiam programme on women's empowerment in areas such as

domestic violence, sharing the household works by the husbands, assets in the name of

women, decision-making ability, personal skills, women's share in family income,

exposure to outside world, interaction with community, leadership ability and women's

space in the public space. "The study findings have proved that the intervention of

Kalanjiam programme has empowered a considerable proportion of women and led to a

change in the gendered roles at the household level." The authors have concluded that the

challenges such as promotional costs and capacity building of institutions, social security

coverage, development of projects for drought mitigation etc. have to be paid greater

attention.

Alosius P. Fernandez (2007)45

has discussed an SHG model which was

developed by Sanghamitra Financial Services – a micro financial institution which works

under the guidance of MYRADA (Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency). His

main emphasis is not just on provision of credit but on development of members' skills to

56

manage finance (Savings, credit and insurance). "The SHGs are civil society institutions

of the poor and have the potential to implement policies that claim to promote financial,

social and economic inclusion – they are inter-related and inter-wined; one can not be

achieved without the other". The author has stressed on the capacity building role of

SHGs in order to realize a full fledged financial inclusion, social inclusion and market

inclusion because for him an empowered SHG can bring necessary pressure for policy

making and even for supportive implementing systems.

Jairam Ramesh (2007)46

has observed that the Self Help Groups, the major form

of delivery of micro finance in India, have brought about dramatic changes in the lives of

lakhs of women. The author has even identified that in Andhra Pradesh, which has the

largest network of SHGs and where the Government has been a strong supporter, the

SHGs have gone beyond provision of credit and assumed many non-traditional

responsibilities that lie at the core of livelihood security for the poor. The author has

appreciated the federation structure that has been adopted in Andhra Pradesh where a 10-

15 women members start one SHG. Such individual SHGs are federated into a village

organization (VOs), the VOs are in turn federated into Mahila Mandal Samakhyas which

in turn together form Zilla Samakhya. "This federation structure is crucial to provide

economies of scale and to establish institutions of the poor and by the poor". Thus, the

author signifies to see the SHGs not as just networks for confidence building and

empowerment but as an access to new economic opportunities.” According to the author,

the SHG upsurge has been ensuring more ' social lights' and 'financial shades.' "The

financial services are only a small part of their success story. More fundamental has been

voice, identity and empowerment." The author concludes that for inclusive growth, India

57

needs globalization, which ensures broad based equitable & sustainable economic growth

and SHGs are institutions of participation in this context on which India's globalization

strategy should rest.

Indrabhushan Singh and Usha Kumari (2007)47

have highlighted that

empowerment of women involves many things like economic opportunity, property

rights, political representation, social equality, personal rights and so on. The authors

have noticed that women's ability to work in groups is emerging as an important base at

the root level and so urged for emphasis on formation of women SHGs with select key

activities. The authors have traced the role of Non-Governmental organizations such as

SEWA in Ahmedabad, RUDSETI in Karnataka and financial institutions like NABARD,

SIDBI, RMK, RBI, which support women's activities and have discussed the objectives

of National Policy of Women Empowerment. The authors have emphasized on economic

empowerment of women through provision of access to resources such as land and

livestock, Micro-credit Programmes and formal financial system to extend small loans to

the poor. Technical empowerment of women should concentrate on areas such as

capacity building and competence among rural farm women, exposure to mass media to

improve their communication and mediation skills, appropriate training programmes to

enhance their knowledge, skill and attitude with an emphasis on need-based skill oriented

training programmes and finally provision of appropriate technology for women with a

blend of indigenous practices. Identification of innovative and high income generating

activities suitable for women, development of their entrepreneurial abilities, encouraging

women to take up part-time jobs while being in the house itself, development of

infrastructure facilities and supportive services and formal and nonformal education etc

58

are some measures suggested by the authors to strengthen Women's Empowerment and

rural development.

Suneetha (2007)48

has argued that the policies and programmes to improve the

conditions of women being implemented by Government are mostly " intended to

increase Women's income, to provide women with the means to control their own family

and to increase level of human capital investment in females so that the next generation

of women will be better equipped to contribute to the well-being of their families and the

nation." She has made an attempt to know how far the DWCRA programme empowered

rural women to overcome their financial problems in Kodumoor mandal in Kurnool

District – Andhra Pradesh. With the help of primary data from the field survey, the

author has drawn the conclusion that there is significant growth in income generation and

employment levels of sample beneficiaries in Kodumoor mandal in Kurnool District of

Andhra Pradesh.

Rath & Others (2007)49

have argued that women in India have been

discriminated against men in human resource development with utter disregard to their

actual and potential contribution to the national progress in general and agricultural

progress in particular and opined that literacy and education are essential inputs for

empowerment of women. The authors also have observed that women with institutional

support have showed high productivity, a better record of payment of loans and that their

assets are sustained. The authors have focussed on institutional support given to women

by the Government under various Development Programmes.

The authors have recognized the role of SHGs and Micro-credit in improving

group dynamism among the rural women who lack 'bureaucratic know-how' and in

59

transformation of women from the status of "beneficiaries" into "clients" to the

institutions which are meant to serve them. The authors state that the SHGs take up

micro finance programmes and also health care, sanitation, family planning, literacy,

management of common resources etc., which make the central planning to be more

flexible and appropriate to rural scene. The focus has been given to design and organise

research, training and extension of economic programmes to cater to special needs of

women. The study emphasizes on educating women to initiate “thinking – reflecting –

questioning – acting process". It also suggests access to productive resources through

formal credit, creation of socio-economic awarerness and collectivization, promotion of

need-based, skill-oriented training programmes so as to improve HRD among rural

women.

The authors have appealed that women should be treated as 'economic actors' in

order to improve their production potentiality. They have concluded that the micro

finance programs will certainly free the women folk from the shackles and indeed,

increase their economic productivity, which in turn will influence their status and image

in the family and in the society.

Ramachandran and Balakrishnan (2008)50

have conducted a study of SHGs in

Kanyakumari District to examine the pre and post SHG status of SHG members and

impact of SHGs in empowering women. The study is based on a sample of 120 SHG

members selected on random sampling basis. The study has revealed that after joining

SHG the respondents have improved status both social and economically. The study has

concluded that the SHGs have the power to create a socio-economic revolution in the

rural areas of our country. SHGs have not only produced tangible assets and improved

60

living conditions of the members but also helped in changing much of their social outlook

and attitudes. In the study area SHGs have served the cause of women empowerment,

social solidarity and socio-economic betterment of the poor.

Palani and Selvaraj (2008)51

have conducted a study of SHGs in Tirunelveli

District, Tamilnadu State with the objectives of: 1.To study the operational mechanism of

SHGs, 2.To study the socio-economic status of women SHGs, 3.To examine the impact

of SHGs on women empowerment. The study has revealed that the majority of sample

respondents are below 40 years age. The young and middle age group respondents are

actively participating in socio-economic activities in the study area. The income of the

respondents has been increased after joining the SHGs so that they feel more self-reliant

and are able to contribute more to household income. The study also finds that even

though loans taken through SHGs are meant mainly for income generating activities,

about 27.7 per cent of the sample SHG members spent the loan proceeds for meeting

small consumption requirements.

The authors have suggested the following: 1.There should be provision of interest

free loans to SHGs. 2. The loan repayment period should be increased so that the

borrowers can repay the amount easily without any burden. 3. The animators of the SHGs

should create team spirit and co-operation among the members in order to strengthen the

understanding among them. 4. Regarding marketing of their product, the SHGs expect

greater role from NGOs and Government.

Jitendra Ahirrao (2009)52

has analyzed the role of National Agricultural Bank

for Rural Development (NABARD) in working as a catalyst in promoting and linking

SHGs to the banking system. He has observed that majority of the rural women who are

61

associated with the SHG activity positively succeeded to gain them empowered. He has

concluded that micro-finance programmes being promoted as a key strategy for

addressing both poverty alleviation and women‟s empowerment.

The Study of Krishnan (2009)53

was carried out in Kerala with the objective of

assessing the experiments of the SHG intervention of a Non-Governmental Organization

(NGO) called the Shreyas and the Government Organization called the Kudumbashree in

the process of women empowerment. The results of the study have shown a significant

contribution of micro-finance programmes to women‟s empowerment. The study

concludes that the micro-finance has benefited the women members to enhance their role

in society, family decision-making and mobility.

Gitanjali and Dr. Nagabhushana Rao (2009)54

have traced the evolution of

micro-finance system in India. It is observed that micro-finance system can only

supplement the role of banks and financial institutions to solve the problems of poverty

and unemployment in the country. Micro credit is considered ideal to tackle the pin

problems encountered by the institutional credit agencies serving the poor viz, higher

transaction costs and poor recovery. Md. Yunus‟ experiment in Bangladesh became

success in micro lending. In this mechanism, the group collateral is substituted for

physical collateral and group guaranteed to repay the individual loans. The pilot project

on SHGs started by NABARD has subsequently become a movement. The Government

of India has bestowed national priority for the Micro Credit Programme. The authors

have discussed the progress of SHGs in India and analyzed the model-wise SHG

linkages. The authors have concluded that on the whole, the performance of the SHGs is

satisfactory. The study reveals that most of the SHGs have been able to successfully

62

promote regular savings habit even among the poor households which has made the

SHGs self-reliant. Secondly, the SHGs with the funds mobilized through savings and

borrowings from the banks, are able to meet diverse loan demand of the members for

both productive and household purposes. Thirdly, SHGs despite not following the

collateral-based lending have been able to register high loan recoveries. Peer monitoring

and group pressure is the main influential factor in loan recovery performance of the

SHGs. The authors suggest that the SHGs if promoted on sound lines, can supplement the

institutional agencies in effectively reaching the poor.

Tanmaya Dev and others (2009)55

recognizing the importance of self-help

groups, have undertook a study in the Madhubani District in Bihar State with the

objective of assessing the performance of SHGs based on the checklist method of

NABARD. The checklist method has 16 factors on which SHGs are assessed. The

checklist is basically for availing loans. The study has revealed that none of the SHG

members or staff of NGO SAKHI was aware of the performance assessment checklist of

NABARD. The study has suggested certain interventions for improved performance of

the SHGs, viz. 1.To increase the size of SHG group, 2.To increase the frequency of

meetings to four times a month, 3.To arrange meetings after 6 p.m., 4.To undertake more

income generating activities in order to ensure higher level of participation of SHG

members.

Ravindra (2010)56

has traced the origin of self help groups in India and analyzed

the performance of the SHGs along with the development of SHG-Bank Linkage over

the years. He has also discussed about the problems faced by the SHGs like illiteracy of

the members, lack of proper leadership, dual financing, high rate of interest on bank loan,

63

problem of low technology, problem of marketing, etc. He has suggested the following:

1. Every SHG should fix goal to the group and every member should work for the

achievement of the group goal. 2. SHGs should produce modern goods keeping in mind

the market requirements. 3. Discipline and motivation of the members are sine-qua-non

for productive work and efficiency. 4. More training programs are needed to imbibe

qualities of leadership, management principles and entrepreneurship among the SHG

members. 5. Separate banking network should be established to help SHGs. 6. Banks,

NGOs and government agencies should be efficient to avoid failures in the functioning of

the SHGs. 7. The attitude of the banks needs to be changed with regard to microfinance

activities.

Ganapathi and Murugesan (2011)57

have studied the impact of Micro Finance

on economic status of 240 members of SHGs operating in Coimbatore District of

Tamilnadu. The objectives of the study are: 1. To study the socio-economic conditions of

SHG members. 2. To measure the impact of the micro finance on the women members of

SHGs in terms of economic status. 3. To offer suggestions on the basis of the study for

successful implementation of micro finance activities.

The findings of the study reveal that the association between economic status of

the SHG members and other variables like age, residence, marital status, social status,

type of family, size of family, role in SHG, occupation of the member is not significant.

The study also finds that there is significant association between the economic status of

the SHG members and some variables such as education, monthly income, awareness

and participation of the SHG members in SHGs. The authors have made some

suggestions to improve the functioning of micro credit at the grassroot level.

64

Sudarshan (2011)58

has conducted a study on the impact of women self help

groups (SHGs) in the economic development of Andhra Pradesh. He has selected two

districts in coastal Andhra region, one district in Rayalaseema region and two districts in

Telangana region and 2000 women members were selected for the purpose of the study.

The objectives of the study are: 1.To investigate into the organizational structure of the

self-help groups with a view to examine its strength and weaknesses in achieving the

designated goals. 2. To study the methods and procedures employed in the mobilization

of savings, borrowings and government assistance. 3. To evaluate the socio-economic

status of the members of self help groups in the pre-membership situation and the post-

membership situation in order to study the impact of women self help groups in the

economic development of rural areas. 4. To derive the policy implications which may

emerge from the study and to suggest policy measures to strengthen the functions of self

help groups.

The study reveals that the impact of women self help groups for the improvement

of women belonging to the poorer sections is satisfactory and functioning of women self

help groups reduced the debt burden in rural areas. Most of the members of the SHGs

are at the mercy of the group leaders and government officials. The study infers that the

number of working days of the respondents increased substantially after joining the

SHGs. The study has concluded that the establishment of banks in the villages becomes

necessary in order to reduce the SHG members‟ transport cost, wage cost, personal cost,

etc. for getting the loan and for repayment of loan. Village banks also inspire the savings

which in turn strengthen the deposits, investment, production, employment, income,

consumption of people and influences the savings habit of members of SHG in rural

65

areas. He also has suggested for efficient functioning of women SHGs, elections to be

conducted for every three or five years to select a group leader in a democratic way. The

amount of loan should be increased in response to the rising prices of goods and

services.

2.3 Conclusion

The above review of literature indicates that most of the studies dealt with the

aspects of evolution of SHGs, viability of SHGs, SHG-Bank linkages, financial

assistance provided by the NABARD and banks in promoting SHGs etc. However there

is a dearth of micro-level studies to evaluate the performance of SHGs, more particularly,

the socio-economic conditions of the women SHG members in the pre and post-SHG

concept and their impact on women empowerment. An analysis of these aspects may

provide a comprehensive picture of the SHGs to make them more viable and sustainable.

The present study aims to fill in this gap.

66

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