CHAPTER IIREVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDYThe researchers believe that deeper insight will be achieved by mentioning the literatures which help in making this research. The literatures gave the researcher a wider background in conducting this study and at the same time providing basis or guide analysis of the concept.

Related LiteratureAn attitude is generally defined as a way a person responds to his or her environment, either positively or negatively. An employee'sattitudecan effect those around him or her. Workenvironmentcan affect a person's attitude. Whilemanagementneedsto create a positive work environment, employees also have aresponsibilityregarding their attitude.Defining AttitudeAn attitude is generally defined as a way a person responds to his or her environment, either positively or negatively. This attitude can have a conscious and subconscious aspect.Attitudes in the WorkplaceEveryone has an attitude, which is not necessarily a bad thing. One aspect of a person's attitude is theimpactit can have on the people around them. A person who has a positive attitude can lift the spirits of his/her co-workers, while a person with a negative attitude can lower their spirits. The positive or negative attitude of employees affects their workperformanceand the performance of the people they work with.(https://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-behavior/drivers-of-behavior/defining-attitude/)Women hold jobs that are, on average, inferior in many respects to those held by men (Berch 1982; Featherman and Hauser 1976: Kreps 1971); Women have been found on average, to have icss autonomy, closer supervision, and more limited promotional opportunities than men (Wolf and Fligstein 1979). Yet women's attitudes toward their jobs are often more favorable than men's (Glenn, Taylor, and Weaver 1977; Penley and Hawkins 1980; Quinn, Smes. and McCullough 1973). Three possible explanations for this disparity are tested in this article. First, men and women may have different evaluations of jobs because they value different characteristics of work (Kanter 1977). Second, women may be more satisfied because they focus on their roles as homemakers, rather than on their roles as workers, and derive additional satisfactions from this sphere (Veroff, Douvan, and Kulka 1981). Third, men and women may have different personal expectations and use different comparison groups in arriving at evaluations of their jobs. For instance, women may compare themselves to other working women rather than to men and, thus, may not feel relatively deprived. Or, they may compare themselves to women engaged solely in homemaking and feel relatively satisfied with their employment situation regardless of its specific characteristics (Glenn, Taylor, and Weaver 1977). Job Characteristics There has been a great deal of debate about the extent to which men and women give different weight to different aspects of work (Agassi 1982). Lacy, Bokemeier and Shepard (1983) find no differences in the consequences of gender-specific childhood socialization for job satisfaction nor do they find that a wide range of job characteristic differentially affect the work attitudes of men and women. Where gender differences in work attitudes have been found (as in the analysis of Murray and Atlunson 1981, who find that women weight relations with coworkers more heavily and that men weight advancement more heavily), these differences have been relatively small. A variety of job characteristics are evaluated in this article to see to what extent men and women differently value various aspects of their jobs. These characteristics include occupational prestige, earnings, education, job complexity, level of authority exercised, how closely the worker is supervised, job pressure, being held responsible for things outside one's control, how frequently one has to get dirty on the job, being underemployed, workplace size, and level of optimism about one's future at the current job. These and related measures of job and organizational characteristics have a long history of use in the literature on job satisfaction and have been consistently identified as major determinants of job satisfaction (Parries. Shea, Spitz, and Zeller 1970: Quinn, Staines, and McCullough 1974). For instance, plant size has important influences on a variety of working conditions, from the prevalence of bureaucracy, to a heightened division of labor, to job satisfaction. Those working in large plants have been found consistently to have less favorable attitudes toward their work (Ingham 1967; Kimberly 1976). Todays young adults are different. Many claim to want challenging and rewarding careers, yet they do not take necessary actions to plan and prepare for these careers. Compared to older generations, they are more likely to move from job to job, looking for the right job, much as these young people would surf on the Internet, moving from site to site, looking for the right information. Jeff Arnett (2004) revealed in his study of young adults from 18 to 28 that they become deeply self absorbed during this period as they search for their personal identity. They become involved in an array of experiences, jumping from job to job or experience to experience. Parents provide support by allowing them to come home to recharge and financing their activities. The young adults proceed with optimism believing that they will have a job when they end the journey.Work centrality is lower in current young adults than in the previous generation. Young women are slightly lower in their ratings of work centrality than young men. Young adults who rated work as a high life interest were compared with young adults whose work centrality was medium or below average. From these comparisons, young adults with high work centrality: were less likely to job surf and more likely to have a career/life vision: were more likely to postpone marriage: were more likely to rate themselves as being superior to others: were more trusting in business, government, and religious leaders: were less interested in a job that emphasized low stress and more interested in a job that emphasized success factors such as a high income, a prestigious company, and promotion opportunities. Young adults who rated work as relatively low to their central life interests were more likely to be interested in jobs that were not stressful. In rating the importance of different job characteristics to a job search, these young adults rated low stress factors (ex. working regular hours) about equally important with job success factors (ex. high income).(Arnett, 2004; Grossman, 2005; Howe and Strauss, 1991, 2000). For decades, research has shown that negative attitudes and stereotypes about old people in general (McTavish, 1971; Polizzi & Millikin, 2002) and older employees in particular (Bird & Fisher, 1986; Lyon & Pollard, 1997; Rosen & Jerdee, 1976) exist in the West. Moreover, studies demonstrated that the discrimination against older employees was reflected in common HR practices, with respect to selection, promotion, compensation, and training (Kluge & Krings, 2008; McVittie, McKinlay, & Widdicombe, 2003; Perry, Kulik, & Bourhis, 1996). Although there is some evidence that attitudes toward older employees may be becoming more positive (Hassell & Perrewe, 1995; Kluge & Krings, 2008), nonetheless, older employees often still feel discriminated against because of their age (Duncan, 2003; McVittie et al., 2003), and they were somehow treated differently from their younger counterparts in HR practices (Kluge & Krings, 2008).This suggests that changes in attitudes do not necessarily go hand-in-hand with organizational practices at work. Furthermore, the so-called new ageism is taking more covert, ambiguous, and fluid forms (Duncan, 2003), and the promotion of the principle of equal opportunity in employment has not improved prospects for older workers in developed economies (McVittie et al., 2003).Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. There are three components of an attitude: Affective The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude, Cognitive The opinion or belief segment of an attitude and Behavioral An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. The most powerful moderators of the attitude-behavior relationship are the importance of the attitude, correspondence to behavior, accessibility, existence of social pressures and personal and direct experience of the attitude. Attitudes predict behavior, as influenced by these moderating variables.Predicting Behavior from AttitudesImportant attitudes have a strong relationship to behavior. The closer the match between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship: Specific attitudes predict specific behavior and general attitudes predict general behaviorThe more frequently expressed an attitude, the better predictor it is. High social pressures reduce the relationship and may cause dissonance. Attitudes based on personal experience are stronger predictors. What Are the Major Job Attitudes?First is the job satisfaction it is a positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics. Job Involvement it is a degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. Psychological Empowerment it is a belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. Organizational Commitment it is identifying with a particular organization and its goals, while wishing to maintain membership in the organization. There a three dimensions: Affective emotional attachment to organization, continuance Commitment economic value of staying, normative moral or ethical obligations. Perceived Organizational Support (POS) is a degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being. Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive. High POS is related to higher OCBs and performance. The degree of involvement, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job. Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.(Robbins & Judge Organizational Behavior 13th Edition)How we behave at work often depends on how we feel about being there. Therefore, making sense of how people behave depends on understanding their work attitudes. Anattituderefers to our opinions, beliefs, and feelings about aspects of our environment. We have attitudes toward the food we eat, people we meet, courses we take, and things we do. At work, two job attitudes have the greatest potential to influence how we behave. These are job satisfaction and organizational commitment.Job satisfactionrefers to the feelings people have toward their job. If the number of studies conducted on job satisfaction is an indicator, job satisfaction is probably the most important job attitude. Institutions such as Gallup or the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) periodically conduct studies of job satisfaction to track how satisfied employees are at work. According to a recent Gallup survey, 90% of the employees surveyed said that they were at least somewhat satisfied with their jobs. A recent SHRM study revealed 40% who were very satisfied.Organizational commitmentis the emotional attachment people have toward the company they work for. A highly committed employee is one who accepts and believes in the companys values, is willing to put out effort to meet the companys goals, and has a strong desire to remain with the company. People who are committed to their company often refer to their company as we as opposed to they as in in this company, we have great benefits. The way we refer to the company indicates the type of attachment and identification we have with the company.There is a high degree of overlap between job satisfaction and organizational commitment because things that make us happy with our job often make us more committed to the company as well. Companies believe that these attitudes are worth tracking because they often are associated with outcomes that are important to the Controlling role, such as performance, helping others, absenteeism, and turnover. (http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/sablynskic/Chapter3.html)What Causes Positive Work Attitudes?What makes you satisfied with your job and develop commitment to your company? Research shows that people pay attention to several factors of their work environment, including characteristics of the job (a function of Organizing activities), how they are treated (related to Leadership actions), the relationships they form with colleagues and managers (also Leadership related), and the level of stress the job entails.Job CharacteristicsEmployees tend to be more satisfied and committed in jobs that involve certain characteristics. The ability to use a variety of skills, having autonomy at work, receiving feedback on the job, and performing a significant task are some job characteristics that are related to satisfaction and commitment. However, the presence of these factors is not important for everyone. Some people have a high need for growth. These employees tend to be more satisfied when their jobs help them build new skills and improve.Organizational Justice and the Psychological ContractA strong influence over our satisfaction level is how fairly we are treated. People pay attention to the fairness of company policies and procedures, fair and kind treatment from supervisors, and fairness of their pay and other rewards they receive from the company. Organizational justice can be classified into three categories: (1) procedural (fairness in the way policies and processes are carried out), (2) distributive (the allocation of resources or compensation and benefits), and (3) interactional (the degree to which people is treated with dignity and respect). At the root of organizational justice is trust, something that is easier to break than to repair if broken.Thepsychological contractis the unspoken, informal understanding that an employee will contribute certain things to the organization (e.g., work ability and a willing attitude) and will receive certain things in return (e.g., reasonable pay and benefits). Under the psychological contract, an employee may believe that if he or she works hard and receives favourable performance evaluations, he or she will receive an annual bonus, periodic raises and promotions, and will not be laid off. Since the downsizing trend of the past 20 years, many commentators have declared that the psychological contract is violated more often than not.Relationships at WorkTwo strong predictors of our happiness at work and commitment to the company are our relationships with co-workers and managers. The people we interact with, how friendly they are, whether we are socially accepted in our work group, whether we are treated with respect by them are important to our happiness at work. Research also shows that our relationship with our manager, how considerate the manager is, and whether we build a trust-based relationship with our manager are critically important to our job satisfaction and organizational commitment. When our manager and overall management listen to us, care about us, and value our opinions, we tend to feel good at work. When establishing effective relations with employees, little signals that you care about your employees go a long way. For example, in 2004 San Franciscos Hotel Carlton was taken over and renovated by a new management group, Joie de Vivre Hospitality. One of the small things the new management did that created dramatic results was that, in response to an employee attitude survey, they replaced the old vacuum cleaners housekeepers were using and started replacing them every year. It did not cost the company much to replace old machinery, but this simple act of listening to employee problems and taking action went a long way to make employees feel better.StressNot surprisingly, the amount of stress present in a job is related to employee satisfaction and commitment. Stressors range from environmental ones (noise, heat, inadequate ventilation) to interpersonal ones (organizational politics, conflicts with co-workers) to organizational ones (pressure to avoid making mistakes, worrying about the security of the job). Some jobs, such as intensive care unit nurse and military fighter pilot, are inherently very stressful.Another source of stress has to do with the roles people are expected to fulfil on and off the job. Role ambiguity is uncertainty about what our responsibilities are in the job. Role conflict involves contradictory demands at work; it can also involve conflict between fulfilling ones role as an employee and other roles in life, such as the role of parent, friend, or community volunteer.Generally speaking, the higher the stress level, the lower job satisfaction tends to be. But not all stress is bad, and some stressors actually make us happier! For example, working under time pressure and having a high degree of responsibility are stressful, but they are also perceived as challenges and tend to be related to high levels of satisfaction. (http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/ON/B0/B58/012MB58.html)Positive Job Attitude"A positive attitude held by the employee towards the organization and its values. An engaged employee is aware of the business context, and works with colleagues to improve performance within the job for the benefit of the organisation. The organization must work to develop and nurture engagement, which requires a two-way relationship between employee and employer." (Robinson, 2004)"A set of positive attitudes and behaviours enabling high job performance of a kind which are in tune with the organization's mission." (Storey, 2008)Engaged employees also have a stronger sense of personal well-being and feel more involved, committed and productive at work. Be friendly, courteous and respectful to everyone. Be willing to go the extra mile. This creates goodwill with employers, co-workers and customers. Remember, as you climb the career ladder, you may meet the same people on your way up.(http://jobs.utah.gov/jobseeker/smartstart/successfulemployee.pdf)Positive thinking is a mental and emotional attitude that focuses on the bright side of life and expects positive results. A positive person anticipates happiness, health and success, and believes he or she can overcome any obstacle and difficulty. Positive thinking is not accepted by everyone. Some, consider it as nonsense, and scoff at people who follow it, but there is a growing number of people, who accept positive thinking as a fact, and believe in its effectiveness.We affect, and are affected by the people we meet, in one way or another. This happens instinctively and on a subconscious level, through words, thoughts and feelings, and through body language.Is it any wonder that we want to be around positive people, and prefer to avoid negative ones?People are more disposed to help us, if we are positive, and they dislike and avoid anyone broadcasting negativity.Negative thoughts, words and attitude, create negative and unhappy feelings, moods and behavior. When the mind is negative, poisons are released into the blood, which cause more unhappiness and negativity. This is the way to failure, frustration and disappointment.(http://www.successconsciousness.com/index_000009.html)Too many times we take criticism as a personal attack, as an insult to who we are. But its not. Well, perhaps sometimes it is, but we dont have to take it that way. Take it as a criticism of your actions, not your person. If you do that, you can detach yourself from the criticism emotionally and see what should be done. But the way that many of us handle the criticisms that we see as personal attacks is by attacking back. Im not going to let someone talk to me that way. Especially if this criticism is made in public, such as in the comments of a blog or on a forum. You have to defend yourself, and attack the attacker right? Wrong. By attacking the attacker, you are stooping to his level. Even if the person was mean or rude, you dont have to be the same way. You dont have to commit the same sins. Be the better person.(http://www.wikihow.com/Accept-Criticism-With-Grace-and-Appreciation)There is a difference between criticism and constructive feedback. Always use the method where you begin by complimenting the individual on something theyve done well, and follow it up with a suggestion on how to improve their performance. Also, ensure to have this conversation in private. The individual will respect your feedback, and also respect the fact that you brought awareness to the situation in a professional manner.(http://www.markentpersonnel.com/2014/05/06/positive-attitude-work-can-key-success/)How do you start being good at your job? For one thing, it is time to stop creatingexcusesfor your mediocrity and start creating reasons to excel. Being good at your job takescommitmentand it takeshard work. Not lip service that most mediocre employees dwell in.

If you are not very good at your job, do you find yourself making these excuses? Perhaps if you dwell in these or any of these, it is time to stop. Otherwise, you will never be good at your job.I amoverworked. I dont have enough time. Mywork-life balance sucks. I need some rest. I hate my job. I am not doing what I love. I dont know what I want. I hope my bossunderstands me. I wish I have more money to pursue my dreams. This is not easy. You dont lead my life. My situation is different. There are too many demands on my life. I am stretched beyond my limits. I wish I canquitnow but I need the job. I am just buying time. If only I went to a better school. If only I went to school. If only I was born in a better family. Instead, do the exact opposite. Start writing a list on how you can do better.(http://www.career-success-for-newbies.com/being-good-at-your-job.html)Some people are more inclined than others to take a hands-on approach when it comes to their life or work. What are the common features of self-starters and how can we learn to better embrace the do-it-yourself spirit?In a perfect world, wed all wake up early, go on a run, eat a healthy breakfast, and then head into work to tackle our next big project. As self-starters, wed be brimming with energy and enthusiasm and wouldnt even consider procrastinating before a deadline, professional development siteExcelleexplains. In the real world, however, we dont always live up to our highest ambitions. But just because we dont always do something, doesnt mean we cant ever do it.There are a number of qualities that distinguish self-starters from others. The first is being active in seizing opportunities, such as the desire to start a business, invent a new product or improve an existing process. In other words, self-starters like to stay busy and are always on the lookout for new projects to tackle.Another important characteristic is commitment to work. Self-starters immerse themselves in new endeavours and remain passionate about pursuing their vocation and honing their skills. Their dedication can even lead to taking a busmans holiday.For those who dont know the expression, a busmans holiday refers to leisure time spent doing pretty much what one does at work,Forbes.comexplains. Taking busmans holidays doesnt have to mean youre a workaholic it could mean you are passionate about your vocation and love honing your craft.Finally, resilience in the face of challenging circumstances is a crucial element in being a self-starter. Persevering through disappointments, failures and unfavorable odds is necessary if you hope to accomplish your goals, because self-starters often face an uphill road.Any good manager knows that teamwork, good working relationships, a positive approach to colleagues and the job itself are all vital factors in achieving productivity and a happy working environment. If any one of these is missing or damaged, everybody suffers. Given that most working people spend at least eight hours a day trying to do a good job, then it is necessary to ensure that the time there is pleasant, peaceful and provides job satisfaction. If negative attitudes and gossip pertain, then the whole applecart is in real danger of being overturned. In those circumstances, managers would be justified in firing employees for gossip and negative attitudes.Looking more closely at the topic of gossip; how does a bit of chatter about other workmates warrant being fired by the manager? Gossip is often malicious and generally based on lies, or at least rumor or half-truths. It is hurtful and difficult to confront sometimes, as a few words here and there, usually negative or derogatory, soon spread like wildfire. The victim often suffers in silence, and often finds relationships with colleagues undermined for no obvious reason. This state of affairs destroys teamwork, interpersonal relationships, good atmosphere and, ultimately, productivity.Spreading gossip is just not acceptable in any circumstances, and the work environment is one such area of concern.This in turn infects others who begin to feel resentful at having to cover for, or do more than somebody who refuses to pull their weight. Again, working relationships are adversely affected and productivity is going to reduce. Amanager who is properly managing employees is bound to take action to get rid of the source of the problem.Of course, employment legislation demands that those who gossip and cause trouble and those whose negative attitude is detrimental to the operation, are given fair warning, along with a chance to improve. If that improvement does not happen, then the only alternative is to let the person go. Such action can only benefit everyone and everything else in the workplace, which is why managers fire employees for gossip and negative attitudes. Going to work is necessary for most people in order to make a living. It should be as pleasant and stress-free as possible and a good manager will do everything to ensure this happens.(http://www.insidebusiness360.com/index.php/your-negative-attitude-could-get-you-fired-2676/)Nothing eats away at a teamwork environment worse than gossip does. Whether team members are gossiping about colleagues or their personal problems, avoid the situation altogether. If you are caught in the conversation, act as a listener who does not provide any input. Maintaining a positive attitude at work means that you are a team player who provides all team members with respect. By refraining from joining a gossip circle, you can ensure that you maintain that level of respect.(http://www.markentpersonnel.com/2014/05/06/positive-attitude-work-can-key-success/)Team player is too vague a term to use in job descriptions. Mainly because it results in this pointless conversation: Are you a team player? Why, yes. I am.Specific is always better than vague. Next time youre writing a job description, define whatspecificqualities youre looking for, what kind of team you have, and what its goals are. If youre a job candidate it would behoove you to spend some time thinking about what team player means to you, so when you inevitably get asked about it, you can distinguish yourself with an articulate, considered answer.Heres my answer. A team player is someone who: Insists on knowing what were trying to achieve and keeps asking until she gets a satisfactory answer Is willing to kill her darlings if it doesnt help the project Understands that this is a complex, group effort that can only succeed if everyone takes responsibility for their chunk Provides other team members with the information and resources they need to get their jobs done Is able to change course when the situation changes Understands that everyone on the team is fallible and that when mistakes happen well work together to fix it Finds ways to prioritize the work so that even if we cant accomplish everything we set out to do, we still have a viable, successful outcome Maintains a positive, constructive attitude; if things are going poorly, helps identify whats going wrong and propose solutionsIn short, a team player is someone who provides great user experience to her colleagues.(http://www.kimbieler.com/2012/06/23/what-does-it-mean-to-be-a-team-player/)

Research Paradigm

Assessment: Private and Public HospitalPositive Attitudesa. Private Hospitalb. Public HospitalB. Comparison of the researchers between the observed job attitudes of private and public hospitalC. Difference between the private and public hospital regarding their job attitudes INPUT

Concepts about Job AttitudesDistribution of QuestionnairesImplementation and Analysis of the Job Attitudes of Hospital Staff: Basis for Enhancement Training Program PROCESS

Output

Enhancement Training Program

Figure 1.

This paradigm shows the summary of the study, how it will be done and what is the possible outcome of the study.