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28

CHAPTER 2

THAII.JAND

Introduction

This Chapter attempts to study the profile of Thailand. It will

concentrate on the land, people, culture, religion, economy, politics

etc. of Thailand

Early History

Little is known of the earliest inhabitants of what is now

Thailand, but 5,000 year-old archeological sites in the northeastern

part of the country are believed to contain the oldest evidence of

rice cultivation and bronze casting in Asia and perhaps in the

world. l

In early historical times, a succeSSIon of tribal groups

controlled what is now Thailand. The Mon and Khmer peoples

established powerful Kingdoms that included large areas of the

country. They absorbed from contact with South Asian peoples

religious, social, political, and cultural ideas and institutions that

later influenced the development of Thailand's culture and

National identity. The Tai, a people \vho originally lived in

1 http:/www.geocities.comlTokyoulGarden/20111thaihistoryl.html.

29

southwestern China, migrated into mainland Southeast Asia over a

period of many centuries. The first mention of their existence in

the region is a twelfth century A.D inscription at the Khmer temple

complex of Angkor Wat in Canlbodia, which refers to Siam, or

"dark brown" people (the origin of the term Siam) as vassals of the

Khmer monarch. In 1238 a Tai chieftain declared his independence

from the Khmer and established a Kingdom at Sukhothai in the

broad valley of the Mae Nam (river) Chao Phraya, at the center of

modem Thailand. SUkhothai was succeeded in the fourteenth

century by the kingdom of Ayutthaya.2 The Burmese invaded

Ayutthaya and in 1767 destroyed the capital, but two national

heroes, Taksin and Ch akkri , soon expelled the invaders and

reunified the country under the Chakkri Dynasty. Over the

centuries Thai National identity evolved around a common

language and religion and the institution of the Monarchy.

Although the inhabitants of Thailand are a mixture of Tai, Mon,

Khmer, and other ethnic groups, Inost speak a language of the Tai

family. A Tai language alphabet, based on Indian and Khmer

scripts, developed early in the fourteen century. 3 Later in the

century a famous monarch, Ramathibodi, made Theravada

Buddhism the official religion of his Kingdom, and Buddhism

2 http:/www.geocities.comlTokyoulGarden/20 11 /thaihistofY 1.html. 3 Ibid.

30

continued into the twentieth century as a dominant factor in the

Nation's social, cultural, and political life. Finally, the monarchy,

buttressed ideologically by Hindu and Buddhist mythology, was a

focus for popular loyalties for more than seven centuries. In the

late twentieth century the Monarchy remained central to national

unity. During the nineteenth century, European expansionism,

rather than Thailand's traditional enemies, posed the greatest threat

to the kingdom's survival. Thai success in preserving the country's

independence (it was the only Southeast .Asia country to do so)

was in part a result of the desire of Britain and France for a stable

buffer state separating their dominions in Burma, Malaya, and

Indochina. More important, however, was the willingness of

Thailand's monarchs, Mongkut (Ram a IV, 1851-68) and

Chulalongkorn (Rama V, (1868-1910), to negotiate openly with

the European powers and to adopt European-style reforms that

modernized the country and won it sovereign status among the

world's nations. Thailand (then known as Siam) paid a high price

for its independence, however loss of suzerainty over Cambodia

and Laos to France and cession of the northern states of the Malay

Peninsula to Britain. By 1910 the area under Thai control was a

fraction of what it had been a century earlier. In the early decades

of the twentieth century, Thailand's political system, armed forces,

schools, and economy underwent drastic changes. Many Thai

31

studied oversees, and a small, Western-educated elite with less

traditional ideas emerged. In 1932 a blood-less coup d'etat by

military officers and civil serv ants ended the absolute monarchy

and inaugurated Thailand's constitutional era. Progress toward a

stable, democratic political system since that time, however, has

been erratic. Politics dominated by rival military-bureaucratic

cliques who have initiated repeated coups d'etat and have imposed

prolonged periods of martial la,v. Parlialnentary institutions, as

defined by Thailand's fourteen constitutions between 1932 and

1987, and competition among civilian politicians have generally

been facades for military governments ..

Over the course of mil1 ennia, migrations from Southern

China peopled Southeast Asia, including the area of contemporary

Thailand. Archaeological evidence indicates a thriving Paleolithic

culture in the region and contin uous human habitation for at least

20,000 years. The pace of economic and social development was

uneven and conditioned by cli mate and geography. 4 The dense

forests of the Chao Phraya Valley in the central part of Thailand

and the Malay Peninsula in the South produced such an abundance

of food that for a long time there was no need to move beyond

hunting and gathering econorny. In contrast, rice cultivation

4 http:/www.geocities.comlTokyoU/Gardew20 11 Ithaihistory l.html.

32

appeared early in the highlands of the far North and hastened the

development of a more communal social and Political

Organization.5 Excavations at Han Chiang, a small village on the

Khorat Plateau in Northeastern Thailand, have revealed evidence

of prehistoric inhabitants who nlay have forged bronze implements

as early as 3,000 BC and cultivated rice around the fourth

millennium BC. If so, the Khorat Plateau would be the oldest rice­

producing area in Asia because the inhabitants of China at that

time still consumed millet.6 Archaeologists have assembled

evidence that the bronze implements found at the Thai sites were

forged in the area and not transported from elsewhere. They

supported this claim by pointing out that both copper and tin

deposits (components of bronze) are found in close proximity to

the Ban Chiang sites. If these claims are correct, Thai bronze

forgers would have predated the Bronze Age, which archaeologists

had traditionally believed began in the Middle East around 2800

BC and in China about a thousand years later.7 Before the end of

the first millennium BC, tribal territories had begun to coalesce

into protohistorical Kingdoms whose names survive in Chinese

dynastic annals of the period. Funan, a state of substantial

5 http :/www.geocities.comiTokyouiGarden/20 11 Ithaihistory l.html. 6 Ibid. 7 http:/www.geocities.comiTokyouiGarden/20111thaihistoryl.html.

33

proportions, emerged in the second century BC as the earliest and

most significant power in Southeast Asia. Its Hindu ruling class

controlled all of present-day Cambodia and extended its power to

the center of modem Thailand. The Funan economy was based on

maritime trade and a well-developed agricultural system; Funan

maintained close commercial contact with India and served as a

base for the Brahman merchant-missionaries who brought Hindu

culture to Southeast Asia. On the narrow isthmus to the southwest

of Funan, Malay city-states controlled the portage routes that were

traversed by traders and travel ers journeying between India and

Indochina. By the tenth century AD the strongest of them,

Tambralinga (present day Nakhon Si Thammarat), had gained

control of all routes across the isthmus. Along with other city­

states on the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, it had become part of

the Srivijaya Empire, a marl-titne confederation that between the

seventh and thirteenth centuries dominated trade on the South

China Sea and exacted tolls frOlll all traffic through the Strait of

Malacca. Tambralinga adopted Buddhism, but farther south many

of the Malay city-states converted to Islam, and by the fifteenth

century an enduring religious boundary had been established on

the isthmus between Buddhist mainland Southeast Asia and

Muslim Malaya. Although the Thai conquered the states of the

isthmus in the thirteenth century and continued to control them in

34

the modem period, the Malay of the peninsula were never

culturally absorbed, into the mainstreatn of Thai society. The

differences in religion, language, and ethnic origin caused strains

in social and political relations betw"een the central government

and the southern into the late twentieth century.

Geographical Division

If we look at its geographical position it can be well

explained this way: Thailand comprises an area of the 200,000

square miles, from the North 5.33" to 21" and from the East 97 30"

to 105 30,,8 The country is bounded proceeding counter clockwise

from the South, by the Gulf of Siam, Cambodia (Kampuchea) in

the East, Lao in the North-east, Myanmar (Burma) in the North

and Malaysia in the South.

The Northeast portion of the country is hilly, dry and poor.

The Southern or peninsular part is sandy, mountainous and rich.

The other two topographical divisions of Thailand are the North,

famous for hill tribes, teak forests, and intermittently cool weather;

and the central plain here is more pleasant because of abundance of

food, alluvial soil bordering the Menam Chao Phraya. This river is

to Thailand more or less what the Mississippi, or old Mon, river is

to the U.S.

8 Ibid.

35

More then 80 percent people of Thailand live not in its town

and cities, but in its forty thousand or so small villages which on

the populous central plain are most often built along the sides of

Klongs, with rice fields stretching back from the houses. Thai

villages are now often linked also by rail and by a highway system,

of which the main arteries are hardtop roads covering on Bangkok

from terminus at Hua Hin, Nongkhae and Fang.

Geographically, Thailand Inay be divided into SIX natural . 9 regIons:

(1) Northeast Thailand

(2) The Central Plain

(3) North Thailand

( 4) Southeast Thailand

(5) South Thailand

(6) West and Southwest Thai land

People

Throughout her long history, Thailand has gently absorbed

immigrants. Many were skilled as writers, painters, sculptors,

dancers, musicians and architects, and helped enrich indigenous

culture. People inhabiting Thailand today share rich ethnic

9 http:/www.geocities.comlTokyoulGardenJ201Ilthaihistoryl.html.

36

diversity mainly Thai, Mon, Khmer, Laotian, Chinese, Malay,

Persian and Indian stock with the result that there is no typically

Thai physiognomy or physique. There are petite Thais, statuesque

Thais, round-faced Thais, dark-skinned Thais and light-skinned

Thais. Some 80% of all Thais are connected in some way with

agriculture, which, in varying degrees, influences and is influenced

by the religious ceremonies and festivals that help make Thailand

such a distinctive country.lO

Language

Spoken and written Thai renlain largely incomprehensible to

the casual visitor. However, English is widely understood,

particularly in Bangkok where it is almost the major commercial

language. English and other European languages are spoken in

most hotels, shops and restaurants, in major tourist destinations,

and Thai-English road and street signs are found nation-wide.

Population

The country has a population of approximately 60 million, of

which around 6 million live in the capital city, Bangkok. The most

important ethnic minority is Chinese. Other minority groups

10 http:/www.geocities.comlTokyoulGarden/2011/thaihistoryl.html.

37

include Malays, Cambodians~ Indians, non-Thai hill tribes, and

some Vietnamese. Immigration is controlled by a quota system. I I

Religion/Sat'sa 'na

The country has a deep spiritual heritage that is apparent to

all who visit Thailand. About ninety-five percent of Thai people

profess to be Buddhist (chao' poor). Its throngs of saffron-robed

monks exemplify this heritage. Yet mixed in with their Buddhist

faith is a healthy dose of Brahnlanism and animism, represented by

the charming little spirit houses found outside nearly every

building, and by hidden shrines \.vhere devotees make requests and

offerings for the spirits' granting of their wishes.

Because Buddhism is so fundamental to Thai culture and

understanding it, we will briefly discuss some basic aspects of

Buddhism.

Government! Rtit'ta 'han

Thailand became a constitutional monarchy after a 1932 coup

d'etat inspired by ideals of democ.racy. Though the absolute

powers of the monarchy were removed, the institution has never

11 http:/www.geocities.comlTokyouiGardenJ20111thaihistoryl.html.

38

been questioned and remains significant and stabilizing factor in

Thai politics even today.

While the majority of the population still lives in rural

villages with the waf' (Buddhist temple-monastery) the center of

life, there has been a fundamental shift in the balance of power

since the 1970s. Before this time, the country's government was

frrmly in the hands of the aristocracy, many of whom also pursued

careers in the military, thereby concentrating power with the armed

forces. To legitimize their power, many of these officers also

served in Parliament. However, in recent decades, Thailand has

seen a rapidly expanding middle social class, which has pushed the

nation closer to finding a version of democracy that is suitable for

the Thai values contained in its "'Three Pillars"-The King,

Buddhism, and Nation.

Politically, Thailand has been pulled three ways by

government, military, and the fie",' middle class over the last sixty

years. There is the old rivalry between different factions of the

armed forces, which has resulted in 17 coups since 1932, eleven of

which have been successful.12 On the other hand, there are the new

educated classes who have been delnanding a more democratic

form of government. The army, threatened by this new movement,

12 http:/www.geocities.com!TokyouiGardenl20111thaihistoryl.html.

39

massacred pro-democracy demonstrators in May 1992. Because of

this loud "Cry for Democracy," the Thai have sharply reduced the

influence and power of the nlilitary. Always having one of the

freest presses in Asia, though often subjected to periods of

suppression, Thailand's post-coup interim government took steps

to further liberalize the media.

In 1997 Thailand's decade-long economIC boom collapsed

and the Thai Baht was devalued and allowed to float. The

economic crises led, in part, to the election of the Thai Rak Thai

Party in 2001 and communications tycoon Thaksin Shinawatra

[pronounced, Tak'sin' Chin'a'wat'] became prime minister. Khun

Thaksin was, at the time, Thailand's richest citizen.

Thus Thailand is a constitutional monarchy, governed by the

1997 constitution. Legislative power is in the hands of the two­

chamber National Assembly. The Senate has 200 elected members

and the House of Representatives has 360. Both have four-year

terms.

Head of State: HM King Bhumibol (Rama IX), who came to

the throne in 1946

Prime Minister: Thaksin Shina\vatra

Finance: Somkid Chatusripitak

Foreign Affairs: Dr.Kanthati Supamongkhon

Last election: January 2005

The MonarchyIRti'bawp-ga'sat'

40

Thailand's beloved king, His Majesty King Bhumibol

Adulyadej the Great (Poo-nli'pon' A'doon'ya'det), is the ninth

king of the Chakri (Jak'ree) Dynasty (Ram a IX). His Majesty is

Thailand's (and the world's) longest reigning monarch, becoming

king at age ten in 1946 (coronation 5 May, 1950). The Kingdom

celebrated His Majesty's fiftieth year on the throne throughout

1995-1996. l3

The only King to have been born in the United States, His

Majesty was born on 5 December 1927, in the State of

Massachusetts. He married Her Majesty Queen Sirikit (Si'ri'git') 28

April 1946. They have four children.

Known as the "Working :King," His Majesty, and The Royal

Family, has worked tirelessly to improve the Thai people's lives.

For important information about the King, please also see "Being

Polite."

13 http:/www.geocities.com!f okyou/Garden/20 11 Ithaihistory 1.html.

41

The National Flag

The five horizontal stripes of three colors-red, white, and

blue-have very significant meanings. Red signifies the life-blood

of Thai people; the white stripe symbolizes the purity of

Buddhism, the national religion; and the dominant blue stripe, the

monarchy and the important part it plays in the daily life of the

Thai people. King Rama VI designed the present national flag, the

"Trai-rong" or three colors.

Politics: Change in 1932 From Absolute Monarchy to

Parliamentary Democracy

The first Thai state, the Kingdom of Sukhothai (1257-

1378),14 adopted a paternalistic form of government. The King,

while enjoying absolute power, personally paid close attention to

his subjects' well being. However, Sukhothai was a fragmented

city-state and the lack of a centralized government led to its fall in

the late 1300's. Its decline coincided with the rise of the

increasingly powerful Ayutthaya Kingdorn to the South. During

the Ayutthaya period, the power of the monarch rose, as Ayutthaya

inherited a Khmer system of government based upon the Hindu

concept of divine kingship. Under the reign of King

14 http:/www.geocities.com/TokyouiGarden/20111thaihistory1.html.

42

Borommatrailokkanat (1448-1488), Ayutthaya's political

administration underwent a major refoml. The sakdina, a feudal

system, which allowed almost everyone in the kingdom to hold

land based on their rank, satisfying both nobles and commoners,

and lasted until the 19th century. Moreover, the civil and military

administrations were separated and the government was

centralized, making Ayutthaya one of Southeast Asia's strongest

and richest empires for three centuries.

The capital was moved to Bangkok In 1782, marking the

beginning of the Rattanakosin period, which saw the continuation

of the Ayutthaya system of government. Thus, for over three

centuries, Thailand's political administration was by and large

carried out without drastic reform. 15

Nevertheless, by mid ] 800's, the threat of imperialism

became a major issue. King Chulalongkorn (1868-1910), seeing

the need for political reform, decentralized administration. He

carried out a major reorgan ization of the central and local

administrations, which formed the basis of the present system. The

central government was further divided into a number of

departments and an appointed governor of each province led the

local administration. His administrative reform and rapid

15 http:/www.geocities.comlTokyouiGarden/20111thaihistoryl.html.

43

modernization proved successful both in maintaining the country's

independence through the turbulent years of colonial threat and in

providing a foundation for a modem system of government.

King Chulalongkorn' s successors, King Vajiravudh and King

Prajadhipok, had a great int.erest in parliamentary democracy.

However, some intellectuals, educated abroad, called for an

immediate democratic transition. On 24 June 1932, they staged a

bloodless coup, demanding an establishment of a constitutional

monarchy. To avoid bloodshed, King Prajadhipok agreed to the

abolition of absolute monarchy for the sake of his people,

transferring power to a constitution-based system of government.

On 10 December 1932, Thailand's first constitution was signed. 16

The politics of Thailand took a very significant tum on 24

June 1932 when a group of young intellectuals, educated abroad

and imbued with the concept of Western democracy, staged a

bloodless coup demanding a change from absolute to

constitutional monarchy. Determined to avoid any bloodshed,

King Prajadhipok (Rama Vll) agreed to the abolition of absolute

monarchy and the transfer of power to the constitution-based

system of government as demanded.

16 http:/www.geocities.comlTokyou/Garden/20111thaihistoryl.html.

On 10 December 1932, King Prajadhipok signed

Thailand's first constitution and thus ended 800 years of

Thailand's absolute monarchy. Despite the number of successive

constitutions that followed in the span of just over half a

century, the basic concepts of constitution have remained

unaltered.

It is said that the foreign policy is the projection of

domestic policy. In view of this following information about the

Thai domestic politics would be useful for understanding

Thailand's relations with neighbouring countries.

Evolution of Foreign Policy of Thailand

44

Thailand is the only state in Southeast Asia to escape

colonialism, and hence it was possible for Thailand to inherit many

elements of traditional society. But civil society became dominant

since the student led over throw of Inilitary government in 1973.

The following period is characterized by certain reforms in

political field and in 1997 People's Constitution was passed as an

ambitious attempt to establish democratic rule. 17

By the end of 18th century Chakri Dynasty came to power,

which developed its capital at Bangkok. The dynasty had to face

17 Duncan McCargo-"Reforming Thai Politics" The Nordic Institute of Asian Studies (NIAS) Copenhegan S. Denmark, 2002 P.3

45

challenges of expanding Western Colonialism. But it was benefited

due to its crucial position as a buffer between British influences in

Burma and Malaya and the French in Indochina, and had to make

some concessions. "In 1855 King Mong Kut signed an agreement

with British envoy, Sir John Bowring fi)r opening the country to

Western Trade and extending extraterritoriality to Europeans. The

treaty was humiliating but Thailand profited from involvement in

the international economy through the export of rice.,,18 Later on

Thai kings initiated reforms in bureaucracy and in legal system,

sending Thai students abroad to acquire western education and

employing Europeans as heads of the new departments. Even these

actions could not prevent France and Britain seizing more Thai

claimed territories in Laos, Cambodia, Burma and Malaya during

late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

In 1932 a small group comprising military and civilians

under the leadership of Phibun Songkram and Pridi Phanomyong

respectively seized power in a military coup. During following

period the military group started dOlninating, as a result Pridi' s

efforts to introduce democratic government could not succeed. In

1938 Phibun became Prime Minister and he changed the name of

the country from Siam to Thailand. Military led nationalism got

J8John Funston "Thailand Reform Politics in Government and Politics in Southern Asia" Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, 2001. p.329.

46

itself well established under Pbibun and Thailand entered World

War II on the side of Japan. When Japan was defeated parliament

rejected government legislation in July 1944. It was followed by

instability of democratic government as ten governments under

five prime ministers held office during following three years under

the influence ofPridi who was the head of the king's Privy Council

and leader of the Free Thai anti -Japanese movement. 19 In 1947 a

coup under Colonel Sarit Thanarat took place and he became the

Prime Minister in 1948. His rule was characterized by authoritarian

strong nationalist indoctrination hence several intense conflicts

between factions started within military .. As intensity of conflicts

increased and public protest heightened, Sarit moved against

Phibun in 1957 and became prime minister. He adopted the policy

of complete absolutism characterized as "ruling by decree." Sarit

was a strong charismatic leader who declared several economic

benefits like lower electricity prices and bus fares etc. and started

reorienting the economy along W' orId Bank lines to build

infrastructure and gave priority to private companies. He elevated

image of young king which made him more popular in Thailand,

but he exploited the state for personal pro fit as illegal assets, worth

us $158 million, were discovered after his death in 1963.During

the following periods Generals 'were in charge of ruling the country

19 Ibid. p.331.

47

but they were not so strong as Sarit, hence they had to permit a

new constitution and election in 1969. But the parliament was

dissolved in 1971 ;20 a resistance from educated and middle class

people became dominant, and around 500,000students took to the

streets in 1973. Army leaders ,,'ere divided over how to respond,

and about 100 protestors were killed in an attempt to gain control

by force. During 1973 to 1976 democratic rule in unstable form

prevailed. After 1978 coup Kriangsak became prime minister and

tried to implement a constitutional semi democracy but economic

pressures made him to resign in 1980. Parliament elected Prem

Tinsulanonda as Prime Minister with support of monarchy. He

included competent non-political technocrats in key economic

portfolios like finance and cornmerce along with the members of

parliament of major political parties. Cabinets changed frequently

and the government survived narro,,'ly in coup attempts in 1981

and 1985. During the following decade eight governments ruled.

Elections were held in 1995 and 1996 and a coalition government

came to power headed by Banhanl S ilpa-archa and Chavalit

Y ongchaiyudh. Soon movement began to demand for cleaning up

of politics, by making it more democratic to establish civil rule. A

99 members Constitution Drafting Assembly was appointed which

20 Ibid p.331

48

started working in 1997.21 The economic crisis helped to get quick

approval of the new constihltion and parliament voted second

government led by Chuan, which completed lasted only for eight

days. Unfavourable international conditions especially high oil

prices created more instability and the new Thai Rak Thai

government came to power in January 200 I .

In spite of the political instability Thai rulers have effectively

adopted high level of flexibility in their foreign relations. They

followed a policy of treating all the countries in the world having

equal status in international field. In the past, western powers

treated Thailand as a buffer state between their colonies. During

nineteenth century when Britain was dominant in the region,

Thailand rulers maintained good relations with Britain for solving

their problems. By the end of nineteenth century as France began

to dominate in regional politics, Thailand concluded some treaties

with France, to maintain good relations and protecting its own

interests. During the World 'War I, it cooperated with Allied

Powers but during the World War II it associated itself with Japan

and at the end of the war it joined the United State. After the

World War II the world was divided into two blocks, and the

atmosphere of cold war prevailed between western block led by the

21 Duncan McCargo-"Refonning Thai Politics" The Nordic Institute of Asian Studes (NIAS) Copenhegan S. Denmark, 2002 P.43

49

United Stated and the Communist block led by the Soviet Union.

Because of increasing communist influence in South East Asia and

East Asia, the countries of the western b10ck wanted to locate their

forces in the region to control the activities of communists.

Thailand was the country to cooperate with them?2 In 1954

Thailand joined the SouthEast Asia Treaty Organisation

(SEATO), which aimed at controlling rapid growth of communism

in the region. SEA TO selected Bangkok as its headquarters and

hence SEA TO forces were stationed in Thailand. Thus Thailand

played a key role in control1 ing growth of communism in the • 23 regIon.

Thailand and USA.

Thailand also cooperated with USA to control communism in

the region by way of providing land and more power that was

required. The United States set up several bases in Udon, Ubon

Takhi, Korat etc. and used these bases against communists in

Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Thus Thailand through United

States got itself involved in the internal affairs of the neighbouring

countries, at the cost of some non-aligned countries.24 But

22 Jha Ganganath- "Foreign Policy of Thailand" Radient Publishers, New Delhi, (1979) pp.36-39 23 Ibid pA5

24 Ibid p.49

50

President Nixon's announcement in ] 969 of disengaging US troops

from involvement in Asian countries, gave a severe jolt to

Thailand. Nixon's policy became a controversial issue in Thailand

and led to the disagreement among Thai politicians. The pro US

faction of the Thai military being in strong position tried to

suppress opposition. But when it was observed that, it was difficult

to stop the vocal opposition, it staged a coup d'etat in November

1971 under the pretext of internal disturbances. The coup leaders

continued the policy to support US policy at any cost. 25

In this way, Thai foreign policy during 1954-1971 became an

interesting issue at the international level, on account of several

developments that took place during this period. First, Thailand

became a member of SEA TO and its headquarters was established

in Bangkok. Second, Thailand took initiative in promoting regional

cooperation and became a founder member of South Asian Nations

(A SEAN). Third, in 1966 it played a successful role in settling

dispute between Malaysia and ] ndonesia with the help of Red

Cross Society. It solved the problem of Vietnamese refugees.

Fourth, it concluded several border agreements with Malaysia and

Burma. In 1970 Thailand also entered in trade agreements with

Soviet Union and India. The most important development was

Thailand's deep involvement in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.

25 Ibid p.67-68

51

Thailand with cooperation of USA sent "Thai irregulars" to Laos

and trained teams of the Lon Nol Government in Cambodia and

also sent a division of Thai troops to South Vietnam for fighting

against progress of communism.

In 1969, however the dec: laration of "Nixon Doctrine" which

implied disengaging US troops from involvement in Asian affairs,

a Vietnamization programme ,vas implemented. A plan was to

enable South Vietnamese Government to fight against the National

Liberation Front (NLF) forces. ~:6

Disturbed internal Politics in Thailand

In the past Thailand played an active role as the supporter of

US activities in the region, hut as United Nations decided to

withdraw the military rule from Thailand it had to review the

existing treaty with United States. Thai leaders differed on their

reactions to United State's policy. However the pro US group in

Thai military, which was relatively pO\\Terful tried to suppress

opposition. But it was not possible to suppress the opposition and it

staged a coup in 1971 on the grounds of internal disturbances.

During the following period Thai politics was characterized by

vicious circle. First there is a coup and military takes over,

26 Jha Ganganath- "Foreign Policy of Thailand" Radient Publishers, New Delhi, (1979) pp.36-39

52

sometimes with a civilian prinle minister as a leader. Then a new

constitution is promulgated and attempt is made to establish mixed

military and civilian rule, which brings in conflicts and instability.

Then another military faction plans another coup to restore

stability and peace in the country.

In 1973 student demonstrators tried to overcome this political

cycle and insisted on a new pluralistic constitution with acceptable

leaders. The 1973 revolt led to the establishment of civilian

government. Under the bicameral Parliament power was

concentrated in the lower houst~.27 The political parties were free to

organize. Hence, in January 1975 elections about forty-two parties

contested elections. But this experiment lasted only for three years,

and the civil democracy soon disappeared.28 The Students proved

to be better revolutionaries than governor. But economic

conditions turned out to be unfavourable, inflation increased at a

faster rate and labour strikes brought the economy into stand still.

Communists were successful in neighbouring countries like

Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. For the time being it was thought

that democracy is not more important than security and stability of

the country. The new government was formed and politicians were

made accountable to voting public. The democratic constitution

27 Neher D and Marlay Ross-"Democracy and Development in South Asia" p.31. 28 Ibid p.31-32

53

was promulgated in 1974. Government officials were not allowed

to vote unless they first resigned from their posts. The Prime

Minister was a member of the lower house elected by his

colleagues. The upper house was appointed by the president of the

Privy Council rather than by the military Iulers.29

For the next two decades Thai politics was characterized by a

struggle for power between bureaucrats and officers on one hand

and politicians on the other. Thai politics was more open during

1976 - 1991 as there were regular elections and military played a

subordinate role. The military coup of February 1991 by Army

Commander in chief Suchinda KTaprayoon dismissed the elected

government and setup National Peace Keeping Council (NPKC)

with powers of Marshal law. The army felt it necessary to appoint

a civilian Prime Minister ,md to promulgate a temporary

constitution in preparation for elections. The King appointed

Anand Panyarachun a civilian diplomat and businessman as Prime

Minister. Anand appointed interim cabinet consisting of weII­

known technocrats, scholars and senior officers. But NPKC leaders

insisted that the interim constitution should be given equal power

nominate new Prime Minister \vho may not be an elected M.P. The

coup clique formed its own party "Samakki Tham" and provided it

sufficient money to buy the proposed election. The Elections of

29 Ibid p.32

54

1992 are well known for rampant vote buying and party switching.

Parties aligned with the NPK C won the election and the coup

leader became the Prime Minister and formed his cabinet with

members who were investigated for graft. I-Ie appointed his brother

. I Cd· h· £30 In aw as army omman er In C Ie .

Only after 48 days, Suchinda was driven from power in May

1992 by huge demonstrations of millions of Thais throughout the

country. "Black May" brought about significant change in Thai

Politics. King Bhimipol Adulyadej asked Anand Panyarachun to

take over as interim Prime Minister until elections could be held.

The elections were held in 1992 and pro democratic forces won the

election. A five party Coalition elected democrat Chuan Leekpai,

who was famous for his honesty and nloderate approach to politics,

became the Prime Minister. But Chuan found it difficult to control

military influence over the Senate. On account of internal conflicts

when Chuan realized that he might lose his parliamentary majority,

he called for new elections, which were held on July 2, 1995.31

After the elections the political party, Chart Thai (Thai

Nation) won maximum seats, and its leader Banharn Silapa-archa

became Thailand's twenty -first Prime Minister after achieving a

coalition of seven parties in a parliamentary majority. The

30 Ibid. p.34

31 Ibid p.35-36

55

b . . 32

Democrats led by Chuan ecame the major opposItion party.

However after the elections held in November 1996 Chavalit

Y oungchaiyudh formed a coal ition government and became Prime

Minister. Asian Financial Crisis caused a loss of confidence in the

Chavalit government and forced him to handover power to Chuan

Leekpai in November 1997. Chuan formed a coalition government

based on prudent economic management and institution of political

reforms mandated by 1997 constitution of Thailand.33

The first general election under the 1997 constitution was

held on 6 January 2001 where two main contestants were

incumbents. Democratic Party led by Chuan Leekpai and the new

Thai Rak Thai party (TRT) led by a wealthy telecommunication

magnet Thaksin Shinawatra, a former deputy PM and foreign

minister.

On March, 12, 2003 Dr.. Thaksin Shinawatra delivered an

augural address at the Saranrom Institute of Foreign affairs on

"Forward Engagement: The New Era of Thailand's Foreign

Policy.34 He emphasized that "historically Thailand has always

interacted with all countries in the region throughout her history,

and Thailand has always opened her doors to foreigners while

32 Ibid p.37.

33 Duncan Me Cargo- "Refonning Thai Politics" p.44 34 http:// www.thaiembdc.org/pressctr/statmnntipmisifa031203.html.

56

guarding her independence from Westenl colonialism. This nation

has well accommodated the richness of different nationalities

languages, religions and cultures. With such a background, it is

natural that Thailand should adopt her foreign policy that reaches

out to foster different levels of partnership, all at the same time. In

forward engagement, we shall strengthen existing partnership and

explore and expand cooperation with new partners to strike the

right balance for the well being of our people, on one hand and

peace and prosperity for them with the rest of the world on the

other.,,35

Regarding the Greater Iv[ekong Sub region, he stated, "our

forward engagement is to seek new opportunities to strengthen our

special relationship, based on mutual truSt.,,36 We will not allow

anyone to use our territory to impose threats to any of our

neighbours. Such new opportunities must bring about mutual

prosperity and both support and complement each of us for further

development.,,37 Now that "Thailand is becoming a non aid

recipient country, we request our fonner donor countries to tum

their assistance to the need of our sub regional neighbours. On our

part we will endeavour to find ways and means to create more

35 Ibid.

36 Ibid.

37 Ibid.

57

wealth, peace and prosperity in the Greater Mekong Sub - region

(GMS) through closer cooperation with these GMS countries" and

in partnership with their donor countries,,38

He further argued, "Th e East V.l est Economic Corridor,

Stretching through India, Myamnar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam

will help integrate the Mekong Sub region with the Indian Sub

continent. These roads of opporttmities will be the basis of opening

up trade, investment and stimulating tourism across the region." 39

"It is my initiative to protnote Chiang Mai as an aviation hub

for this sub region, linking all GMS countries including countries

in the Indian Sub continent. These sub regional linkages will

contribute to the narrowing of the development gap between the

old and new members of ASEAN, the latter being Cambodia,

Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam. Thailand is conscious of bridging

the development gap between ASEAN. In order to provide

capacity building in area such as agriculture and sustainable

development the government elevated the Mekong Institute in

Khon Kaen Province of Thailand as a training center for the new

members of ASEAN." He further emphasized, "ASEAN is an

integral part of Thailand's foreign policy. Thailand actively

supports further integration of ASEA-N as well as ASEAN links

38 Ibid.

39 Ibid.

58

with other regions. In our pursuit emphasis will be to strengthen

trust, confidence and mutual understanding based on respect and

non-interference within ASEAN. Recently the first joint cabinet

meeting was held between Thailand, Malaysia and the Prime

Ministers Retreat with Singapore. "Such arrangements with all our

neighbours indicate the role of special and closer neighbourly

relations based on our shared vision of Southeast Asia". We also

support ASEAN Foreign Ministers' Retreats held in Phuket after

September 11, to discuss anti terrorisms cooperation and other

issues of ASEAN concerns.40

Thai Foreign Policy in the Global Context:

"Prior to the decades of the 1980s (md 1990s, Thai foreign

policy had been formulated independent of public domain, to the

extent that the Foreign Ministry dubbed "the twilight zone.,,41

However external and internal pressures led to the opening up

foreign policy decision making to greater public scrutiny . The

other reason of this openness may be explained as a result of rapid

economic growth through and export growth strategy and

subsequent financial liberalization. This resulted in to the growth

rate of more than ten percent by the end of 1980s. Deregulation

40 Ibid

52 KUSUMA SNITWONGSE "Thai Foreign Policy in the Global Age: Principle or Profit?" Contemporary Southeast Asian, Vo1.23 No.2, August 2001 p.189

59

and capital account convertibility during 1991-1993 led to the

massive inflow of capital into economy. At the same time a more

socially and politically conscious middle class emerged in political

field, more pluralistic body also emerged with business and other

non bureaucratic interests as important components. The new

business interest group consisted of not only Bangkok based firms

but also leading businessmen from various provinces. The

influence of this interest group has played a dominant role in

making Thai foreign policy business driven. The Chatchai

government's policy of "turning Indochina a battlefield into a

market place", influenced forc~ign policies of other neighbouring

countries, especially on account of its ability of opening huge

potential economic opportuniti es. The Thai economy has always

been outward looking. Despite the economic crisis of 1997 - 99

that resulted in a more inward looking sentiment on the part of the

general public, Thai business sector continued to insist on

externally generated growth of the econOlllY.

The Students' unrest in 1970s and participation of the urban

middle class in street demonstrations against the military

government, which led to much bloodshed, resulted into bringing

about a significant change in the foreign policy of Thailand. The

impact of globalisation in the form of economic crisis during 1997

- 99 provided a significant stimulus to the reform efforts. The

60

public had realized that the country needed a political system to be

more in line with an economy, which has now being integrated

with the wider world. There 'was rising demand for maintaining

transparency and accountability, which was essential not only for,

economic but also for political and bureaucratic structures. As a

result of public demonstrations efforts of conservative elements to

oppose political reforms failed and several political reforms were

introduced in the new constitution.. "These included measures

providing for greater transparency in policy making such as, the

provision for freedom of information and public hearings".42 The

development of more democratic political environment affected

Thai foreign policy decision-making.

Thai foreign policy under the Chuan government was also

marked by the expansion of its relations to all parts of the world.

This reflects the policy of balancing relations between the

developed and developing • 43 countnes. Thailand's role In

UNCT AD, for example, was not motivated by economic interest

only, but was meant to prove that it was not focusing simply on the

developed countries.44

53 Ibid p.190. 43 Interview with Mr.Sukhumbhard Paribatra, 22 Feb 2001. 44 Ibid

61

The Foreign Minister and his deputy traveled to some sixty

countries in all continents. l\ccording to Foreign Minister,

"Thailand had mustered a lot of goodwill internationally, including

establishing conditions condusive to reaping economic benefits".45

The Thai Government continued its policy of bilateral

dialogues and trilateral meeting on drugs with Myanmar and

China. Such dialogues are also being held with the other countries

frequently.

Ukrist Pathmanand in his study of Globalisation and

Development of Democracy in Thailand concluded, "Globalisation

has advanced democratization in Thailand, but has also advanced

the opponents of true democratization.. The 1990s saw great

changes for all the major players in the Thai political economy, the

military, the private sector and the civil society. Civil society has

become stronger, but is institutionally w'eak in the face of the

established institutional forces of capitalism military and beauracy.

The military has lost power and prestige, but has also been

rehabilitated as a socio- political force. In the wake of the 1997-98

economic crisis, the private sector has become stronger and has

captured political power. The victory of Taksin Shinawatra in the

elections of January 2001 indicates this power. Thaksin's rise

45 Pana Janviroj, "Foreign Policy set to take center stage in election" Nation, 18 October 2000 p.A4.

62

signifies the merger of econornic and political power, which may

create obstacles in the rapid of progress of democratization. The

election indicates a new pronlinence for big capital in Thai

politics.46

According to the recent statement of the ministry of Foreign

Affairs, Kingdom of Thailand, relating to the foreign policy and

International Economic Policy, "Thaihmd cannot avoid being

linked with the world econonlY and society. The Government's

conduct of foreign and international economic policies will protect

Thailand's national interests. [n the meantime attempts shall be

made to built up international cooperation at both the level of

neighbouring countries and the region and to prevent problems that

may affect Thailand". 4 7

"The Government shall conduct a proactive foreign policy

based on the principle of equaJ treatment and aims to promote

friendship and cooperation ,vith foreign countries, in political,

security, economic, social and cultural aspects with focus on

enhancing the Government's econonlic and social development

policies".

46 Ukrist Pathmanard "Globalisation and Democratic Development in Thailand." Contempolary South Asia Vol. 23 No.1, April 2001 pp.24-41. 47 File:IIF:\Ministry of Foreign Affairs Kingdom of Thai Jand Major Foreign Poic ....

63

"In the area of multinational cooperation the Government

shall abide by its obligations under the United Nations Charter

cooperation frameworks to which Thailand belongs and Thailand's

international commitments. The Government shall actively

participate in United Nations, international organizations, regional

organizations and intemation al networks to promote security,

democratization, international development, cooperation In

economIc, social, technical and human security assistance, in

particular post conflict rehabilitation, commuter - terrorism

cooperation and the development of Thai] and in international

conferences and activities

The Government shall encourage Thai nationals to play key

roles in the United Nations and other international organizations to

play a leading role in the setting of important international rules

and regulations and in the reform of the lJnited Nations addressing

globally - recognized transactional issues, in particular, narcotics

eradication and sustainable development.

In the area of international economic relations, the

Government shall continue to pursue a proactive international

economic policy in conjunction with domestic economic policy.

Particularly economIC restructuring so that international

cooperation may be promoted and the potential of people at every

64

level in participation for the econonlic restructuring enhanced. It

will also playa leading role in regional economic development.

The Government shall continue to negotiate free trade

agreements with various countries for the greatest good of the

competitiveness of Thai entrepreneurs and to pursue proactive

marketing policies in both existing and new market and services

are widely known and recognized by foreign consumers.

The Government shall encourage Thai representatives to play

constructive leading roles in international trade and economy

particularly under the multilateral framework, to enhance the

bargaining power and safeguard the overall interests of economies,

as economic cooperation will expand with various countries. It will

promote access to natural resources, ra\v materials, science and

technology and new knowledge from abroad to increase the

country's economic competitiveness in international trade a~ea.48

The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Thailand, during his

speech on "where does Thailand stand today" at the Second

Annual Economic Review Forum, in September 2001, stated, " We

realise the need to respond to the changing realities and growing

complexities of globalisation. Thailand cannot stand alone in

revitalizing the economy and in implementing her development

48 Ibid.

65

policies. We are thinking globally in order to address the concerns

of our local communities; we are building linkages with our

neighbours to increase the livelihood of our people and we are

reaching out to our foreign partners to generate regional wealth and

prosperity .

"The political response, \vhich has now led to the formation

of an international coalition which indicates the shared resolve and

communality of purpose on the part of international community.

This is an all-inclusive coalition, enlbracing even countries

normally found on opposite ends of the political spectrum. This

unprecedented coalition is bound together by a set of compelling

rationale and objectives, giving rise to much altered landscape of

international relations."

Thailand's development strategy and policies appear to be

well on track. Subject to the fine-tuning to meet the changing

demands of the current international tent ion, these strategies and

policies should be able to absorb the shocks and adversities that

might come our way. We shal1 continue on our path in stimulating

domestic consumption, building on our inner strengths and

capabilities to with stand global tluctuations. We are also working

with our neighbours and Asian partners in climbing up the

66

development chain value. This involves building blocks of

cooperation at various levels by filling in the missing links".49

As the globalisation process continues to evolve, "dynamic

transformation is also taking place in all spheres of human

endeavours, as evidenced in the advancement in transportation,

communication and information technologies. This government

recognizes the necessity in meeting the challenges of the emerging

"new economy". In doing so our task is first to update the society

to the level of knowledge based economy. This involves the

acquisition of knowledge which is a learning programme involving

all sectors of the society, both rural <md urban, in order to remain

competitive in the global economy". 50

Thailand and WTO:

From mid 1980s to the early 1990s the Association of

Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) which included Thailand,

Malaysia, Burma, Cambodia, Singapore and Indonesia were

proactive in the General AgreeJnent on Trade and Tariffs (GATT),

the World Trade Organisation's predecessor and in spite of their

internal differences, they presented a conunon front as "ASEAN"

hung together" and to good effect, in the Uruguay Round (The last

49 Ibid.

50 http://www.mfa.go.thiweb/35.php?id=2409

67

round of multilateral trade negotiations).51 But a decade later,

ASEAN members instead of hanging together, seem to have

bowling alone in the WTO.

By developing country standards Singapore, Malaysia,

Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines, known as ASEAN 5 are

relatively active members of WTO among ASEAN nations, as

Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam preferred to play a

passive role in the WTO.

ASEAN - 5 are relatively \vell integrated into the WTO, as

they have a well-staffed missions in Geneva, who take active part

in WTO committees and working groups and are involved in

formal or informal coalitions on particular issues. They have

initiated anti dumping actions and dispute settlement complaints.

They have critical minimum trade policy capacity, although it

varies from country to country in the group.

The ASIAN - 5 took a separate stand in WTO. The

differential impact of the Asian crisis on the ASEAN countries and

their lack of a collective response had a negative effect on ASEAN

cooperation in the WTO. The non-cooperation in the WTO is the

result of the problems related to their regions. These are -

51 Razeen Sally "Southeast Asia in the WTO: From Hanging together to Bowling Alone" Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. (2003)

68

I) ASEAN is a more differentiated family than it was a

decade ago. There are growing inter country gaps in

living standards, macroeconomic management and

policies, and the quality of institutions.

II) Trade policy responses of the Asian countries were

divergent. Singapore's response was to accelerate

unilateral liberaliza1ion of its service sectors, while the

others were not ready to do so as their service quasi­

monopolistic stat owned and private firms dominated

sectors.

III) There are greater demands on national trade policy

capacity. Uruguay Round agreements cover broader

sectoral areas and insist on removal of domestic

regulation. The second-generation reforms involving

domestic regulation are technically complex, time

consuming and costly and calls for involvement of a

large number of decision makers inside and outside the

government. National decision-making is relatively

complex, slower and involves different issues. The

complexity of decision making at home involving more

players on WTO issues especially regulatory agencies;

make it difficult to forge common ASEAN positions in

Geneva. As against this, it was easier to reach

69

consensus due to smaller number of trade policy

officials and negotiations were involved.

IV) Since the Asean crisis intra ASEAN divisions have

been reflected in the slow pace of progress in Asian

Free Trade Areas (AFTA). The timetable for the

Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) scheme

has failed to achieve any progress, especially in

ASEAN Investment Area (AlA) and ASEAN

Framework Agree:ment on Services (AF AS). Intra

ASEAN differences on the Inain negotiating items are

as follows.

a) In agriculture Thailand is maIn demand within

ASEAN for major multilateral liberalization and is

the only really active ASEAN member of the Cairns

Group (of major agricultural exporters outside US

and EU). Malaysia is after rapid industrialization

and has fewer agricultural interests to pursue in trade

negotiations.

70

The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Thailand in his speech on

WTO and Economic Globalisation,,52 in May 200 I said

"The WTO is a member driven organization which requires

our cooperative efforts, particularly from our developed members.

While there in progress in some areas, such as, increasing technical

assistance to developing countries and duty free and quota free

LDCs exports, implementation issues remain our great concern.

We request to developed countries to understand the problems

faced by developing countries and to take into account the spirit of

special and differential (S & D) treatment."

Thailand is trying to overcome crisis through internal

restrictions and reforms. Priority is attached to capacity building,

especially in the areas of R&,D, science and technology for the

members of poor communities to stand on their own feet, in midst

of global economic downturn. "\Ve intend to enhance the skills and

productivity of the local comrnunities and the competitiveness of

small scale units and rural industries to benefit from

globalisation".53

The Minister of Foreign j\fl:airs Thailand, in his speech at the

50th session of the UN General Assembly in September 2002 stated

52 http://www.rnfa.go.thlweb/35.php?id=24]4 53 Ibid.

71

"The principle of partnership is being implemented. Thailand

has succeeded in the coordination and partnership efforts in

capacity building. The International Institute for Trade and

Development (lTD) has been established in Thailand at Bangkok.

The lTD is a Thailand- UNCTAI) partnership to enhance the

productive capacity and trade negotiating skills of countries as they

prepare for the new round of g] obal trade negotiation". 54

"Capacity building is cnlcial if developing countries are to

participate effectively to deft!nd and advance their interests in

bilateral and multilateral free trade agreements, where often non

tariff barriers are often found in the guise of environmental

measures. In this aspect lTD can serv e as a useful linkage between

UNCT Al), WTO and UNEP for capacity building in trade

negotiations. ,,55

Prime Minister of Thailand delivered a speech In APEC

Economic Leaders Retreat (Part 2) in October 2002, where he

stated, " Thailand fully addresses to the principle of free trade and

believes that we should make every effort to create a more open

and transparent global trading system .. -No country in recent

decades has achieved economic success without opening itself up

54 http://www.mfa.go.th/web/35.php?id=2694 55 Ibid.

72

to the rest of the world. However trade should not be just free, it

should be fair". 56

Thailand has taken steps to remove the barriers to trade at the

borders. There has been increase in non-tariff barriers such as the

application of extreme stringent health and environmental

regulations and abuse of non-tariff barriers such as anti dumping

and safeguard measures. At the receiving end of these unfair

protectionist practices have clearly been the developing countries,

whose trade liberalization has not reciprocated by fair and

equitable benefits. Hence it is necess.ary to see that, as developing

countries proceed with their trade and investment liberalization

initiatives, they need to ensure that, they will lead to a world

regime that is both free and fair.

"F or Thailand, to ensure snlooth transition to free trade, we

have intensified our cooperation with neighbouring countries in the

ASEAN to create an ASEAN Free Trade Area by 2010.,,57

ASEAN is also working on Free Trade Area (FTA) with China,

and exploring possibilities of FTAs with other countries like

Australia, Bahrain, Japan, India and us. FTA is perceived by

ASEAN as an effective catalyst for free trade as well as an

essential building block for the multilateral trading system. A care

56 http://www.mfa.go.thiweb/35.php?id=2935 57 Ibid.

73

has been taken to see that these arrangements are consistent with

APEC principle of open regionalism and the WTO's goal of

environment, so that they will benefit both members and non­

members and that no one will be left behind the process.

"Thailand has and will continue to participate actively in the

WTO process in order to achieve a multilateral rule based trading

system that is both free and fair.,,:58 "As a developing country

where agriculture forms the backbone of our economy, Thailand

places the utmost importance on the agricultural negotiations.

Indeed, considering that developing countries make up three fourth

of the WTO members, many of whom are also dependent on

agricultural trade to generate growth and development, Thailand

believes that the development portion of the DDA can only be

achieved within the full integration of agricultural trade into the

WTO framework and that substantial progress in the agricultural

negotiations is key to a successful outcome of our meeting" .59

"Thailand is ready to cooperate with all the APEC economies

to work towards our common interest in transforming the Asian -

pacific into a region of free trade and investment and in pushing

forward with the Doha Development Agenda. Yet we must make

certain that none of us is left behind. And most importantly, that

58 Ibid.

59 Ibid.

74

our liberalization efforts will lead to a global trading system that is

not only open and free but a] so equitable and fair". 60 He further

emphasized that free and fair trade can be facilitated by a market

based and sound financial system, hence enhancing regional

financial stability stands out as an important issue. A beginning has

been made through effective implementation of the Chiang Mai

Initiative, a cooperative financing arrangements among East Asian

Economies. Another cooperative venture of the development of

securitisation and credit guarantee market, which is closely related

to the development of a market based Asian bond by the Asia

Cooperation Dialogue (ACD). The initiative of finalizing this

proposal was taken by Hong Kong, China, the Republic of Korea

and Thailand. The ACD is an Asia wide cooperation based upon

openness, outward looking, positive thinking and inclusiveness.

ACD seeks to enable Asia to become a stronger trading and

investment partner as well as a larger market for other APEC and

other economics. In strengthening Asia, ACD would expand

opportunities for developing economics to participate even more

actively in the global trading system and quicken their pace toward

achieving the goal of just and equitable global free trade.,,61

60 Ibid.

61 Ibid.

75

Thailand has also taken a lead in the establishment of Asian

Security Community (ASC) ,,,ith the support of Cambodia,

Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore and

Vietnam, in 2003. It aims at promoting regional solidarity and

cooperation.

The High Level Task Force (HLTF) has recommended

ASEAN Economic community to promote trade in goods services

and investment. It has also n~commended that current economic

cooperation initiatives be further strengthened in the areas of (a)

trade in goods; (b) trade in services (c) investment (d) intellectual

property rights (e) capital mobility. The possible measures

proposed for the goods sector include

a) Zero internal tariff')

b) Immediate remova] of barriers to trade

c) Faster customs clearance and simplified customs

procedures

d) Accelerated development of Mutual Recognition

Arrangements (MRAs) and has motivation of

products standards and technical regulations, by

2004.62

62 Declaration of Asian Concord (II), (Bali Concord) October, 7th 2003.

76

It is in this light that foreign policy of Thailand with respect

to certain selected countries in the region has been studied in the

following pages.

Burma (My.nm.,

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• ''"'''''''Jf11 .. ,....~ --- ~"1OOd

n !'SO 100 1,g~ ~ ,,i,' ;&, ,;,,_

MYANMAR

*Source: www.myanmars .. net/pic/myanmarmap.jpg

77