CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/12677/8/08... · 2015. 12. 4. · INTRODUCTION 1.1 Wetlands General ... Early civilizations first arose

Status of Wetlands in Kollam District 10

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Wetlands General Perspectives

Wetlands are the most important natural feature that modifies the human history as well as

culture. Wetlands are the area of earth surface that taught the human beings the art of

cultivation about 10000 year back. The wetland and human beings are in tandem from time

immemorial. It is true to say that human beings are molded and human cultures were

modified in the vicinity of wetlands. (Wade and Lopez-Gunn, 1999) Early civilizations first

arose along the Edges of rivers in the fertile soils of flood plains (Keddy, 2000). It is evident

from the facts of our age-old river valley civilizations like Indus, Mesopotamia, to less known

Mayan civilizations etc (Pohi, 1990).

Wetland habitats have been an integral part of the life of man in India. The folklore and old

Indian literature are full of references to the freshwater wetland plants. The flood plains of

river Yamuna were once extensive enough where the herds of cows grazed in company of

Lord Krishna. The reeds (pharagmitees karka) were and are still widely used for thatching

roofs and making screens. Cane (Calamus tenuis) well known for its strength, is used

variously in making furniture. Sacred Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera), held in reverence for being

the seat of Gods and Goddesses, was once abundant in shallow water bodies. The seeds of

lotus and Euryale ferox are still a delicacy in India and thousands of kilograms are harvested

every year. Besides seeds, the petioles and rhizomes are used as vegetable. (Gopal and

Krishnamurthy, 1992)

Wetlands were considered marginal waterlogged lands, harboring disease, hazardous and are

also the source of immense human suffering (Keddy, 2000), (Dugan, 1993) These type of


human perception of wetland has always been ambivalent. Misunderstandings over their

ecology and functioning lead to their perception as a hazardous wasteland. But the local

people who lives in the vicinity of wetlands often respect and understand wetlands as a

resource and are dependent on them, while more recently, the wetland areas attract many

tourists (Wade and Lopez-Gunn, 1999).

The wetlands are a mystery for many people and consider them according to their whims and

fancies. In a spatial context they lie between dry land and open water- at the coast, around

inland lake and rivers or as mires draped across the landscape. In an ecological context,

wetlands are intermediate between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In a temporal context,

most are destined either to evolve into dry land as a result of lowered water tables,

sedimentation or plant succession, or to be submerged by rising water tables associated with

relative sea-level rise or climatic change.

Geologically, individual wetlands are ephemeral features of the earth’s surface, Subject to

change, although the startigraphic record is full with examples of past wetlands such as

carboniferous coal swamps of Laurasia, paleo channels of some old rivers, and playas in arid

regions etc Orme (1992) For the agriculturists these are the areas to be drained and

cultivated, for the historians, they are the cradle of the ancient civilizations. For the

sociologists these are the place for the survival of the huge population of third world

countries as well as the source all the epidemics in this area. For the botanists these are the

areas where we can see plants adapted to wetness and dryness. For the zoologists these are

the areas for the survival of certain migratory birds and native animals, most of them are in

the brink of extinction. For the developers these are the areas to be filled and build housing

amnesties. For the urban planner these are the areas that should be used for wastewater

treatment.


The importance of wetland not ends in the above described areas alone. Human beings are

living in a wide variety of landscapes and for many centuries the scientist of many disciples

as their focus of study. Wetlands are another major landscape, but it is only since the late

1960s that they have engaged the attention of a range of scholars in an effort to understand

their variety and complexity, yet essential unity, the problems, prospects, extend, and

distribution (Williams, 1993a).

1.2 Various Definition of Wetlands

Even though wetland is an old term, it gains importance very recently. People around the

world know the term ‘wetland’ in different names because wetlands occur in all the climatic

zones of the world. Their environmental characteristics such as soil, flora, fauna, and

hydrology differ place to place. Generally there are two types of definitions of wetland, one

dealing with the scientific aspect of the wetland and the other dealing with the legal

proceedings. The term "wetland" means different things to different people - indeed, there are

about fifty definitions of wetlands in current usage (Dugan, 1993).

The following are some very simple definitions

Aquatic wetland: area where plants that are living or growing in water.

Estuarian wetland: An area where sea water mixes with fresh water.

Riparian wetland: area that is adjacent to creeks, streams, or rivers where the vegetation is

strongly influenced by the presence of water.

Emergent plant wetland: A rooted aquatic plant that normally extends above the surface of

the water.

Floodplain wetland: A nearly flat plain along a river or stream that is subject to flooding.

Tidal wetlands: Wetlands in which the water level fluctuates with the tide (eduscapes, 2000)


Shallow water wetlands: A wetland community dominated by truly aquatic plants

growing in and covered by at least 25 cm of water.

Wetlands are fragile interface between land and water (Wetland Australia, 2000) A simple

definition is ‘land with soils that are permanently flooded’. Strahler and Strahler (2002)

defines wetlands as the land areas of poor surface drainage, such as marshes and swamps.

The US Army Corps of Engineers and the US Environmental Protection Agency define

wetlands as follows:

“Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and

duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence

of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally

include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas” (Cowardin et al., 1979)

This definition encompasses reef flats sea grass beds in coastal areas, through mudflats,

mangroves, estuaries, rivers, freshwater marshes, swamp forests and lakes, as well as saline

marshes and lakes.

Cowardin et al. (1979) developed a simple definition : “wetlands are ecotones; areas which

are transitional between terrestrial and aquatic environments and where the water logging of

the soil causes the development of a characteristic vegetation”.

The US Environment Protection Agency in 2005 gave two different definition of wetlands

one is simple and another one is complicated. “Wetlands are marshy areas where there is

much moisture in the soil”. This includes areas covered in water, swamps, marshes, and bogs.

The second one is "Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems

where the water table is usually at or near the surface or where shallow water covers the land

and where at least one of the following attributes holds: like 1) the land predominantly


supports aquatic plants at least periodically; 2) Undrained hydric soils are the predominant

substrate; and 3) at some time during the growing season, the substrate is saturated with water

or covered by shallow water" (Environmental Protection Agency, 2005).

National Wetlands Working Group of Canada (1988) defines wetlands as ‘any land saturated

with water long enough to promote wetland or aquatic processes as indicated by poorly

drained soils, hydrophytic vegetation, and various kinds of biological activity that are adapted

to a wet environment’.

Corps Regulations for Implementing the Federal Clean Water Act of the United State of

America defines wetlands as: ‘those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or

ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal

circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated

soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar

areas’(FICWD, 1989).

According to the Dictionary of Physical Geography wetland is a term referring to an area that

has developed a specially adapted vegetation because it has been long dominated by water

and whose process are largely controlled by water, static or flowing, brackish or saline

(Whittow, 2000).

Wetlands are unique ecosystems that often occur at the edge of aquatic (water, fresh water to

salty) or terrestrial (upland) systems. They may be wet year-round, wet during certain

seasons, or wet during part of the day (IWWR, 2000).

Corps Regulations for Implementing the Federal Clean Water Act defines wetlands as:

"Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and

duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence


of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally

include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas" (IWWR, 2000)

Orme (1992) defines wetland as biophysical flatlands or slops with perennial water tables at

or near the surface.

Wetlands are considered to be the areas of the Earth’s surface were land meet the water. And

it also considered being the Kidneys of the Earth’s. Wetlands are considered to be the land

areas that are partially or permanently saturate with water during some or all of the annual

cycle (UNEP- 2000)

A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by

anaerobic process and forces the biota, Particularly rooted plants, to exhibit adaptations to

tolerate flooding (Keddy, 2000)

The Ramsar Convention definition of ‘wetland’ and classification system for wetland type

Under the Convention on Wetlands Ramsar, Iran, 1971 wetlands are described by Articles 1.1

and 2.1 as shown below:

Article 1.1:

"For the purpose of this Convention wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peat land or

water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is

static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth

of which at low tide does not exceed six meters."

Article 2.1 provides that wetlands:

"may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands

or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the

wetlands".


Environment Protection Agency of the US defines wetlands as The marshy areas where

there is much moisture in the soil and are sometimes covered in water (EPA, 2000).

"Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water

table is usually at or near the surface or where shallow water covers the land and where at

least one of the following attributes holds: 1) the land predominantly supports aquatic plants

at least periodically; 2) undrained hydric soils are the predominant substrate; and 3) at some

time during the growing season, the substrate is saturated with water or covered by shallow

water." (EPA, 2000)

According to the Illinois Department of Natural Resources of United States of America

wetlands are ‘halfway world between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that exhibit some of

the characteristics of each’ (IDNR, 2000).

1.3 Role of Wetlands

1.3.1. Hydrology

Wetlands play a critical role in regulating the movement of water within watersheds as well

as in the global water cycle (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000). Wetlands, by definition, are

characterized by water saturation in the root zone, at, or above the soil surface, for a certain

amount of time during the year. This fluctuation of the water table (hydro period) above the

soil surface is unique to each wetland type.

Wetlands store precipitation and surface water and then slowly release the water into

associated surface water resources, ground water, and the atmosphere. Wetland types differ in

this capacity based on a number of physical and biological characteristics, including:

landscape position, soil saturation, and the fiber content, degree of decomposition of the

organic soils, vegetation density and type of vegetation. Hydrology modifies and determines

the nature of wetland substrate and, together, these jointly allow specific ecosystem

responses. (Hollis and J. R. Thompson, 1998). The water stored in a wetland also contributes


to increased soil moisture in the wetland’s riparian area. Preserving water quality and

increasing biological productivity for both aquatic life as well as human communities of the

region. Inundated wetlands are very effective in storing rainwater and are the primary source

for recharging ground water aquifers (Anonymous, 1833; KSCSTE, 2007; Nair and Sankar,

2002). Changes in frequency, duration, and timing of hydro period may impact spawning,

migration, species composition, and food chain support of the wetland and associated

downstream systems (Crance 1988). Normal hydrologic flux allows exchange of nutrients,

detritus, and passage of aquatic life between systems. Values of wetlands as a result of the

functions of hydrologic flux and storage include: water quality, water supply, flood control,

erosion control, wildlife support, recreation, culture, and commercial benefits. (Hollis and J.

R. Thompson, 1998)

1.3.2 Ground Water Recharge

Wetlands help maintain the level of the water table and exert control on the hydraulic head.

This provides force for ground water recharge and discharge to other waters as well. The

extent of ground water recharge by a wetland is dependent upon soil, vegetation, site,

perimeter to volume ratio, and water table gradient. (Novitzki et al., 1997). Ground water

recharge occurs through mineral soils found primarily around the edges of wetlands the soil

under most wetlands is relatively impermeable.

Status of Wetlands in Kollam District

Figure 1-1: Wetland Hydrology


ydrology after (Hollis and J. R. Thompson, 1998)

18


1.3.3. Freshwater Source

Wetlands play an important part in freshwater cycle. They are the link between water and

land. They act as filters, thereby protecting sources of drinking water. The loss or degradation

of wetlands has many consequences, such as increased flooding or the decline of water

quality. Wetlands hold rainwater and sediments and purify water. The shrinking wetlands

prove to be disastrous to the freshwater supply. Wetlands were destroyed for cultivation and

to meet the demands of the increasing population.

The World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in August 2002

highlighted the fact that nearly 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe freshwater and

there are nearly 1.7 billion people living in water scarce areas. The Ramsar Convention had

highlighted the wetland ecosystems as the starting point of all integrated water management

strategies. Sustainability can be ensured only by maintaining the health of wetlands which are

the sources of freshwater, besides being sources of livelihood to rural population. (Ramsar,

2002)

1.3.4. Life Support

As it is the transitional zone between Water earth and atmosphere it provides diverse habitat

(food, water, shelter and space) for many species. Worldwide extend of natural wetlands

continue to decline as land is converted to accommodate increasing human populations. Rice

agriculture presents a potential surrogate habitat for specie that uses wetlands. (Elphick,

2000)

Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. (Mitsch and Gosselink,

2000). Immense varieties of species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds,

fish and other wildlife depend in some way on wetlands. Wetlands with seasonal hydrologic

pulsing are the most productive. Wetland plants play an integral role in the ecology of the


watershed. Wetland plants provide breeding and nursery sites, resting areas for migratory

species and refuge from predators. Decomposed plant matter (detritus) released into the water

is important food for many invertebrates and fish both in the wetland and in associated

aquatic systems. Physical and chemical characteristics such as climate, topography, geology,

hydrology and inputs of nutrients and sediments determine the rate of plant growth and

reproduction (primary productivity) of wetlands.(Brinson, 1993; Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000;

Nandan, 2007)

The inundated or saturated conditions occurring in wetlands limit plant species composition

to those that can tolerate such conditions. Beaver, muskrat and alligators create or manipulate

their own wetland habitat that other organisms such as fish, amphibians, waterfowl, insects

and mammals can use them or inhabit. (Gosselink and Maltby, 1990; Mitsch and Gosselink,

2000).

Wetland plants controls the oxidation conditions of the wetland. Wetland plants often contain

aerenchymous tissue (spongy tissue with large pores) in their stems and roots that allows air

to move quickly between the leaf surface and the roots. Oxygen released from wetland plant

roots oxidizes the rhizosphere (root zone) and allows processes requiring oxygen, such as

organic compound breakdown, decomposition and denitrification to occur (Toner and Keddy,

1997) (Figure 1-2). A wetland with more vegetation will intercept more runoff and be more

capable of reducing runoff velocity and removing pollutants from the water than a wetland

with less as their roots hold the stream bank, shoreline, or coastline.


1.3.5. Landscape position

Landscape position affects the amount and source of water in a wetland. For example,

wetlands that are near a topographical height, such as Myristica Swamp in Kulathoopuzha

region of Kollam district of Kerala (Nair and Sankar, 2002) will not receive as much run off

as a coastal wetland in low area amidst fields. Wetlands can be precipitation dominated,

ground water dominated or surface flow dominated. Wetlands on local topographic heights

are often precipitation dominated. Precipitation dominated wetlands may also be in flat or

slightly elevated areas in the landscape, where they receive little or no surface runoff.

Generally such wetlands have a clay and peat layer that retains the precipitation and also

prevents discharge from ground water. Wetlands also form in landscape positions at which

the water table actively discharges, particularly at the base of hills and in valleys. Such

ground water dominated wetlands may also receive overland flow but they have a steady

supply of water from and to groundwater. Most wetlands in low points on the landscape or

within other water resources are dominated by overland flow. Such riverine, fringe (marsh),

and tidal wetlands actively play a role in the landscape since they come in contact with, store,

or release large quantities of water and act upon sediments and nutrients. These wetlands are

recharged by ground water as well, but surface water provides the major source of water

(Figure 1-3, 1-4) (Gosselink and Maltby, 1990; Ramsar, 2002).

Wetland

Ecosystem

Biota

Geomorphology

Hydrology Sediments

Water Column

Time Climate

Figure 1-2: Conceptual Model of Large-Scale System Controls adapted from Chaplin et al (1996)


Figure 1-3: Typical Wetland System After (USGS, 2010)

Figure 1-4: Wetland Related to Riverine System after Keddy, 1997


1.3.6. Soil Saturation and Fiber Content

Soil saturation and fiber content are important factors in determining the capacity of a

wetland in retaining water. Like a sponge, as the pore spaces in wetland soil and peat become

saturated by water, they are able to hold less additional water and are also able to release the

water more easily. Clay soils retain more water than loam or sand and hold the water particles

more tightly through capillary action since pore spaces are small and the water particles are

attracted to the negatively charged clay. Pore spaces between sand particles are large and

water drains more freely since less of the water in the pore is close enough to be attracted to

the soil particle (Premachandran et al., 2002; Premachandran and Roshni, 2007; Ramsar,

2002).

1.3.7. Climate Control

Climate control is another hydrologic function of wetlands. Many wetlands return over two-

thirds of their annual water inputs to the atmosphere through evapo - transpiration. Wetlands

may also act to moderate temperature extremes in adjacent uplands (Brinson, 1993; Hertel

and Rosch, 2010).

1.3.8. Biogeochemical Cycling and Storage

Wetlands may be a sink for, or transform; nutrients, organic compounds, metals, and

components of organic matter. Wetlands may also act as filters of sediments and organic

matter. A wetland may be a permanent sink for these substances if the compounds become

buried in the substrate or are released into the atmosphere; or a wetland may retain them only

during the growing season or under flooded conditions. Wetland processes play a role in the

global cycles of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur by transforming them and releasing them into the

atmosphere. The values of wetland functions related to biogeochemical cycling and storage

include: water quality and erosion control (Johnston et al., 1990; Wetland Australia, 2000).

Wetlands store carbon within wet soil and are capable of reducing sulfate to sulfide. Sulfate

reaches the soil through tidal flow or atmospheric deposition (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2000).


Wetlands filter suspended solids from water that comes into contact with wetland vegetation.

Stems and leaves provide friction for the flow of the water thus allowing settling of

suspended solids and removal of related pollutants from the water column (Johnston et al.,

1990).

Wetlands can remove metals from surface and ground water as a result of the presence of

clays, humic materials (peats), aluminum, iron and calcium. Metals entering wetlands bind to

the negatively ionized surface of clay particles, precipitate as inorganic compounds (includes

metal oxides, hydroxides and carbonates controlled by system pH), complex with humic

materials and adsorb or occlude to precipitated hydrous oxides (Gambrell 1994).

1.3.9. Pollution Trapping and Waste Processing

Wetlands intercept the run-off from uplands before it reaches channels, trap water and filter

out pollutants, thus improving its quality. Wetlands are very efficient at removing nitrogen by

bacterial metabolism. Major chemical function of wetlands is their ability to process human

and animal waste material in an extremely efficient way

1.3.10. Decomposition

Decomposition rates vary across wetland types, particularly as a function of climate,

vegetation type, available carbon and nitrogen and pH. Decomposition requires oxygen and

thus reduces the dissolved oxygen content of the water. High rates of decomposition - such as

that occur after algae has bloomed - can reduce water quality and impair aquatic life support.

(Johnston et al., 1990).

1.3.11. Recreation, Aesthetics, Culture, and Science

Wetlands have archeological, historical, cultural, recreational and scientific values. Societies

have traditionally formed along bodies of water and artifacts found in wetlands provide

information about these societies.


1.3.12. Food

Reclaimed wetland produces new soils which are the basis for an enlarged food production.

This has been the fundamental reason for wetland transformation and diminution throughout

the centuries and will continue to be as in future as increased food production is a national

goal of every developing country in order to feed its rapidly growing population. (Williams,

1993b)

1.3.13. Coastal Protection

It is clear that coastal marshes absorb wave energy and reduce erosion on estuarine

shorelines and so buffer the land from storms. More than 50% of wave energy is dissipated

within the first 2.5 meter of the marsh. The coastal subsidence due to global sea level rise can

be survived by the coastal wetlands. (Williams, 1993b)

1.3.14. Economics

Wetlands are important from an economic standpoint. This include the benefits from habitat,

recreation, food production, waste water treatment, water regulation, flood control, water

supply, ground water recharge, etc (Costanza et al., 1989).

Wetland Functions – The physical, chemical, and biological processes that characterize

wetland ecosystems, such as flood water retention, erosion and sedimentation control,

dentrification, provision of habitat for organisms and support of aquatic life.

Wetland Values – Are usually associated with goods and services that society recognizes as

worthy, desirable, or useful to humans. Wetlands values arise from the functional ecological

processes associated with wetlands and are also determined by human perceptions, its

location, human population pressures and the extent of resources.

1.4 Types of Wetlands

There are two groups of wetland; one based on the prevailing vegetation type and the other

based on its location. On the basis of vegetation wetlands can be grouped into marshes,


swamps, bog, riparian marsh, etc. On the basis of landscape position wetlands are grouped

into coastal, inland and forested.

1.4.1 Marsh

A freshwater marsh is an inland area inundated with 1-6 feet (33 - 200 cm) of water,

containing a variety of perennials (mostly grasses), forbs (flowers) and bushes. Marshes have

an interesting mix of plant and animal life, one that effectively demonstrates the

interconnectedness of living things. Marshes also host frogs, turtles, and snakes, salamanders,

and an immense variety of insects, including aquatic, flying and grazing insects.

1.4.2. Riparian Marsh

Marshes that occur along rivers are called riparian marshes. These marshes serve two

ecological roles: to absorb excess water when river levels are high and to release water when

river levels are low. These balancing forces help prevent floods and droughts. However, for

the past 100 years mankind has straightened and deepened rivers in order to make them more

accessible for transportation and commerce. The unfortunate side effect is the loss of riparian

marshes. Today very few riparian marshes are left.

1.4.3. Swamp

A wetland community that is dominated by trees that are rooted in hydric soils, examples

include tropical mangrove swamp and bottom-land forests in flood plains.

1.4.4. Bog

A bog is a peat-accumulating wetland. Some shrubs, plants and mosses grow in bog. In a bog

source of water is mainly from precipitation. There is usually no direct inflow or outflow of

water.

1.4.5. Fen

A wetland community that is usually dominated by sedges and grass rooted in shallow peat,

often with considerable water movement through the peat. Examples include the extensive


peat lands in northern Canada and Russia, as well as smaller seepage areas throughout the

temperate zone

1.4.6. Wet Meadow

A wetland community dominated by herbaceous plants rooted in occasionally flooded soils.

Temporary flooding excludes terrestrial plants and swamp plants, but drier growing seasons

then produce plant communities typical of moist soils. Wetlands include wet prairies along

river flood plains or herbaceous meadows on the shorelines of large lakes.(Keddy, 2000)

1.5. Wetlands Types based on Landscape Position

1.5.1. Coastal Wetland

Coastal wetlands are unified as a system by low gradients, low wave energy, fine grained

sediments and pervasive salt water influence. Such conditions are found in estuaries, lagoons,

deltas and other inlets and along open coasts protected by offshore barriers, coral reefs or

wide tidal ramps.(Orme, 1992; Thrivikramji et al., 2007)

1.5.2. Inland Wetlands

Interior wetlands occur across a wide range of environments - from rivers to lakes to mires,

from arctic muskeg to equatorial swamp forest, from flats to hill slopes, and from fresh water

to hyper saline hydrologies. Interior wetlands exist independently of sea level. However their

development has been much influenced by Holocene climatic changes. (Orme, 1992)

1.5.3. Lacustrine Wetlands

Lacustrine wetland occurs in topographic depression these are open water dominated system.

These wetlands are widespread in humid tropics. The slow nature of the overland flow of

water in wetland reduces the amount of soil sediment entering streams and lakes. These

wetlands can reduce flooding by acting like giant sponges to absorb excess water and

releasing it slowly; this storage of water also allows water to evaporate or to seep into the

ground, replenishing the water table. (Gosselink James G 1992; Keddy, 2000)


1.5.4. Forested Wetlands

Floodplain forests, hardwood swamps, softwood swamps, seeps and vernal pools are major

types of forested wetlands. In Kerala there is a unique forested wetland system that

as Myristica swamps in Kulathupuzha region of Kollam District.

1.6. Ramsar Convention

Most of the wetlands in the world are affected by accelerated human intervention resulting in

its depletion and degradation. By understanding the need for the co

wetlands a global convention was organized in 1975 at Ramsar in Iran. This convention is

known as the Ramsar Convention.

Major agenda of the Ramsar convention was the conservation of waterfowl habitat in the

world. Later it was extende

It was adopted on February 2, 1975 so that 2

Wetlands Day’. Ramsar convention entered into force on December 21, 1975. Now Ramsar

have 160 signatories. With 1953 wetland sites a total of 190.45 million ha has included in

wetland area, of which majority of wetlands are in Europe (996).

distribution given in (Figure 1

Figure 1-5: Regional Distribution of Ramsar S

North America

8%

Oceania

5%

Neotropic

11%


Wetlands


types of forested wetlands. In Kerala there is a unique forested wetland system that

as Myristica swamps in Kulathupuzha region of Kollam District.

onvention


its depletion and degradation. By understanding the need for the co


known as the Ramsar Convention.


world. Later it was extended to the conservation of all wetlands of international importance.

It was adopted on February 2, 1975 so that 2nd February of each year is observed as ‘World


atories. With 1953 wetland sites a total of 190.45 million ha has included in

wetland area, of which majority of wetlands are in Europe (996). (Ramsar, 2002)

distribution given in (Figure 1-5)

istribution of Ramsar Sites after (Ramsar.org 2010)

Europe

51%

North America

Neotropic

11%

Africa

13%

Asia

12%

28


types of forested wetlands. In Kerala there is a unique forested wetland system that is known


its depletion and degradation. By understanding the need for the conservation of these



d to the conservation of all wetlands of international importance.

February of each year is observed as ‘World


atories. With 1953 wetland sites a total of 190.45 million ha has included in

(Ramsar, 2002) Regional

(Ramsar.org 2010)


1.6.1 Special Feature of the Ramsar Convention

Major output of the Ramsar Convention was the following

i) Provisions for establishing wetland nature reserves.

ii) Cooperation in exchange of information.

iii) Training manpower for wetland management.

iv) Wetlands as habitats including mangrove swamps, marshes, fens, tidal flats, rivers,

lakes and seashores for migratory fauna.

v) Wise-use concept and its recommendations

1.6.2 Criteria for Selection of Wetlands of International Importance

Wetlands are selected for inclusion on the List of Wetlands of International Importance based

on "international significance in terms of ecology, botany, zoology, limnology, or

hydrology." All Ramsar sites meet at least one of the following criteria

1. Criteria for representative or unique wetlands

(Such as bio geographical representative or uniqueness, rareness or being unusual).

2. General criteria based on plants and animal.

3. Criteria based on waterfowl.

a) It should regularly support 20,000 waterfowl, or

b) Support individual from a particular group of waterfowl.

c) Support one percent of the individual in a population of one species or sub

species of waterfowl.

4) Criteria based on fish.

Ramsar concept of wise-use of wetlands includes their sustainable utilization for the benefit

of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the

ecosystem. The sustainable utilization of wetlands implies that human use of a wetland may

yield the greatest, continues to benefit the present generations while maintaining its potential


to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. In 1990, a wetland Conservation

Fund was established which provides commitment of financial resources and technology

transfer to developing countries (Ramsar, 2002).

1.6.3. National Commitments / Obligations Involved on The Part of Contracting Parties to Ramsar:

Each signatory of the Ramsar Convention should strictly adhere to the following obligations

i) Creation of Ramsar sites, in particular, the terrestrial or coastal wetland reserves

and parks nominated by parties,

ii) Implementation and adequacy review,

iii) Reporting by parties, by regime and NGOs,

iv) Protection of Ramsar sites through relevant domestic legislation and national

wetland policies

v) Formulating planning and implementing planning to promote wise-use,

vi) To establish wetland reserves and provide for their protection,

vii) To consult with other contracting parties about implementation of the

conservation measures recommended by Ramsar Convention, especially as regards

trans- frontier wetlands.

viii) To designate at least one wetland of international importance for Ramsar list and

to promote its/ their conservation.

Ramsar countries also promote the conservation of wetlands in their territory, whether or not

the wetlands are included on the list, through establishing wetlands nature reserves. Many

wetlands cross international boundaries, and many wetland species are migratory; like other

natural systems, wetlands are complex and perform many important functions that we depend

upon, such as flood control and water quality protection, as well as providing wildlife habitat.

Wetlands are among the most productive environments, which are blessed with biological


diversity. The Ramsar Convention celebrates the importance of these remarkable habitats

worldwide and ensures their protection for the future.

1.7. Wetlands in India

India is a Contracting Party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance

signed at Ramsar in Iran in 1971. There are twenty five wetlands identified as Ramsar sites in

India. (Table) In India more than 70% of wetlands are under the category of paddy fields.

Another major wetland system on India is manmade impoundments which covers about 3 %

of total wetland area. Mangroves and estuaries cover more than 7 million

hectors(Woistencroft et al., 1989).

1.7.1 Status of Wetlands in India

The geomorphologic, climatic, hydrological and biotic diversity of the Indian subcontinent

has ensured a great diversity of its wetlands which include seasonally flooded as well as

permanent marshes and swamps in shallow lakes, large river floodplains and littoral zones of

large lakes and reservoirs. Along the entire coast there are several lagoons, estuarine

backwaters and extensive mangroves in the deltas and estuaries of numerous rivers. There are

also marine wetlands which include coastal beds of marine algae and coral reefs(Gopal and

Sah, 1995).

India has a wealth of wetland eco-systems distributed in different geographical regions from

the cold arid zone of Ladakh in the North to the wet humid climate of Imphal in the East, the

warm arid zone of Rajasthan in the west to the tropical monsoonal Central India and the wet

and humid zone of Southern Peninsula. Most of the wetlands of India are part of the major

river systems such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Tapti, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc

(Garg et al., 1998).

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India (1992) estimated that 4.7

million ha area are wetlands, of which 1.5 million ha is natural, 2.6 million man made and 0.6


million ha mangrove vegetation. According to the nationwide wetland inventory there are

27,403 wetland units in the country occupying 7.6 million ha of which coastal wetlands

occupies 3959 units and 4 million ha whereas inland wetlands are of 23444 units with 3.6

million ha (Ramsar, 2004).

During recent decades, the rapid increase in human population and demand for natural

resources for food, fuel and fodder have resulted in rapid deterioration and decline of all

kinds of wetlands throughout the south Asian region. Diverse human activities on adjacent

land and in water further aggravate the problem of wetland decline. It is interesting to also

point out the impacts of introduced plants and animals on natural biota and processes in both

mangroves and freshwater wetlands.

Realizing the importance of wetlands in India, Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF),

Government of India, has published a directory of wetlands (1990), based on the survey

carried out during 1972. However, the survey was not comprehensive and many inland

wetlands and most of the coastal wetlands, paddy fields have not been included in the

compilation. In order to fill this void, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India

has sponsored a project on Nation-wide Wetland Mapping for inventory and creation of a

data base for conservation and management of wetlands in the country using space borne

remotely sensed data from indigenously built Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) 1A, 1B.

The total wetland area in the country excluding the area under paddy, rivers and canals has

been estimated to be about 7.6 million hectors out of which 3.6 Million hectors are inland and

4 million hectors are coastal wetlands. (Kaul, 2007)

1.7.2. Major National Initiative for Wetland Management in India

The major attempts in India regarding the wetland management and classification includes:

A national inventory of wetlands, entitled the All-India Wetland Survey, was initiated by the

Government of India in 1960 a large number of sites have been listed.


January 1987, simultaneous waterfowl counts at wetlands throughout India, as part of a major

international waterfowl census in southern Asia organized by the International Waterfowl

Research Bureau. The Indian counts were coordinated by the Bombay Natural History

Society.

In 1980, Indian National Science Academy and the National Institute of Ecology organized

an International Wetlands Conference in New Delhi.

Environmental Services Group of WWF India for the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

had prepared a report titled "Wetlands, Status and Management in India: An overview"

(Fernandes, 1987).

In 1989, Ministry of Environment and Forest and WWF published detailed inventory of

Indian wetlands this survey covered 93 wetlands of International Importance. The inventory

includes some information on their major biota, especially waterfowl, land use and human

impacts as well (Woistencroft et al., 1989).

In 1990 Ministry of Environment and forestry published the wetland directory which covered

2167 natural wetlands with an area of 1.5 million ha and 65253 man-made wetlands with 2.6

million ha. In 1993 WWF India and Ministry of Environment and Forests identified 54

additional wetlands of international importance. In 1996 Space Application Center identified

27403 inland and coastal wetlands with total area of 7.6 million ha using IRS data. In 2000

Ministry of Environment and Forests sanctioned a project on National wetland inventory for

preparing State wise wetland atlases, creating digital database for GIS application.

In 2002 Ramsar Conservation award presented to Chilka Development Authority or

ecological intervention in Chilka Lake. In 2005 India has been nominated to the Board of


Directors of Wetland International.

notification on Regulatory framework for wetlands was prepared in 2006.

1.7.3. Wetlands of international Importance in India

Out of the 1953 sites all over the world, 25 sites are in India. Kerala has largest concentration

of Ramsar area (213023 ha) followed by Orissa and Tamil Nadu.(Fig

Figure 1-6: Wetlands of international Importance in India

after (Woistencroft et al., 1990)

Table 1

Name of wetland

Kolleru Lake

Deepor Beel

Pong Dam Lake

Renuka Wetland

Chandertal Wetland

Wular Lake

To Moriri

Surinsar-Mansar Lakes

Madya

Pradesh, 3201

Assam, 4000

Punjab, 5648

Rajastan, 2687

3

Manipur, 2660

0

Tamil

Nadu, 38500

Uttar

Pradesh, 26590


Directors of Wetland International. National Environment policy 2006 formulated and draft

notification on Regulatory framework for wetlands was prepared in 2006.

1.7.3. Wetlands of international Importance in India


of Ramsar area (213023 ha) followed by Orissa and Tamil Nadu.(Figure .1

Wetlands of international Importance in India (Area in ha)

(Woistencroft et al., 1990)

Table 1-1: State Wise Areas of Ramsar Sites in India

List of Ramsar Sites in India

State Date of Declaration

Andhra Pradesh 19/08/02

Assam 19/08/02

Himachal Pradesh 19/08/03



Jammu& Kashmir 23/03/90



Kerala, 213023

Orissa, 181500

West

Bengal, 12500

Himachal

Pradesh

, 15731

Jammu &

Kashmir, 32625

Uttar

Pradesh, 26590

Tripura, 240

34

y 2006 formulated and draft

notification on Regulatory framework for wetlands was prepared in 2006. (Kaul, 2007)


ure .1-6, Table 1.1)

(Area in ha)

State Wise Areas of Ramsar Sites in India

Date of Declaration Area in ha

90100

4000

15662

20

49

18900

12000

350


Hokera Wetlands Jammu& Kashmir 08/12/05 1375

Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 19/08/02 373

Vembanad Kol wetland Kerala 19/08/03 151250

Ashtamudi wetland Kerala 19/08/04 61400

Bhoj Wetland Madhya Pradesh 19/08/02 3201

Loktak Lake Manipur 23/03/90 26600

Chilka Lake Orissa 1/10/81 116500

Bhitarkanika Mangroves Orissa 19/08/05 65000

Harike Lake Punjab 23/03/90 4100

Kanjli Punjab 22/01/03 183

Ropar Punjab 22/01/04 1365

Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 1/10/81 2873

Sāmbhar Lake Rajasthan 23/03/90 24000

Point Calimere wildlife

and Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu 19/08/02 38500

Rudra Sagar Lake Uttar Pradesh 8/11/05 240

Upper Ganga River (Brij

ghat to Narora stretch) Uttar Pradesh 8/11/05 26590

East Kolkata wetlands West Bengal 19/08/02 12500

Total 677131

modified from (Ramsar, 2010)

The Ministry of Environment and Forests published a list of 94 wetlands under national

wetland conservation Program (Table1.2).

Table 1-2: List of Wetlands under National Wetland Conservation Program (2000)

Sl. No Name of State/UT Name of the Wetland

1 Andhra Pradesh Kolleru

2 Assam Deeper Beel

Urpad Beel

3 Bihar

Kabar

Barila

Kusheswar Asthan


4 Gujarat

Nalsarovar

Great Rann of Kachh

Thol Bird Sanctuary

Khijadiya Bird Sanctuary

Little Rann of Kachh

Pariej

Wadhwana

Nanikakrad

5 Haryana Sultanpur

Bhindawas

6 Himachal Pradesh

Renuka

Pong Dam

Chandratal

Rewalsar

Khajjiar

7 Jammu & Kashmir

Wular

Tso Morari

Tisgul Tso & Chisul Marshes

Hokersar

Mansard-Surinsar

Ranjith Sagar

Pangong Tsar

8 Jharkhand Udhwa

Tilayia Dam

9 Karnataka

Magadhi

Gudavi Bird Sanctuary

Bonal

Hidkal & Ghataprava

Heggeri

Ranganthittu

10 Kerala

Ashtamudi

Sasthamkotta

Kottuli


Kadalundi

Vembanad Kol

11 Madhya Pradesh

Barna

Yashwant Sagar

Wetland of Ken River

National Chambal Sanctuary

Ghatigaon

Ratapani

Denwa Tawa wetland

Kanha Tiger Reserve

Pench Tiger Reserve

Sakhya Sagar

Dihaila

Govind Sagar

12 Maharashtra

Ujni

Jayakawadi

Nalganga wetland

13 Manipur Loktak

14 Mizoram Tamdil

Palak

15 Orissa

Chilka

Kuanria wetland

Kanjia wetland

Daha wetland

16 Punjab

Harike

Ropar

Kanjli

17 Rajasthan Sambhar

18 Sikkim

Kechuperi Holi lake

Tamze wetland

Tembao wetland complex

Phendang wetland complex

Gurudokmar wetland


Tsomgo wetland

19 Tamil Nadu

Point Calimer

Kaliveli

Pallaikarni

20 Tripura Rudra Sagar

21 Uttar Pradesh

Nawabganj

Sandi

Lakh Bahoshi

Samaspur

Alwara wetland

Semarai lake- Nagaria lake complex

22 Uttaranchal Ban Ganga Jhilmil Tal

23 West Bengal

East Kolkata wetland

Sundarbans

Ahiron Beel

Rasik Beel

Santragachi

24 Chandigarh Sukhna

(Kaul, 2007; NWIA, 2010)

1.7.4 Type wise Estimates of Wetlands in India

In India more than 51% of wet area occupied by coastal wetland in which 58% are tidal /mud

flats. In the case of inland wetlands 19% comes under the category of reservoirs and Lakes

(Table 1-3, Figure 1-7).

Table 1-3: Type wise Estimates of Wetlands in India

Wetland Category Number Area (ha)

Inland Wetlands

Natural

Lakes 4646 679530

Ox-Bow Lakes 3197 151051

Waterlogged (Seasonal) 4921 285744

Playas 79 118519


Swamp/Marsh 1814 197784

Sub-Total 14657 1432627

Man-made

Reservoirs 2208 1481987

Tanks 5549 558344

Waterlogged 892 77302

Abandoned Quarries (water) 105 5774

Ash Pond/Cooling Pond 33 2881

Sub-Total 8787 2126288

Total Inland 23444 3558915

Coastal Wetlands

Natural

Estuaries 97 153966

Lagoons 34 156403

Creeks 241 19230

Backwater 32 17075

Tidal/ Mud Flat 663 2362056

Sand/Beach/Spit/Bar 772 421019

Coral Reefs 487 84137

Rocky Coast 85 17686

Mangroves 858 340055

Salt Marsh/ Marsh Vegetation 161 169840

Other Vegetation 117 139102

Sub-Total 3497 3880569

Salt Pans 106 65496

Aquaculture Ponds 356 76891

Sub-Total 462 142387

Total Coastal 3959 4022956

Total India 27403 7581871

(Ramsar, 2010)


Figure 1-7: Category Wise Distribution

1.8. Wetland status of Kerala

The Kerala state with 38864 Sq. Km is end

as manmade wetlands. These include the lagoons, estuaries, back waters, canals and

reservoirs, paddy fields etc. The climate of Kerala is very suited for the healthy existence of

the wetland system. As a r

is under wetland. (Nair et al., 2001)

There are many wetland status analysis projects undertaken by the Kerala State Land Use

Board, Center for Earth Science Studies etc. According to these studies the state has a total

area of 127930.07 hectares of wetlands of which 341199.57 hectares are inland wetlands and

93730.5 hectares are coastal wetlands (table 1.

Geomorphologically Kerala’s wetlands are broadly divided into five groups such as marine,

riverine, lacustrine palustrine and paddy fields. Most of the wetlands of Kerala are

concentrated in the coastal area. As compared to the coastal wetlands which mainly

Inland Wetland

Man Made

27%


Wise Distribution of Indian Wetlands After

1.8. Wetland status of Kerala

The Kerala state with 38864 Sq. Km is endowed with several large and small natural as well



the wetland system. As a result of this about as 20% of the total geographic area of the state

(Nair et al., 2001)



0.07 hectares of wetlands of which 341199.57 hectares are inland wetlands and

93730.5 hectares are coastal wetlands (table 1.4) (Nair & Sankar 2002).

Kerala’s wetlands are broadly divided into five groups such as marine,

trine palustrine and paddy fields. Most of the wetlands of Kerala are


Inland Wetland

Natural

45%

Inland Wetland-

Man Made

Coastal

Wetlands-Natural

25%

Coastal

Wetlands

40

After (NWIA, 2010)

owed with several large and small natural as well



esult of this about as 20% of the total geographic area of the state



0.07 hectares of wetlands of which 341199.57 hectares are inland wetlands and

) (Nair & Sankar 2002).

Kerala’s wetlands are broadly divided into five groups such as marine,

trine palustrine and paddy fields. Most of the wetlands of Kerala are


Inland Wetland-

Natural

45%

Coastal

Wetlands-Man

Made

3%


comprises of lacustrine and marine the wetlands of midlands and highlands mainly comprises

of rivers and manmade reservoirs.

Another important and extensive type of wetlands in Kerala is the water logged marshy areas

and vast paddy fields associated within the small river basins and micro watersheds of

Kerala. The Kuttanad wetlands of Alappuzha and Kottayam districts, the Pokkali wetlands of

Kollam and Alappuzha districts and the Kole lands Thrissur districts are most notable among

these (Nair and Sankar, 2002). The total wetlands including paddy fields accounts for more

than 58% of the total geographic area of the state (table 1-5). Of this 40.9% are under wet

paddy. ((Nair and Sankar, 2002)

Table 1-4: Area under Wetland of Kerala

Wetlands Area (ha) % of Area

Inland Wetlands

Natural 2180 1.7

Man made 32019.57 25.03

Total 34199.57 26.73

Coastal Wetlands

Natural 85671.5 66.97

Man made 8059 6.3

Total 93730.5 73.27

Grand Total 127930.07 100

(KSCSTE, 2007; Nair et al., 2001)

Table 1-5: Type wise Estimate of Wetlands of Kerala Including Wet Paddy

Type Area in %

Area under wet paddy cultivation 40.9

Area suitable for fish culture 3.6

Area under capture fisheries 2.9


Mangroves 0.4

Estuaries 3.9

Backwaters 3.5

Impoundments 3

Total Area 58.2

(KSCSTE, 2007; Nair et al., 2001)

1.8.1 Major Backwaters/ Estuaries of Kerala

There are 32 major back waters/estuaries in Kerala of which Vembanad estuary is the

largest (Table 1-6)

Table 1-6: Major Backwaters/ Estuaries of Kerala

Backwaters and Estuaries of Kerala

No Name District

1 Karingote Estuary Kasaragode

2 Nileswar Backwater Kasaragode

3 Kava Backwater Kannur

4 Dharmapatanam Backwater Kannur

5 Mannayed Estuary Kannur

6 Mahe Estuary Kannur

7 Kattampally Kannur

8 Kotta Backwater Kozhikode

9 Korapuzha estuary Kozhikode

10 Payyoli Backwater Kozhikode

11 Elathur Backwater Kozhikode

12 Kallyai Backwater Kozhikode

13 Baypore Estuary Kozhikode

14 Kadalundi Estuary Kozhikode & Malappuram

15 Conolly Canal Kozhikode

16 Puraparamba Backwater Malappuram

17 Puratur/ Ponnani Estuary Malappuram

18 Chettuva estuary Thrissur


19 Azheekode Estuary Thrissur

20 Kodungalloor Backwater Thrissur

21 Akathumuri Lake Thrissur

22 Kochi Estuary Ernakulam

23 Vambanadu Backwater Kottayam & Alappuzha

24 Kayamkulam Back water Alappuzha

25 Ashtamudi Estuary Kollam

26 Paravoor Backwater Kollam

27 Edava Nadayara Backwater Thiruvananthapuram

28 Anchuthengu Backwater Thiruvananthapuram

29 Kadinam Kulam Backwater Thiruvananthapuram

30 Veli Lake Thiruvananthapuram

31 Poonthura Back water Thiruvananthapuram

32 Poovar Backwater Thiruvananthapuram

(CGWB, 2009)

1.8.2 Freshwater Lakes of Kerala

There are seven freshwater lakes in Kerala which have no direct connection with the sea.

Sasthamkotta is the largest freshwater lake in Kerala and is the only freshwater wetland of

Kerala which is included in the Ramsar list (Table1-7)

Table 1-7: Freshwater Lakes of Kerala

No Name District

1 Pookode Wayanad

2 Muriyad Thrissur

3 Kattakambal Thrissur

4 Enammakkal Thrissur

5 Manakkodi Idukki

6 Sasthamkotta Kollam

7 Vellayani Thiruvananthapuram

(CGWB, 2009)


Besides these there are about the manmade lake and reservoirs created by constructing dams

across various rivers in the Western Ghats contribute to a sizeable proportion of artificial

wetlands of the state (KSCSTE, 2007). (Table 1-8)

Table 1-8: Major Reservoirs of Kerala

Sl. No Reservoirs River Basin District Area (ha @ FRL

1 Pazhassi Valapattanam Kannur 648

2 Kuttiyadi Kuttiyadi Kozhikode 1052

3 Malampuzha Bharathapuzha Palakkad 2313

4 Mangalam Bharathapuzha Palakkad 393

5 Meenkara Bharathapuzha Palakkad 259

6 Chulliyar Bharathapuzha Palakkad 159

7 Pothundi Bharathapuzha Palakkad 363

8 Walayar Bharathapuzha Palakkad 259

9 Parambikulam Bharathapuzha Palakkad 2092

10 Thunakkadavu Bharathapuzha Palakkad 283

11 Kanjirapuzha Bharathapuzha Palakkad 512

12 Peechi Karuvannur Thrissur 1263

13 Chimmony Karuvannur Thrissur 1010

14 Vazhani Kecheri Thrissur 255

15 Sholayar Chalakkudi Thrissur 870

16 Pringalkuthu Chalakkudi Thrissur 263

17 Pamba Pamba Idukki 570

18 Kakki Pamba Idukki 1800

19 Anathodu Pamba Idukki 1700

20 Gavi Pamba Idukki 1000

21 Idukki Periyar Idukki 6160

22 Anayirankal Periyar Idukki 433

23 Kundla Periyar Idukki 230

24 Mattupetti Periyar Idukki 324

25 Sengulam Periyar Idukki 33

26 Periiyar Lake Periyar Idukki 2890


27 Cheruthoni Periyar Idukki 1700

28 Azhutha Periyar Idukki Not available

29 Ponmudi Periyar Idukki 260

30 Kallarkutty Periyar Idukki 648

31 Neriyamangalam Periyar Ernakulam 413

32 Bhoothathankettu Periyar Ernakulam 608

33 Idamalayar Periyar Ernakulam 2830

34 Malankara Moovattupuzha Ernakulam 566

35 Kallada Kallada Kollam 2590

36 Neyyar Neyyar Thiruvananthapuram 1500

37 Aruvikkara Karamana Thiruvananthapuram 258

38 Peppara Karamana Thiruvananthapuram 582

(KSEB, 2010)

Apart from the reservoirs the wetland systems Kerala is endowed with small ponds and lakes.

Each Panchayath and urban areas have plenty of ponds and lakes of public and private

ownership. (table 1.9)

Table 1-9: Ponds Tank and Other Small Wetlands of Kerala

No. District

Number of Ponds

Panchayath

Ponds

Private

Ponds

Public

Ponds

Quarry

Ponds

Irrigation

Tanks

Holy ponds

and streams

1 Thiruvananthapuram 1633 171 0 6 34 69

2 Kollam 581 825 503 82 17 188

3 Pathanamthitta 390 456 654 138 6 59

4 Alappuzha 340 11400 0 4 3 303

5 Kottayam 226 1641 491 84 75 208

6 Idukki 66 558 77 19 47 23

7 Ernakulam 732 3450 296 164 72 204

8 Thrissur 984 5861 182 43 213 258

9 Palakkad 633 3070 242 134 61 314

10 Malappuram 555 3632 245 145 45 272

11 Wayanad 29 1489 1 16 61 3


12 Kozhikode 94 855 110 33 24 284

13 Kannur 292 626 470 25 35 301

14 Kasaragode 265 1858 86 11 145 148

Total 6820 35892 3357 904 838 2634

(Anonymous, 2002; Pan Fish Book, 2002)

1.8.3 Mangrove Ecosystems of Kerala

As Kerala comes under tropical monsoon climate it is blessed with a wide variety of

Mangrove ecosystem. Due to anthropogenic influence the area under mangrove vegetation is

confined to a few locations. The important mangrove vegetation sites of Kerala are shown in

Table 1-10

Table 1-10: Mangrove Ecosystems of Kerala

No Mangrove Area District

1 Chittari Kasaragode

2 Dharmadom Kannur

3 Nadakkavu Kannur

4 Edakkad Kannur

5 Valapattanam Kannur

6 Pappiniseri Kannur

7 Muzapilangadi Kannur

8 Kunhimangalam Kannur

9 Pazhayangadi Kannur

10 Kavvai Kannur

11 Thalassery Kannur

12 Ezhimala Kannur

13 Mahe Kannur

14 Kottuli Kozhikode

15 Koduvalli Kozhikode

16 Badagara Kozhikode

17 Kallai Kozhikode

18 Kadalundi Kozhikode /Malappuram


19 Tirur Malappuram

20 Chetwai Thrissur

21 Edappalli Ernakulam

22 Panagad/Kumbalam Ernakulam

23 Kannamali Ernakulam

24 Puthuvypin Ernakulam

25 Aroor Alapuzha

26 Kumarakom Kottayam

27 Asramom Kollam

28 Veli Thiruvananthapuram

(KSCSTE, 2007)

1.8.4 Unique Wetland Ecosystems of Kerala

The unique wetland ecosystems of Kerala (Table 1-11) include marshy and waterlogged areas

paddy fields associated with the backwaters and lakes and the Myristica Swamps in the

Western Ghats forests. About 53 patches of Myristica swamps have been recorded from the

Kulathupuzha, Anchal forest ranges and Shendurny Wildlife Sanctuary of the Kollam and

Thiruvananthapuram districts of southern Kerala. (KSCSTE, 2007)

Table 1-11: Unique wetland ecosystems of Kerala

No. Ecosystem District

1 Kuttanad Paddy Fields Alappuzha

2 Pokkali Lands Ernakulam, Alappuzha,

Kollam

3 Kol Lands Thrissur

4 Kaippad Lands Kannur

5 Myristica Swamps Kollam/Thiruvananthapuram

1.8.5. Myristica Swamps of Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram Districts

These are rare fresh water ecosystems in the tropical monsoon forests. This freshwater

swamp forest ecosystem is confined to low altitudes characterized by slow flowing streams of

Western Ghats river systems. In India these swamps have been recorded from Goa,


Karnataka and Kerala. Trees belonging to a primitive family of angiosperms; "Myristicaceae"

are the dominant tree species of this unique wetland ecosystem. Many of the animals found in

the Myristica swamps are endemic and some are on the red-list of IUCN. More importantly

these wetlands also play a critical role in water storing and maintaining ground water level.

Myristica swamps are critically endangered ecosystem in Western Ghats (KSCSTE, 2007).

In Kerala a total of 63 tree species and 97 species of shrub-herb-climber combine were

recorded from the Myristica swamps (Sabu and Ambat, 2007). Many of the plants seen here

are endemic to Western Ghats. Two species of earthworms, three species of crabs, ten species

of fishes, thirty four species of amphibians, thirty three species of reptiles, fifty eight species

of birds and twenty one species of mammals have been recorded as present in the swamps. In

addition to this annelids and arthropods are also being recorded.

1.8.6. Wetlands of International and National importance in Kerala

Vembanad-Kole, Ashtamudi and Sasthamkotta, wetlands are the three designated Ramsar

sites of Kerala. Besides this, two more wetlands - Kottuli in Kozhikode District and

Kadalundi in Kozhikode and Malappuram Districts have been identified by the Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Government of India, under National Wetland Conservation

Program.

Even though Kerala is blessed with a good climate and environment the status of wetlands in

Kerala is a cause for concern. For the last three decades the area under paddy in Kerala is

declining very rapidly. There is a decline of about 42% of the area under paddy cultivation

since 1970. In the case of total converted lands Palakkad and Malappuram are the leaders. In

the case Kollam district the loss of paddy field is more than 54%. While most urbanized

Ernakulam district lost only 35% of its wet paddy. (Figure 1-8, Table.1-12)


Table 1.12: Status of Area under Paddy in Kerala

District Area Under Paddy in Ha

1970 2004-2005 Converted Lands Fallow Lands

Thiruvananthapuram 16516.01 2840.9 12335.90 1339.24

Kollam 36901.87 8949 27960

Pathanamthitta 14318.93 8092.96 5990.80 235.20

Alappuzha 48498.8 42592.21 5334.04 572.56

Kottayam 33976.43 29947.66 3337.36 691.41

Idukki 8476.52 3821.05 4462.17 193.30

Ernakulam 49417.54 29977.28 17350.53 2089.70

Thrissur 61936.32 39815.52 19051.93 3068.87

Palakkad 101803.53 68294.08 32787.38 722.07

Malappuram 62298.8 22471.87 37666.70 2160.15

Kozhikode 18955.823 5769.38 12223.21 963.24

Wayanad 26278.7 13941.8 12336.93

Kannur 23428.78 11919.005 11215.42 294.35

Kasaragod 22737.83 3200 19185.31 352.54

Total Area 509132.87 292088.8 204361.4 12682.63

(Economics and Statistics, 2000)

Figure 1- 8: Converted Wetland after (Economics and Statistics, 2000)

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

Th

iru

van

ath

ap

ura

m

Ko

llam

Pa

tha

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Districts

Converted Lands


.

Figure 1-9: District wise Paddy Loss (in percentage) after (Economics and Statistics, 2000)

1.9. Problem Statement

The wetlands of Kollam district faces significant threats to its existence primarily due to

increase in population in the district in the last few decades. In addition to the general

problems faced by wetlands of the world such as pollution, threats due to global climate

change and reduction of species diversity due to anthropogenic interventions, the wetlands of

Kollam faces problems due to clay mining, sand mining, wetland reclamation for cash crop

cultivation and infrastructure development. These problems emanated mainly as a

consequence of the changes in the occupational pattern of the wetland dependent population.

Urbanization of the upstream catchment area and proximity to the highly urbanized Kollam

town has also contributed substantially to the degradation of the wetlands in the district.

Further, the hydrological modifications in the form of dams, bunds and other structures have

substantially affected the ecosystem dynamics of the wetlands. A notable manifestation of

these threats faced by the wetlands of Kollam district are the decadal changes that have come

about to the wetted perimeter of the wetlands and the changes in land use in the immediate

0

10

20

30

40

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60

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90

A

r

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paddy loss


vicinity of the wetland coastline. A conjugated analysis of the changes in socio economic

status of the dependent wetland dependent population and the changes that have come about

to the wetted perimeter and the land use has never been attempted and is crucially impending.

1.10. Aims and Objectives

1.10.1 Aim

Aim of the research is to identify the driving forces that lead to detrimental changes in the

wetlands and its immediate vicinity using satellite images and Geographic Information

Systems.

1.10.2 Objectives of the Research

• To prepare a periodic inventory of changes to wetland area in the past using published

maps and satellite images.

• To predict the areas that is most susceptible to future land use changes.

• To create a checklist of the criticalities faced by the wetlands.

• To identify the variables that represents the interdependence of the land use and

population.

• To identify the variables that represents the driving forces causing detrimental

changes to the wetlands.

1.10.3 Research Questions

• Are the wetland changes (area) in Kollam district a random phenomena?

• Can these changes be predicted using a Markov chain approach?

• What are the problems faced by the wetlands of Kollam district?

• What are the socio-economic causes of wetland changes?

• Are there any geo-climatic factors that influence the detrimental changes happening to

the wetlands?


• How does the socio-economic status of the population influence the detrimental

changes that come about to the wetlands?

• What are the factors that lead to wetland modification?

1.11. Chapter Construction

The present thesis consists of 8 chapters.

Second chapter includes the literature review which is divided into the study regarding the

wetlands of world, India, and Kerala.

Chapter three includes the geography of Kollam its climate general settings and demographic

particulars.

The fourth chapter deals with the threats faced by wetlands of Kollam district.

The fifth chapter consists of the materials and methods used in research and the type of data

collection data verification, compilation etc.

The sixth chapter deals with the results which the researcher had get from the study.

The seventh chapter is the discussion relating to the results.

The eighth chapter deals with the conclusion and recommendations regarding the current

study.

Documents

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/12677/8/08... · 2015. 12. 4. · INTRODUCTION 1.1 Wetlands General ... Early civilizations first arose