CHAPTER FIVE: IMAGES, SYMBOLS AND MYTHS OF THE SELF

OF THE SELF SYMBOLS AND MYTHS, IMAGES: FIVECHAPTER

“…that which is above is like that which is below, and that which is below is like that which is above, to

accomplish the miracle of the one thing” The Emerald Tablet, Hermes (Mercurius) Trismegistus

5.1 INTRODUCTION

An archetypal sense of being and meaning achieved through an adaptive and organising

principle rooted in the collective unconscious, driven towards transformation and unity;

these are functions and processes converged in the Self, the focal archetype of the

psyche. Moreover, archetypes encapsulate both symbolic convergence and divergence,

achieved through a constant process of interpretation and re-interpretation of implicit

and explicit patterns of images, symbols and myths. The genesis and pinnacle of this

transformational reiteration are the images, symbols and myths of the archetypal Self.

Consequently, the Self is a centre between consciousness and unconsciousness, and

signifies the harmony and balance between the various opposing qualities that make up

the psyche. These assertions are derived from the preceding chapters and will be

expanded upon in this chapter.

Ensuing from these assertions, it would be sound to assume that archetypes and

archetypal images, myths and symbols play central roles in the dynamics of the psyche

and specifically in reflecting the processes of development and transformation of the

individual, hence individuation and transcendence. Particularly the “extraordinarily

powerful” transformational or “rebirth” images and symbols referred to as “uniting

symbols” have the ability to combine opposite aspects of the human psyche into a

symbolic unity (Van Eenwyk, 1997:37). Rebirth symbols are said to resolve tensions by

combining conscious and unconscious representations, and seemingly contradictory

elements into a unique whole.

Accordingly, in this chapter the nature of a selection of archetypal images, symbols and

myths that serve as potential pivotal transformational and unifying agents emerging Images, symbols & myths of the Self

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from the archetype of the Self nested in the collective unconscious, as supra-system,

will be explored. Moreover, as the most rudimentary and richest forms of archetypal

symbols of specifically the individual, attention will be focussed on dream symbols and

the process of active imagination as a method of dream symbol interpretation. The need

to explore active imagination is assumed from Jung’s (1972:5) assertions that the

interpretation of the representation of an archetype requires an inner dialectical

procedure, hence a process possibly representing intrapsychic communication.

Resultantly, a deeper understanding of the dynamic function of archetypes in the

intrapsychic communication process may be gained.

The importance of an exploration of the dynamics of the psyche and the inner world of

the individual reflected in their organisation, is attributed to the fact that the

“communication system arising out of such a psychic matrix is of especial importance

for the analysis of intrapersonal communication, motivation, socialization and

development” (O’Sullivan et al, 1994:249). Since the Self is, amongst others, described

as the archetype of meaning, and the quintessential mould of all symbols of

transcendence, an exploration of its images, symbols and myths may attest to the

significance of intrapsychic communication as a viaduct and interface between the

conscious and unconscious mind.

Spiegelman (1989:v) explains that the archetypal images reflected in Jung’s

postulations of the individuation process, the transcendent function and active

imagination provide ways to explore the passions of the individual soul, which in turn

reveal the profound connectedness of all humanity. Ostensibly, the processes of

individuation, transcendence and active imagination, and images, symbols, and myths,

specifically dream symbols of the individual, are intertwined with the interpretation of

unconscious representations emerging from the collective unconscious - humanity’s

universal legacy.

Jung (1969:223) states that the conjecture of the Self as archetype of wholeness is based

on the representation of images and symbols in dreams, visions, and active imagination.

Moreover, the Self is, through the symbol, “…all the time urging us to overcome our

unconsciousness” (Jung quoted in Aziz, 1990:21). Consequently, an understanding of

how an individual approaches and interprets archetypal images and symbols as

Images, symbols & myths of the Self

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encountered in dreams and during active imagination may be indicative of how

conscious (thesis) and unconscious (anti-thesis) aspects merge into a cohesive whole

(synthesis) and will represent an experiential reality comparable to the process of

intrapsychic communication.

The exploration will commence by establishing the relationship between the conscious

and unconscious facilitated by the archetype of the Self and evoked by archetypal

patterns reflected in images, symbols and myths. This exploration will be followed by a

specific examination of the nature of a selection of archetypal images, symbols and

myths of the Self, and a more general examination of dreams and how the archetypal

images and symbols of the Self are reflected in dreams and interpreted by means of

active imagination and amplification. Following this, specifically transformational

archetypal images, symbols and myths processes of the Self will be explored.

Due to the varied nature and myriad forms of images, myths and symbols of the Self, it

is impossible to discuss them all within the scope of this study. A preliminary scrutiny

of sources indicates a close relationship between the foregoing concepts, with notions of

individuation, transcendence and transformation often intermingling. Alternatively,

their non-specific nature will be unearthed, which will then be used as the criteria and

point of reference against which the analysis in the next chapter will be done. The

mélange of concepts in the construct of the Self is attributed to the fact that the Self is

the archetype of wholeness, organisation, meaning, and transformation. Consequently, it

is the ‘synthesis centre’ of the psyche and combines divergent components into a

harmonious whole. Van Eenwyk (1997:38) refers to the transformation symbols of the

Self as the “…platypuses in the world of symbols, resolving tensions by combining

seemingly contradictory elements into a unique whole”. A platypus, found mostly in

Tasmania and Australia, is an extraordinary semi-aquatic animal with the strange

combination of a beak, webbed feet and fur. The female lays eggs but nurses the young

once they hatch. These animals are thus birdlike mammals that are at home both in

water and on land. The analogy of the platypus aptly illustrates the often complicated

nature of the images, symbols and myths of the Self.


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5.2 APPROACHING THE UNCONSCIOUS

Fundamental to a symbolic approach to self-realisation and development or

individuation and transcendence, and the pivotal role of the Self in the approach, is

Jung’s assertions that the psyche is a self-regulating system with the regulating element

embedded in the unconscious (Aziz, 1990:17). The psyche is capable of both

maintaining its own equilibrium, and bringing about its own self-realisation because of

the compensatory relationship between the conscious and unconscious which is driven

by the archetypes of the Self and evoked by its images, symbols and myths. Jung

(quoted in Aziz, 1990:18) indicates that the unconscious elements and processes,

constellated around the centrifugal archetype of the Self, compensate the conscious ego

and “contain all those elements that are necessary for the self-regulation of the psyche

as a whole”. This compensatory principle is believed to function not only in accordance

with the immediate needs of the individual, but also to facilitate the comprehensive

development of the psyche (Aziz, 1990:19; Raff, 2000:18).

According to Aziz (1990:19) and Raff (2000:19), self-realisation or individuation is

essentially an inclusive developmental process wherein the ego consciously integrates

those compensatory contents of the unconscious which serve to bring about the

conscious realisation of the Self. The integration of the contents of the unconscious and

the experiential reality of the individual at a particular point in time facilitates the

eventual quest of transformation and self-realisation.

Jung (quoted in Aziz, 1990:29) uses the symbolism of mythology to exemplify the

required skill and insight needed to realise the quest: “In myths the hero is the one who

conquers the dragon, not the one who is devoured by it. … Only one who has risked the

fight with the dragon and is not overcome by it wins the hoard, the ‘treasure hard to

attain’”. Aziz (1990:29) asserts that the winning of the “treasure hard to attain” is an

allusion by Jung to an experience of the archetype of total unity, the Self, the goal of the

process of individuation. The archetypal myth of the ‘treasure hard to attain’ will be

discussed in a subsequent section of the chapter.

Aziz (1990:25) explains that the transcendent function is in operation when, for

example, a conscious attitude is in conflict with the unconscious. The resultant tension


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between the conscious and unconscious activates the unconscious to compensate and a

‘dialogue’ between the conscious and unconscious follows in which both sides

exchange points of view until a compromise is reached that takes both positions into

account. As a result, a third, transcendent position is attained. “The transcendent

function, therefore, describes how out of the conscious-unconscious dialogue a new

position, the third, emerges” (Aziz, 1990:25). The procedure through which such a

transcendent third position is achieved was termed “active imagination” by Jung (1960).

Active imagination, according to Aziz (1990:25), is a conscious technique employed to

facilitate the transcendent function. Active imagination will be explored in more detail

in a subsequent section.

Jung (1960:17) states that what the unconscious expresses is not arbitrary, on the

contrary, it is basic, unmodified and not formulated according to specific doctrines. For

example, the archetype of the Self, as an imprint and typos of unfixed nature, is

compelled to express itself in diverse and unknown symbols that transcend time, space

and milieu. Some examples of the symbolic content which may fill the imprint or typos

of the Self include the “figure of Christ in the West: in the East, with Purusha, the

Atman and Hiranyagarbha, the Buddha”. However, in actuality, “the term ‘self’ refers

neither to Christ nor to the Buddha but to the totality of the figures that are its

equivalent, and each of these figures is a symbol of the self” (Jung, 1960:17). The Self

is hence “an empirical concept” and an unrepresented imprint acting as the impelling

force and representing the blending together of the sub-components of the psyche as a

whole. The blending together of subcomponents, the merging of conscious and

unconscious representations, and the resultant transcendence of the psyche are

achieved though images, symbols and myths of the Self. In other words, the Self and

its images, symbols and myths are the keys to transcendence and self-realisation, which

Jung referred to as the individuation process and the transcendent function (Rosen,

2002:87).

In terms of communication, the process of intrapsychic communication appears to be

the key to both the merging of conscious and unconscious renderings and the

transcendence of the individual. Furthermore, preceding constructs attest to an

underlying alliance between the Self and consciousness, with the Self partaking of both

the conscious and unconscious. The exploration in the following section of the chapter


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will focus on such a possible association. The significance of understanding the nature

of consciousness lies in its association with the processes and dynamics of intrapsychic

communication. Consequently, in order to demonstrate a more comprehensive

relationship between consciousness and communication symbols and images, a brief

exploration of selected perspectives and constructs of consciousness will be conducted.

5.2.1 CONSCIOUSNESS AND COMMUNICATION

The demystification of consciousness is challenging since the concept is both complex

and abstract. Sources of information about the concept, particularly as it relates to

intrapsychic communication, are limited. Additionally, because of its historical

association with mysticism, it is met with cynicism in certain academic circles and

consequently its research is neglected and sometimes discouraged because of its ‘fuzzy’

nature. It is only recently that attitudes towards the need to understand the phenomenon

started to change. In communication studies, the construct is rarely broached and if it

does feature, the empiricist's creed of turning 'the mind upon itself' is still chanted, the

principle reason ostensibly being the mechanistic and social constructivist trends in

communication studies. According to this view, sensory perception and cognition

represent the only consciousness in communication, and conscious reality is mostly a

social construction.

Hawkins (2002:43) states that regardless of what branch of inquiry, all avenues

eventually converge in the quest for an organised understanding of the nature of

consciousness. Lewis-Williams (2004:121) asserts that the paradox between scientific

investigation and experiential reality of consciousness remains a divided one: “the large

‘esoteric’ sections of bookshops show that ‘non-scientific’ thinking is alive and well,

and people still pray, meditate and consult priests and psychics”. However,

consciousness studies are still marginalised in scientific endeavours due to

contemporary Western emphasis on rationality and the resultant exclusion of certain

forms of consciousness such as altered sates of consciousness which are regarded as

“irrational, marginal, aberrant or even pathological and thereby were eliminated from

investigations of the deep past” (Lewis-Williams, 2004:121).


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Wallace and Fisher (1983:1) ask the following questions: “...should we fail to study

dreams because we (the scientist) cannot see them (share them) with the dreamer?

Should we fail to study hypnosis or meditation because these phenomena are not

directly measurable in the true behaviouristic sense?” They are of the opinion that the

answer to these questions is a definite no, because “we have only begun to touch the

surface in our understanding of consciousness, especially of the different levels of

consciousness and what takes place in them” (Wallace & Fisher, 1983:5). A similar

opinion is expressed by Sommerhoff (1990:1) who says, “There is probably no aspect

of human life less clearly understood by science than the faculty of consciousness and

the nature of its embodiment in the brain/body system”.

The alleged controversy regarding the scientific examination of human consciousness

presumably has its roots in the multitude of ways in which the human psyche is being

viewed. Psychology, the study of the psyche, would seem the natural source to explicate

and unravel the meaning of the construct ‘consciousness’. However, the study of human

consciousness fell in and out of scientific popularity in psychology. At its inception,

psychology was sometimes defined as “the description and explanation of states of

consciousness” (Myers, 1995:219). In 1913, however, behavioural psychologist Watson

said, “Psychology must discard all reference to consciousness” (Myers, 1995:219).

Myers (1995:219) asserts that “psychology nearly lost consciousness” during the 70

year reign of behaviourism in psychology. However, because of advances in

neuroscience during the 1960’s, mental concepts re-entered psychology and,

“psychology was regaining its consciousness” (Myers, 1995:220).

The study of the construct ‘consciousness’ evidently has come full-cycle and is now

referred to as the “psychology of consciousness” (Wallace & Fisher, 1983:2). Morris

(1990:135) is also of the opinion that experimentation with psychedelic, mind-altering

drugs, increased contact with mystical aspects of Western religion and Eastern religions

during the 1960s; and recent technological and cultural developments, all have renewed

psychologists’ interest in the study of consciousness.


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5.2.1.1 Delineating consciousness

Papalia and Olds (1986:113) define consciousness as “our awareness of ourselves and

of the world around us”. They describe an altered or alternative state of consciousness

as any qualitative change from our usual state of consciousness. They argue that the

difference between the states has to be one of kind, not just of degree. They attempt to

define normal waking consciousness by comparing it to ‘altered’ states of consciousness

which are categorised into two main groups comprising the alternate states or

spontaneous states which include sleeping, dreaming, “sick with high fever”, and the

altered or deliberately evoked states of meditation and hypnosis, and drug inducement

(Papalia & Olds, 1986:115).

Jordaan and Jordaan (1989:41, 232) differentiate between various processes of

consciousness, namely: the ability to be aware as a person, the ability to perceive, to

think, to learn, to feel (experience emotions), to remember, to be motivated, and to have

a self-image which gives rise to particular actions and patterns of behaviour. The

unconscious is viewed as interwoven with the conscious. “The conscious (awareness)

and the unconscious (unawareness) states are closely intertwined, and together they

constitute the intrapsychic unity of human experiences”.

Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, & Hall (1991:146) indicate that definitions of consciousness

mostly involve the awareness of some mental processes, but assert that such definitions

are too narrow and do not include unconscious processing. They assert that a more

acceptable and broader definition of consciousness would be, “all mental experiences,

whether or not we are aware of them”. They are of the opinion that consciousness has

traditionally been regarded as a private world, accessible mainly through introspection.

Currently consciousness is categorised as being either subjective consciousness

(personal experiences of the world, and a sense of self), or objective consciousness

(aspects of consciousness that can be verified scientifically by others) (Bootzin et al,

1991:147). An interesting remark by Bootzin et al (1991:147) is that many scientists

protest that subjective consciousness is outside the scope of science, yet they (Bootzin

et al, 1991:148) say “...the fact remains that humans can do a reasonably good job of

communicating their subjective experiences. ...without such study we are unlikely to

ever understand the relationship between the brain and behaviour”. It is implied that


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the study of the nature of intrapsychic communication (subjective consciousness) could

highlight the relationship between the brain and behaviour, and hence improve an

understanding of consciousness as such.

Louw and Edwards (1993:173, 175) explain that consciousness is like a continuum on

which different degrees of consciousness can be identified. Additionally, knowledge of

altered states of consciousness may reveal a great deal about human nature, although

individuals in altered states of consciousness function less efficiently than they do in

normal consciousness. It is important to note that they refer to different situations which

reflect shifts in the content and focus of consciousness, some of which may result in

altered states of consciousness. Certain situations or experiences cannot be regarded as

altered states of consciousness, but merely a shift of content and focus of consciousness,

for example, driving a car ‘on automatic’ without being aware of the actual motions of

driving due to habit.

Myers (1995:219-220) also describes consciousness as awareness of self and the

environment which varies in terms of attentional focus. Consciousness is equated with

information processing and conscious awareness is described as the tip of the iceberg in

comparison to the processing of information that occurs outside of awareness. It is

conscious awareness that allows individuals to exert voluntary control and to

communicate mental states to others. “Subconscious information processing awareness

occurs simultaneously on many parallel tracks”. Individuals are consciously aware of

the result of cognitive processing, but are not aware of the sub-processing of

information which occurs subconsciously. Hence, “consciousness emerges from the

interaction of individual brain events” (Myers, 1995:219-220).

Apparently, the question of consciousness could be argued from two perspectives:

consciousness as a result of brain functions, and consciousness as a function of the mind

which is seated in, but exceeds the function of the brain. Additionally, consciousness

appears to represent a spectrum or range of behaviour ranging from normal wakefulness

to deep altered states of consciousness. The dividing line between induced and

spontaneous altered states of consciousness is the degree to which an individual is in

any way impaired in comparison to normal waking consciousness. This impairment

relates to some of the characteristics of altered states of consciousness as summarised


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by Martindale (1981 cited in Louw & Edwards, 1993:174) which include disturbances

in perceptual processes, normal inhibitions and self-control.

Important to this study is the notion that each state of consciousness is classifiable

according to the symbol experienced by the individual in that particular state, ranging

from language to hypnagogic images. For example, Lewis-Williams (2004:123)

proposes two trajectories of consciousness in explaining the unfolding of entopic

images in human consciousness by way of an adaptation of Martindale’s six-stage

consciousness model. Martindale’s (cited in Lewis-Williams, 2004:123) six-stage

consciousness model, which constitutes Lewis-Williams’s (2004:124) normal trajectory,

includes waking, problem oriented thoughts; realistic fantasy; autistic fantasy; reverie;

hypnagogic states (falling asleep states) and dreaming. During the first stage of waking

consciousness, the individual is concerned with problem-solving in response to

environmental stimuli which may progress towards a ‘realistic fantasy’ orientation to

problem solving and may grade into autistic fantasy and may be followed by reverie.

“In what Martindale calls reverie, our thought is far less directed, and image follows

image in no narrative sequence” (Lewis-Williams, 2004:123). Reverie, in turn, may be

followed by a hypnagogic state (referred to as the ‘twilight zone’ by other authors),

filled with vivid visual and/or aural imagery. Finally, in dreaming, a succession of

sometimes chaotic and disjointed images are experienced (Lewis-Williams, 2004:123).

The second trajectory, called the ‘intensified trajectory’, is deeply concerned with

inward-direction and fantasy where dream-like, autistic states or altered states of

consciousness may be induced by a wide variety of means (Lewis-Williams, 2004:123).

Examples of techniques used to shift consciousness along the intensified trajectory

towards the release of inwardly generated imagery include sustained rhythmic dancing,

meditation, sleep deprivation, fatigue, pain, fasting and the ingestion of psychotropic

substances (Lewis-Williams, 2004:123).

Seemingly, although consciousness may be described as representing a linear spectrum,

experientially, individuals seamlessly ‘dip’ into various states of consciousness,

embodied with different experiences of images, symbols and myths. Lewis-Williams

(2004:123) refers to Laughlin’s concept of ‘fragmented consciousness’ which describes

a repeated shifting of consciousness from outward-directed to inward-directed states


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during waking consciousness. For example, even when engaged in problem-solving, an

individual becomes disengaged from those stimuli and different kinds of consciousness

begin to take over, such as fantasy and reverie.

Despite the expediency of describing consciousness along a spectrum of experiences, it

does not explain the transpersonal or spiritual dimension of human experience, how

consciousness may be expanded and how conscious and unconscious renderings or

representations may be integrated. Consequently, it permits the construction of a

framework or structure of states of consciousness, yet fails to portray the qualitative,

dynamic organisation, and experiential manifestation of consciousness.

Capra (1983:426) appropriately states that a true science of consciousness deals with

qualities rather than quantities, and will be based on shared experience rather than

verifiable measurements. “The patterns of experience constituting the data of such a

science cannot be quantified or analysed into fundamental elements, and they will

always be subjective to varying degrees”. Moreover, such a science will quantify its

statements whenever this method is appropriate, but will also be able to deal with

qualities and values based on human experience (Capra, 1983:416).

A delineation of consciousness which considers the qualitative aspect of experience is,

according to Capra (1983:411), the cartography of the unconscious or a map of mental

phenomena postulated by Grof, a psychiatrist, who based his models on seventeen years

of clinical experience. Grof’s clinical research involved careful observations of

individuals in altered states of consciousness, with and without the use of psychedelic

drugs. His cartography encompasses three major domains: psychodynamic experiences,

associated with events in a person’s past and present life; perinatal experiences, related

to the biological phenomena involved in the process of birth; and transpersonal

experiences that go beyond individual boundaries (Capra, 1983:411).

The psychodynamic domain is autobiographical and individual in origin, and involves

memories of emotionally relevant events and unresolved conflicts from various periods

of an individual’s life-history. Psychodynamic experiences include the psychosexual

dynamics and conflicts which tend to occur in specific memory constellations, which

Grof (cited in Capra, 1983:412) calls COEX systems (systems of condensed


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experience). A COEX comprises memories from different periods of the person’s life

that contain related emotionally charged themes or elements (Capra, 1983:411).

The domain of perinatal experiences may exhibit a variety of rich and complex

experiential patterns related to various stages of the actual birth process. These

sensations and feelings associated with the birth process may be relived directly or in

the form of symbolic, visionary experiences. “For example, the experience of enormous

tensions that is characteristic of the struggle in the birth canal is often accompanied by

visions of titanic fights, natural disasters, sado-masochistic sequences, and various

images of destruction and self-destruction” (Capra, 1983:413). Grof also developed four

clusters or perinatal matrices which correspond to successive stages of the birth process.

One of the perinatal matrices clusters involves the experiences of birth and death which

Grof refers to as the death-rebirth experience. The experience of death-rebirth, often

evoked by symbols of death, accompanied with physical symptoms may provoke

feelings of an ultimate existential crisis (Capra, 1983:413). Grof (quoted in Capra,

1983:413) states that death-rebirth experiences “appear to be the alpha and omega of

human existence, and any psychological system that does not incorporate them has to

remain superficial and incomplete”.

Experiences in Grof’s transpersonal domain, according to Capra (1983:414), seem to

offer deep insights into the nature and relevance of the spiritual dimension of

consciousness. As in psychodynamic and perinatal experiences, transpersonal

experiences tend to occur in thematic clusters. However, “their organisation is much

more difficult to describe in factual language, as Jung and numerous mystics have

emphasised, because the logical basis of our language is seriously challenged by these

experiences” (Capra, 1983:414).

In this researcher’s opinion, Grof’s explanation of a COEX, the thematic clustering of

experiences across different dimensions, shows a striking resemblance to Jung’s

postulations of feeling-toned complexes and archetypes. Additionally, what is

specifically insightful is the allusion to a conjunction between images and symbols and

the experiential and dynamic quality of consciousness.


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Van Eenwyk (1997:38) refers to Jung’s so-called “symbol-making function of the

unconscious” as ‘transcendent’, since this function, through symbol-formation, enables

an individual to pass from one state of consciousness to another. Moreover, the symbol

is associated with both present and future psychic states, and contributes to an

awareness of conscious and unconscious states.

In explaining the qualitative and dynamic organisation of conscious and unconscious

processes, Van Eenwyk (1997:39) mentions that Jung repeatedly stated that the

mechanics of the psyche, both repetitive (synchronic individuation) and progressive

(diachronic individuation), obey the laws of physics. He (Van Eenwyk, 1997:39)

continues to say that until recently, few metaphors and images existed to describe the

dynamic relationship between the unconscious and the rest of the psyche, hence the

qualitative web of networks in the psyche. Even complex theory lacks the sophisticated

images and metaphors to describe these often chaotic and unpredictable relationships.

However, “new ‘images’ have come from the hard sciences: physics, biology,

physiology, meteorology and mathematics. With the advent of the computer, we have

been able to represent complex nonlinear equations by images that seem to defy logic”

(Van Eenwyk, 1997:39).

According to Van Eenwyk (1997:39), these computer-generated images exhibit several

insightful features that are comparable to the dynamics of consciousness and the psyche.

These features include: 1) Blurred and fuzzy boundaries that constantly intermingle

with all the solution sets to the equation they are expressing; 2) Magnified boundaries

seem to contain endless and ever-smaller versions of the original ‘interweavings’; and

3) Unpredictability of the outcomes of chaotic dynamics.

The similarities between chaos theory and the conscious/unconscious interplay of the

psyche are paralleled in that the psyche is described as ‘polaristic’; that energy is

generated by tensions of opposites, and that there is an ongoing oscillation between

actual and potential meaning encapsulated in images and symbols (Van Eenwyk,

1997:39). Furthermore, transformation and transcendence, which is primarily the result

of the resolution of tensions between conscious and unconscious portrayals, correspond

with the symmetry-building bifurcations hypotheses of chaotic dynamics, whereby


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chaotic dynamics generate a higher order resolve. These processes thus resemble the

constructs of self-making, self-similarity and self-organisation posited in chaos theory.

Seemingly, images, symbols and myths are centrepieces in the chaotic and dynamic

processes of consciousness, the integration of conscious and unconscious information,

and the transformation of the psyche. The key to an understanding of the roles of

images, symbols and myths in these dynamic processes lie in the nature of the symbol.

Van Eenwyk (1997:68) states, “we hope to communicate through images that which

recreate our experience”, and use symbols in trying to express that which transcends

the concrete since symbols are ‘images’ whose meaning vastly transcends their content.

Drawing on the language of chaos theory, Van Eenwyk (1997:69) asserts that the

transcendent quality of the symbolic is due to the fact that symbols resemble manifolds

which “take us from the known [consciousness] to the unknown [unconsciousness] and

back again”. This process may also be equated with the movement of rational, stable

consciousness to chaotic, unpredictable unconsciousness. Thus, the ego (conscious)

feels stable when reduction, definition, and rationality can accurately describe a

situation, but when the ego becomes enmeshed in unconscious dynamics, it experiences

instability.

This ability of the symbol to take the ego from consciousness to the unconscious and

back again, according to Van Eenwyk (1997:69), is its most important function and is

moreover comparable to chaos theory. Jung (quoted in Van Eenwyk, 1997:69) said,

“Symbols act as transformers, their function being to convert libido from a ‘lower’ into

a ‘higher’ form”. The similarity between the consciousness, function of symbols and

chaotic dynamics is highlighted by Van Eenwyk’s (1997:69) allusion that chaos theory

can describe symbolic processes.

The challenge of describing consciousness is that it is a classic example of the co-called

‘Catch 22’ situation and represents a conundrum. Van Eenwyk (1997:70) elucidates that

the history of humankind is rich in examples of how the psyche attempts to represent, or

to embody, images of itself. The examination and comparison of these images represent

‘inner’ or ‘outer’ cosmologies since these inner images are manifested in symbolic

images in an outer substance. Such an examination and comparison consequently afford

an understanding of the history of the development of the psyche and concurrently give


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a sense of the essence of what is being captured. However, the implication is that the

structure and dynamics of the psyche are both the means and the end in the attempts to

understand ourselves. “Consequently, trying to analyze the functioning of the psyche by

means of the functioning of the psyche is like riding a roller coaster built on a moebius

strip. It is full of paradox. It’s chaotic” (Van Eenwyk, 1997:70).

The way of escape from this capturing paradoxical cycle lies in the essence of the

symbolic, since symbols transcend categories and inevitably lead to those areas that are

difficult to define and describe (Van Eenwyk, 1997:71). Moreover, applying chaos

theory, symbols are manifolds that shift consciousness which participate in fractal

attractors, showing fractal dimension and self-similarity across scale. Fractal dimension

and self-similarity are evident in, “Psyche trying to decipher psyche, language trying to

decipher language, language as both product and producer of psyche: these are fractal

dynamics that create self-similarity” (Van Eenwyk, 1997:71). The comparability of the

dynamics of symbols, myths and images with the dynamics of chaos theory will be

expanded in the final chapter.

Van Eenwyk (1997:71) poses the question of; if symbols, and also dreams, are products

of the psyche, how is it that the psyche can both create and be confused by them and

find them difficult to decipher? The answer lies in Jung’s (cited in Van Eenwyk,

1997:71) postulation that symbols help the psyche to form itself by drawing it to

perspectives and experiences that promote growth. Consequently, symbols assist the

psyche in its development by pointing to something bigger than it is. This search for

meaning through the path of the symbol is more about the path and quest, since “the

meaning of symbols is essentially the pursuit of the meaning of symbols. Thus, the goal

of the quest is the quest itself. Destination and journey are synonymous” (Van Eenwyk,

1997:71).

This is the view of symbols Jung embraced. He believed symbols embody the quest for

consciousness and involves a descent into the unconscious, a ‘dark night of the soul’ on

the course of the ‘hero’s journey’ which represents an encounter in which symbol and

interpreter share a ‘reciprocal assimilation’ through which they participate in meanings

that transcend them both. This is what Jung meant by integration of the meaning of a

symbol: both symbol and interpreter are transformed (Van Eenwyk, 1997:71).


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Typical of a symbolic approach, Van Eenwyk (1997:72) uses a metaphor to explain the

process of integration, summarised as follows: It’s like making pea soup. Consciousness

is like the hand that wields the knife, chopping up the carrots and onions, sifting through

the peas to pick out the stones, and throwing it all into the pot together. The

unconscious is like the pot itself, where everything gets mixed together to produce the

soup’s unique flavour. Consequently, consciousness is the differentiator that makes

distinctions in the name of definition. The unconscious, on the other hand, synthesizes

components into new combinations that are synergetic: they exceed the sum of the

parts. Moreover, the need for change induced by the symbolic and the resultant

synthesis accomplished by the integration of conscious and unconscious portrayals are

aptly expressed in the following; “All true things must change and only that which

changes remains true” (Jung quoted in Van Eenwyk, 1997:72).

5.2.1.2 Intrapsychic communication and consciousness

Capra (1983:413) asserts that Grof’s model (described in preceding paragraphs)

indicates that the ultimate understanding of human consciousness goes beyond words

and concepts because as a central aspect of an inner world, it is primarily an experience.

Transpersonal experiences involve an expansion of consciousness beyond the

conventional boundaries of the organism and, correspondingly, a larger sense of

identity. The language of, for example, mythology, which is much less restricted by

logic and common sense, is often more appropriate to describe transpersonal

phenomena than factual language. Similar notions have been advanced by Van Eenwyk

(1997) and Lewis-Williams (2004).

Green and Green (1971:39) indicate that symbols are the elements of communication

between the different levels of consciousness both within an individual and between

individuals, hence in intrapsychic and interpersonal communication. Symbols may

range from personally constructed thought forms to archetypes and although they

convey meaning cannot be equated with meaning.

Intrapsychic communication evidently plays a crucial role in the various

dimensions of human consciousness. Wilber (1980:37) states that the successive


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stages of consciousness are accomplished by or accompanied by some type of symbolic

structure and describes various forms of communication as ‘symbols of transformation’.

5.3 IMAGES, MYTHS AND SYMBOLS OF THE SELF

5.3.1 IMAGES

Jung (1964:68) asserts that the further one delves into the origins of a “collective

image” the more one uncovers a seemingly unending web of archetypal patterns. This

statement is unequivocally true in the delving into the images of the Self. The most

important images in representing the Self are geometric structures containing elements

of the circle and quaternity from which, according to Jung (1969:223) the wheel and

“the symbols of the geometrically formed crystal and wonder-working stone” are

derived. Hall (1983:11) explains that Jung likened archetypal images to the crystal

formation in a saturated solution: the principles (archetypes) guide the lattice-structure

of a particular crystal, but the actual form of a particular crystal (archetypal image)

cannot be predicted in advance.

The circle and quaternity are in turn the motifs which form the basis for the construction

of more elaborate images. For example, the circle represents a “containment” of the ego

in the greater dimension of the Self and could be analogous to more elaborate and

complex symbols such as a city, castle, house, church and vessel (Jung, 1969:224).

Moreover, a wheel may be construed as a concentration of a centre and point,

emphasizing “a ritual circumambulation”, which may also be seen as an archetypal

god-image. ‘The circle with a dot inside it’ is, according to Jung (1960:106), a well-

known allegory of the nature of God. For example, the determinative hieroglyph of Ra,

the ancient Egyptian sun-god, and the sun are depicted as a circle with a dot or point at

its centre.

Jung (1969:225) also indicates that symbols of the Self, specifically dream symbols,

transcend the ego personality of the dreamer and include, for example, a god, a priest,

and a wise old man. Consequently, the Self can appear in various shapes, inasmuch as

these transcend the scope of the ego in the manner of a ‘diamonion’ or ‘daimon’. The

daimon is explained by Von Franz (1964:163) as a Greek term expressing an intuitive


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awareness throughout the ages of the existence of an inner higher centre in all humans.

To the Greeks, the daimons were intermediary spirits between human beings and the

gods. In Gnosticism it is referred to as Genii (the plural for the term Genius), who are

part of the ranks of angels. Genius is a term the Romans used to denote an inner centre

native to each individual, and in Arabic lore; it is referred to as Jinx. In Egypt, it was

referred to as the Ba-soul and in ancient shamanic civilisations, it was perceived as a

protective spirit embodied in an animal or fetish (Von Franz, 1964:163).

Jung (1960:10) maintains that the archetypal motifs, ideas and images represented in

daily fantasies and dreams have their origin in the archetype as an unconscious and pre-

existent form that seems to be part of the inherited structure of the psyche. Of

significance are Jung’s remarks (1964:87) that archetypes in practical experience are

both image and emotions. “One can speak of an archetype only when these two aspects

are simultaneous”. When it is merely an image, it has few consequences. However,

when it is charged with emotion, the image gains numinosity, becomes dynamic and

carries consequences.

The archetypal form and motif or pattern of the Self is also the psychic precondition of

religious assertions and is responsible for the “imago Dei” and all anthropomorphistic

images of God. The implication is an inherent spirituality or desire for a communion

with God (Jung, 1960:11). He (Jung, 1960:11fn) also refers to God as the “soul’s

deepest and closest intimacies”. Additionally, Jung (1960:14) states that both the

symbols of the Self and a God-image fulfil the same purpose, which is to give

expression to a transcendent level of wholeness and unity that exists independently of

consciousness. Consequently, they cannot be distinguished empirically from one

another. Jung (1960:14) asserts that the Self should be regarded as an active force akin

to the way the Ancients viewed the imago Dei in humanity not as a mere imprint, but as

an active force. These inner motives which spring from a deep unconscious source were

called mana, or spirits, demons and gods in ancient mythology (Jung, 1964:70).

Since Jung (1960:8) postulated that the symbols of the Self are identical with the images

of God, he refers to the Self as ‘God within us’ which represents humankind’s highest

and ultimate purposes. On a much greater scale, the significance of the antique mystery

of the god-man has its roots in the archetypal Osiris-Horus myth of ancient Egypt (Jung,


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1964:68). Jaffe (1990:48) too asserts that the ’God within’ refers not only to Christ, but

every individual who should listen to the inner voice and put themselves in touch with

their subjective Self – the saviour within.

5.3.2 SYMBOLS AND MYTHS

Despite the myriad representations of the Self, ranging from the highest to the lowest,

they consistently have as their common link; their noticeable transcendence of the

position of ego-consciousness (Aziz, 1990:21). This is reflected in the Self being

represented by the divine child and by various pairs; father and son, king and queen,

god and goddess, or by a hermaphrodite. Mandala-like patterns, quaternity

configurations, various representations such as the bear, horse, bull, or snake, insects

like the beetle, plant symbols like the flower (e.g. lotus and rose), trees, and

geographical phenomena like mountains are some examples of the great range of the

Self’s symbolism. Certain numbers, associated with geometric figures, seemingly also

serve to represent the Self (Aziz, 1990:21; Boeree, 1997).

Myths and mythological objects and quests such as the Holy Grail, the philosopher's

stone, the Elixir of Immortality, the Star of Bethlehem, the search for the hidden

treasure and the Phoenix (a bird consumed in flames and reborn from its own ashes)

encapsulate both symbols and symbolic processes of the Self (Aziz, 1990:21). Von

Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:208) states that the representation of the ‘wise old man’, akin

to the sorcerer Merlin of medieval legend or to the Egyptian god Hermes, is a typical

personification of the Self. Additionally, a youth also signifies the Self, and may be

associated with a renewal of life, a creative élan vital and a new spiritual orientation by

means of which everything becomes full of life and enterprise.

In Western civilisation, according to Von Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:209), ideas of a

Cosmic Man, the Self, have attached themselves to the symbol of Adam, the First Man

in which, according to a Jewish legend, the whole of humankind was contained from the

beginning. In the Indian Upanishads, the same concept is depicted where the Self is in

one aspect the personal atman, but in another aspect represents the cosmic and

metaphysical supra-personal ‘Atman’. Similarly, according to Jung (1960:107), in

Gnosticism, the Self is represented as the Anthropos (primal or original man), the


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pleroma (primordial unconsciousness, and the nothingness and fullness), the Monad and

the spark of light (the divine spark).

Rosen (2002:87), who describes the Self as the timeless centre and totality of the

psyche, indicates that it is also symbolised by the circle or uroboros (the image of the

snake biting its own tail) which has no beginning and no ending. A similar concept of

the Self exists in Taoism which combines the ever-present principles of yin (the dark

and feminine) and yang (the light and masculine) which moreover represents androgyny

since it contains both contrasexual aspects of the psyche: the feminine (anima or soul),

and the masculine (animus or spirit) contained in the Self (Rosen, 2002:87).

Because of the “just-so-ness” of their nature, Von Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:221) asserts

that crystals and stones are especially apt symbols of the Self. Many people cannot

refrain from picking up stones of a slightly unusual colour or shape and keeping them as

touchstones, without knowing why they do so. Ostensibly, stones represent humanity’s

innermost centre and perhaps the simplest and deepest experience of the Self. “The

stone that Jacob placed on the spot where he had his famous dream, or certain stones

left by simple people on the tombs of local saints or heroes, show the original nature of

the human urge to express an otherwise inexpressible experience by the stone-symbol”

(Von Franz in Jung et al, 1964:222). Moreover, many religious cults and traditions use a

stone to mark a place of worship. For example, the holiest sanctuary of the Islamic

world is the Ka’aba, the black stone in Mecca to which all pious Moslems hope to make

their pilgrimage.

5.4 PATTERNS OF TRANSFORMATION AND TRANSCENDENCE

Transformation is described by Rosen (2002:88) as a change of the nature of

personality. At the core of the transformation process, is an archetypal death-rebirth

experience symbolised and driven by the Self. “The Self, the archetype of all

archetypes, represents a forward-striving function which, through the eruption of affect-

laden archetypal images into consciousness, facilitates the process of transformation

that can lead to the manifestation of our true self” (Rosen, 2002:88).


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Jung (1972:47) identifies five forms of rebirth that may also represent different types of

transformational processes. The five forms include 1) Metempsychosis or

transmigration of souls; 2) Reincarnation, where the human personality is regarded as

continuous and accessible to memory. As a rule, reincarnation means rebirth in a human

body; 3) Resurrection, which is the re-establishment of human existence after death, 4)

Rebirth (renovario), which concerns rebirth within the span of individual life. The word

renovatio suggests the idea of renewal which may be a renewal of the personality.

Another aspect of this fourth form is essential transformation or total rebirth of the

individual; and 5) Participation in the process of transformation. The last form is

indirect rebirth. Here the transformation is brought about by passing through ‘death and

rebirth oneself’, but indirectly, by participating in a process of transformation which is

conceived of as taking place outside the individual. In other words, one has to witness,

or take part in, some rite of transformation.

According to Jung (1972:50), rebirth is a primordial affirmation of humanity based on

archetypes and can be found among the most widely differing cultures. Jung (1972:51)

furthermore asserts that the whole field of transformation experiences can be

distinguished and categorised into two main groups of experience: that of the

transcendence of life, and that of one’s own transformation or subjective transformation.

Briefly, the experience of the transcendence of life is described by Jung (1972:51) as

two types of experiences: Firstly, ‘experiences induced by ritual’, which includes those

experienced where, for example, the initiate takes part in a sacred rite which reveals to

him/her the perpetual continuation of life through transformation and renewal. In these

mystery-dramas, the transcendence of life is usually represented by the significant

transformations of death and rebirth of a god or a godlike hero. The transformation

process takes place outside the initiate, although he/she may become involved in it. Jung

(1972:52) provides an example of the mystery drama representing the permanence as

well as the transformation of life as ‘the Mass’. Secondly, ‘immediate experiences’

include visionary, ecstatic and spontaneous experiences without any ritual. According to

Jung (1972:52), both types of experiences remain outside the experiential field of the

individual and may not have a lasting or transformative effect on the

individual/dreamer.


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Jung (1972:53-68) identified eight forms of subjective transformation, the second group

of transformational experiences, of which “natural transformation” or individuation is

one form, which falls within the scope of this study. Natural transformation processes,

according to Jung (1972:64), announce themselves mainly in dreams, especially in

rebirth symbolism. As a way to come to terms with this inner form of natural

transformation, Jung (1972:65) explains an inner conversation with the “other being” or

the other person in us – the larger and greater personality maturing within the individual

or “the inner friend of the soul”. It can also be described as merely ‘associating’,

‘talking to oneself’, as a “meditation” or “in the sense used by the old alchemists, who

referred to their interlocutor as aliquem alium internum, ‘a certain other one, within’”.

According to Jung (1972:67), the alchemists projected this inner friend and event into

an outer figure, which appeared in the form of the ‘Stone’ of the Philosopher or Hermes.

Hence, the seeking of the Stone is in fact a seeking of the Self.

These forms of transformation can occur, according to Rosen (2002:84), only through

critical times of suffering and despair since trying times force the ego to renounce its

centrality and allows the Self to emerge. Van Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:169) refers to

this suffering and despair as the “wounding of the personality” which amounts to a

“call” for growth and development. The result is healing and wholeness based on a

dialectic relationship between the Self and ego.

Rosen (2002:85) asserts that the key to understanding these sometimes intensely painful

and sacrificial processes of transformation and individuation lies in an appreciation of

the significance of symbols in the human imagination and how they affect human lives

and human culture. To this end, Rosen (2002:84) defines a symbol as an image that is

infused with meaning, a meaning so profound and multidimensional that it is often

ineffable. Moreover, positive transformation relies heavily on the evocation of healing

symbols, such as the snake or serpent.

5.4.1 IMAGES, SYMBOLS AND MYTHS OF TRANSFORMATION AND

TRANSCENDENCE

A specific kind of symbolism, according to Henderson (in Jung, 1964:146), which

belongs to the earliest known sacred traditions, is also connected with the periods of


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transition in a person’s life and relate to transcendence from any confining pattern of

existence. These symbols point to the need for liberation from any state of being that is

too immature, too fixed or final. These symbols are manifold in form and are

encountered in history or in the dreams of contemporary men and women who are at a

critical stage in their lives.

Symbols and motifs of transformation include mandalas of which Jung (1972:64)

eloquently says, “Like the old man in our fairytale, he [she/the individual], too, will

draw mandalas and seek shelter in their protective circle; in the perplexity and anguish

of his self-chosen prison, which he had deemed a refuge, he is transformed into a being

akin to the gods. Mandalas are birth-places, vessels of birth in the most literal sense,

lotus-flowers in which a Buddha comes to life”.

Rosen (2002:89), following Jung, asserts that as most important archetype of

transformation healing and centering, the Self is commonly symbolised as a mandala (a

balanced and harmonious nest of concentric circles and at times mixed with squares and

triangles, used in meditation), sun wheel, or sacred circle. The mandala reflects the

central element in an individual’s transformation which involves the union of opposites.

Prior to the occurrence of this union, the individual undergoes a radical experience of

opposites which Jung refers to as enantiodromia (running counter to). Rosen (2002:90)

indicates that from a Jungian perspective, it means, for example, “…to live fully we must

confront death; to experience death fully we must be alive; to love we must know

hate…” Bennett (2001:85) asserts that Jung proposed that the integration of opposites

was a recurring theme in human experience. Neumann (quoted in Rosen, 2002:89)

states that the basic archetypal image of transformation is the self-contained rolling

wheel of eternity, “every single point of which is a “turning point,” that “often

concludes with the beginning and starts with the end”.

According to Bennett (2001:85), Jung was considerably influenced by the teaching of

Heraclites (500 BC), the Greek philosopher who postulated a doctrine of eternal flux

and uninterrupted motion and change. This to and fro process where nothing remains

fixed, permanent or unaltered, Heraclites called the rule of enantiodromia, a tendency

towards the opposite (enantios, opposite, and dromos, a quick movement). “Everywhere

in life we see ‘the ever-whirling wheel of Change’. Life is a contest of opposites: birth


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and death; health and sickness; love and hate; giving and taking; systole and diastole;

summer and winter; day and night” (Bennett, 2001:85).

The aforementioned patterns seem to correspond with Rosen’s (2002:91) assertions that

certain archetypes and symbolic images tend to recur repeatedly in depictions of

transformations in the human psyche. These include states of religious conversion, for

example, being born again in a Christian context is associated with the archetypal

symbol of the cross, with its integrating and unifying intersection. Jung (cited in Rosen,

2002:91) describes the cross as spontaneous symbolism of the unconscious which

represents quaternity and refers to the Self. Consequently, the cross is a symbol of

becoming whole.

Additionally, Christ, as a symbol of individuation, resembles the need for every

conscious individual to suffer defeat, pain and betrayal of the ego to experience the

power of transformation (Jaffe, 1990:16; McGann, 1989). In short, following the pattern

of the Christ, every individual needs to live the mythical and symbolic death and

destruction of the ego, and be resurrected as a complete entity, the Self.

Cayce (cited in Krajenke, 1973:1), a Christian prophet, said in mystical trance that Jesus

the Christ became a pattern for all humanity to return to pure consciousness and rid

itself of self-centredness. The detachment from self-consciousness is one of freeing the

entity from a self-centered earthly ego-attachment but without loss of individuality.

Jesus became the Archetype of all archetypes (the Self) “through the conquering of

self”. Jesus made many references to the theme of death and rebirth. An ego-death is

when the ego surrenders its defensiveness of a self-contained reality, and a wider

consciousness is expressed (rebirth). Cayce (cited in Reed, 2002:275) proclaimed in

trance that the dream during sleep is a process in which the soul’s consciousness is

awakened.

Additionally, “the Hindu god Shiva represents another example of the surrendering of

the ego (self) in a dance of destruction and creation” (Rosen, 2002:91). The dance of

Shiva, who is commonly depicted as being surrounded by a circle of flames, symbolises

a constant cycle of self-renewal and the flames symbolises purification. ”In this dance,

Shiva steps on a dwarf, which represents the human ego. The implication is that ego


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death and self-surrender lead to communion with a higher power, the Self” (Rosen,

2002:91).

Rosen (2002:91-93) and Von Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:206) outlined several additional

archetypes of transformation which seem to be universal in depicting the recurring

pattern mentioned above. These include poisonous snakes or serpents, which by facing

them and undergoing the dangerous confrontation with death, allows for rebirth. Jung

(cited in Rosen, 2002:92) states, “The idea of transformation and renewal by means of

the serpent is a well-substantiated archetype”. Moreover, “the snake is also an ancient

symbol of healing: in ancient Greece, the physician Asklepios carried a staff entwined

with a serpent. To this day, the caduceus (two entwined snakes) is associated with the

physician and the healing professions in general” (Rosen, 2002:92).

Jung used the symbolism of mythology, specifically the hero myth to represent the

merging of conscious and unconscious representations and hence the launching of the

ego into transformation. Henderson (1964:120) asserts that the hero myth represents

four stages in the differentiation of the psyche, resembling four life stages which an

individual needs to reach through a “rite of passage” or a death-rebirth ritual. The ritual,

found in tribal and more complex societies, provides an initiation from one stage of life

to the next, whether it is from early childhood or from early to late adolescence to

maturity, and from then to middle age and old age. Consequently, every new phase of

development throughout an individual’s life is accompanied by a repetition of the

original conflict between the Self and the claims of the ego. Moreover, according to

Henderson (1964:123), the archetypal patterns of initiation into sacred spiritual

knowledge, known since ancient times as “the mysteries”, are woven into the texture of

all ecclesiastical rituals requiring a special manner of worship at the time of birth,

marriage, or death.

Henderson (in Jung et al, 1964:148) also claims that a common dream symbol of

transcendence is the theme of the lonely journey or pilgrimage, which seems to be a

spiritual pilgrimage which depicts a journey of release, renunciation, and atonement.

The archetypal journey of the hero/me is closely associated with the archetype of death

and rebirth, according to Rosen (2002:92). The enemy (the shadow figure) in the

hero/ine’s journey equals death. Through the confrontation of battle with death, the


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hero/me transforms destructive energy into creative energy. By overcoming the fear of

death, submitting to the guidance of a divine figure (anima or animus), and contacting

the Self, the hero/me is, in effect, reborn.

The journey of the hero / heroine is divided into the following stages by Campbell (cited

in Rosen, 2002:92, Henderson in Jung et al, 1964:147), and McGann (1989):

The departure, with a call to adventure and the crossing of the first threshold;

The initiation, with the road of trials: for a man, confronting his shadow, meeting

a goddess-like anima figure, and reconciliation with the father; for a woman,

confronting her shadow, meeting a god-like animus figure, and reconciliation with

the mother; and

The return, which is initially refused, but then brought about by a magical flight or

rescue that brings about the crossing of a final threshold.

Additionally, Henderson (in Jung et al, 1964:147) asserts that at the most archaic level

of transcendent symbolism is the Trickster theme where the trickster moves from

lawless would-be hero to the shaman, the medicine man, whose power resides in his

supposed ability to leave his body and fly about the universe as a bird. This ‘Trickster’

symbol is also described by Lewis-Williams (2004) as the deity of the shamanic San of

Africa. The symbol of the bird, as a symbol of transcendence can be found as far back

as the Palaeolithic period of prehistory. Campbell (cited in Henderson in Jung et al,

1964:147) reports on the famous cave paintings recently discovered in France at

Lascaux where a shaman in a trance is depicted as wearing a bird mask with a figure of

a bird perched on a staff beside him. Moreover, originally in Egypt, Hermes was known

as the ibis-headed god Thoth, and therefore was conceived of as the bird form of the

transcendent principle.

5.5 DELINEATION OF DREAMS AND DREAM SYMBOLS

This section of the study will focus on the delineation of dreams and dream symbols,

and specifically those dreams symbols that serve as the most rudimentary forms of

archetypes and archetypal symbols of the Self in its quest for unity and wholeness.


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Recently, in certain specialisation fields of psychology and medicine, dreams and

dreaming have become popular themes and topics of scientific investigation (Hall,

1983:22). This examination will be limited to the interpretation of dream symbols and

images as vehicles of personal development and transcendence. It will not attempt to

assess the neurological research aspects of the dream process. Specific attention will be

given to the Jungian perspective regarding dreams as agents of change and

transcendence since they fall within the scope of the study. Moreover, Jung (cited in

Bennett, 2001:89) was of the opinion that dreams, as the main source of information

from the unconscious, must be used if one is to understand anything about the inner,

unconscious life of the dreamer and hence individual enantiodromia.

The importance of dreams and dream symbols during the process of individuation and

as an aspect of the transcendent function has been affirmed by both Jung and various

Jungian scholars. For example, Covitz (2000:15) states, “Dreams play a central role in

the process of individuation, for they are seen as the voices of the unconscious, which

consists of numerous complexes and the organizing principle that Jung called the Self”.

Von Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:159) proposed that in addition to dreams being relevant

to varying degrees of an individual’s life, they seem to follow an arrangement or

pattern. This pattern, reflected primarily in dreams, is the process of individuation. In

certain instances themes of dreams occur, which according to Von Franz (in Jung et al,

1964:161) follow a slow but discernable change and can be accelerated by conscious

interpretation of symbolic contents. Consequently, “If one watches this meandering

design over a long period of time, one can observe a sort of hidden regulating or

directing tendency at work, creating a slow, imperceptible process of psychic growth –

the process of individuation ” (Von Franz in Jung et al, 1964:161). The creator or

inventor, organiser and source of these dream images are the archetype of the Self, the

“nuclear atom” (Von Franz in Jung et al, 1964:161), or quantum of the psyche.

5.5.1 LANDSCAPE OF THE DREAM

Jung (1974:51) defines dreams as “spontaneous self-portrayal, in symbolic form, of the

actual situation in the unconscious”. Dreams show the inner truth and reality of an

individual as it really is. Despite the illusory quality that has been attributed to dreams,

Johnson (1986:20) states that they have more practical and concrete effect on our lives


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than outer events do. The unconscious is the hub of the powerful dynamics where great

forces meet to produce the attitudes, ideals, beliefs, and compulsions that motivate most

behaviour. Hall (1983:22) indicates that this meeting of opposing forces in the dream in

Jungian terms is seen as a natural, regulatory psychic process similar to compensatory

mechanisms of bodily functions. Johnson’s (1986:19) expressive definition of dreams

recapitulates the central notions of dreams. “Dreams are dynamic mosaics, composed of

symbols that express the movements, conflicts, interactions, and developments of the

great energy systems within the unconscious”.

It is apparent that dreams and dream symbols are viewed as the language of the

unconscious and, according to Millidge (1998:7), can be viewed as a form of self-talk

where symbolic messages are relayed from the subconscious to the conscious mind.

Johnson (1989:4) is in agreement with these statements and adds that the subconscious

mind has “two natural pathways for bridging the gap and speaking to the conscious

mind: One is by dreams and the other is through imagination”. These highly refined

channels of communication of the psyche relay messages from the conscious to the

unconscious mind through the use of symbolic messages (Johnson, 1989:4). The

symbolic messages may take several forms and have an array of features and

characteristics, including moving visual images, varied and rapidly changing settings

and characters, spoken conversations, and temporal and spatial discontinuity (Van de

Castle, 1994:12).

Whilst most symbolism deals with the conscious mind and is consequently partly ruled

by conventional interpretation, symbols of the unconscious mind, specifically dream

symbols, appear to be limitless in their potential configurations and interpretation. As a

result, their interpretation is very difficult to decipher (Arcarti, 1997:2). Freud (quoted

in Chandler, 2001a) argued, “dream-content is, as it were, presented in hieroglyphics,

whose symbols must be translated”.

Dreams and dream symbols appear to fluctuate in terms of their popular prominence,

perceived cultural and scientific validity and assumed functions. Van De Castle

(1994:45) asserts that the credibility and validity of dreams have been underappreciated

in modern times. Broadribb (1990:ix) stresses that “dreams mean something, and to

block them out or denature them is to deprive ourselves of a valuable piece of self-


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knowledge and, ultimately, of discovering new ways to confront the world and life in

general”. In contrast to modern times, various historical and scholarly reports indicate

that ancient civilisations valued dream symbols as forms of cultural and personal

enrichment.

Goswami (1993:207) explains that when we are dreaming, or are under hypnosis, the

secondary experiences of awareness of the ego are absent; hence, the weakening of

normal inhibitions against collapsing repressed mental states. He states that dreams and

hypnosis are useful for bringing the unconscious to conscious awareness.

5.5.1.1 Historical and cultural notions about dreams

Millidge (1998:8), Windsor (1998:96) and Van De Castle (1994) maintain that people

of all cultures were and still are intrigued by dreams and their functions and purpose for

the dreamer. In the ancient world, most known civilisations and cultures had theories

about dreams and their interpretation. Some of these notions include the belief that God

speaks to people through dreams, “With this in mind, it is no wonder the Bible contains

approximately seventy-five references to dreams throughout the Old and New

Testaments, including the Creator’s announcement that “If there be a prophet among

you, I the Lord will make myself known unto him in a vision, and will speak unto him in

a dream” (Numbers 12:6)” (Todeschi, 2000b:16).

Todeschi (2000b:16) proposes that humanity’s fascination with dreams and their

interpretation dates back to the first written words. For example, one of the earliest

indications of dream interpretation comes from Egypt in the form of the Chester-Beatty

papyrus. This 4,000 years-old document, which is possibly the oldest “dream

dictionary” in existence, contains a number of dream symbols and their possible

corresponding meaning (Todeschi, 2000b:16). From this document and various other

ancient documents, it may be assumed that the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians and

Babylonians believed that dreams were caused by gods or demons, whereas the ancient

Chinese regarded them as experiences of the soul, which wandered during sleep. The

ancient Greeks were the first to believe that dreams are the result of normal mental

activity during sleep, a theory widely, but not universally, accepted today (Millidge,

1998:8; Windsor, 1998:95-98). They also placed much significance on the ability of


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dreams to relate important information to the dreamer. During the Greco-Roman period,

dream incubation, which enabled individuals to obtain guidance from the gods, was a

common practice (Todeschi, 2000b:17).

In early Judaism, the rabbinical contributions to the Talmud also contain hundreds of

references to dreams and the logical connections between symbolism and consciousness

(Covitz, 2000). As one example, according to the Talmud, salt symbolises the Torah

because just as the world cannot exist without salt, it cannot exist without the Torah

(Todeschi, 2000b:16).

According to Todeschi (2000b:16), anthropologists have distinguished four basic types

of dream among ancient cultures:

‘Big’ dreams having cultural significance;

Prophetic dreams warning of future events;

Medical dreams that promote healing; and

‘Little’ dreams of significance only to the dreamer.

Primitive peoples valued ‘big’ dreams above all, believing that they gave access to

supernatural wisdom and guidance. These dreams were invaluable to shamans and

medicine men, providing them with the power to heal, divine the future and recover

souls. Ironically, the dreams most people dwell on today are the ‘little’ ones of personal

interest, which were regarded as trivial by our ancestors (Millidge, 1998:9).

Oppenheim (cited in Van De Castle, 1994:50-51) developed three Near East dream

categories based on ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Old Testament sources. These

include:

Message dreams: Message dreams were experienced by kings as a deity or its

representation appearing at his head with a message of an impending event or

some personal significance for the dreamer.

Mantic dreams: Mantic dreams were consulted for indications of what the future

may hold for people of the Near East civilisations. They scrutinised “omina” or

signs (omens) to discern their personal destinies. Dream omens consisted of

specific interpretations and associations with dream symbols and resultant

outcomes. For example, an individual dreaming of a specific animal, wearing


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specific clothes, or visiting specific locations could expect certain specifically

listed outcomes.

Symbolic dreams: Symbolic dreams were complex dreams of a personal and evil

nature for the dreamer which consisted of unusual interactions with gods, stars,

people, animals or innumerable objects.

Many African societies believe that dreams are sent by their ancestors to advise and

warn them. The Zulus pool their dreams and refer to their tribal dream interpreters as

“head men”. Most Native American tribes actively advocate dreaming. For example,

children are encouraged to remember and explore their dreams from an early age, and

“dream catching” became part of the initiation ceremonies of certain tribes. “Dream

festivals” were integral to Huron and Iroquois culture, wherein dreams were shared and

the pattern that emerged was used to construct tribal policy (Millidge, 1998:8).

It is evident from the previous paragraphs that dreams are believed to convey messages

from ancestors by some tribes, while for others they fulfil a healing function. For

example, Australian Aborigines hold to their traditional belief in the “dreamtime” - the

period in which the visible landscape was created and all life had its source. They

believe that their spiritual ancestors, who were born of the earth, travelled across

Australia depositing the spirits of unborn children (Millidge, 1998:10). The

‘dreamtime’, or dreaming, can be re-entered through rituals in which the participants

identify with their early ancestors and relive “The strong time of creation” (Millidge,

1998:8).

5.5.1.2 The ‘language’ of dreams

“Just as a burning fire inherently exudes heat, the unconscious inherently generates

symbols. All of human life is nourished by the flow of symbolic imagery from the

wellsprings in the unconscious” (Johnson, 1986:21). Evidently, the ‘language’ of the

unconscious is the symbol, or symbolic imagery as referred to by Johnson (1986:20),

who also proposes that the symbolic imagery of the unconscious is the creative source

of the human spirit in all its manifestations. Consciousness and the concepts of its

philosophical understanding, religion, rite and cult, art and customs are all derivatives of

the symbol-forming process of the unconscious. Moreover, Johnson (1986:21) points


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out that language, whose history is almost identical to the genesis and development of

human consciousness, always starts out as a symbolic language. Jung (quoted in

Johnson, 1986:21; Whitmont & Perera, 2002:26) writes, “An archetypal content

expresses itself, first and foremost, in metaphors”.

i Images

Characteristic of a dream is that it never expresses itself in a logically abstract way,

but always in the language of parable or simile (Jung cited in Whitmont & Perera,

2002:26). Moreover, Whitmont and Perera (2002:26) indicate that the experience of

dreams operates in an altered state of consciousness which is a ‘primary process’ or

otherworldly, beyond rational categories of space and time. Dreams also integrate

affectively potent material from past, present, and future, using information that may

come from archetypal levels with which the dreamer is unfamiliar. However, the

experience of the dream occurs in terms of ‘here and now’ awareness, and is

primarily imaginal. These images, embedded in the sensory image matrix, can be

visual, auditory or kinesthetic and occur in a spectrum ranging from bodily

sensations to mythological images and abstract ideas.

Whitmont and Perera (2002:26-27) indicate that this imaginal form of

communication is ‘primary” in terms of several experiential ways and is a

foundational activity for other forms of awareness. For example, it is primary in the

mode of perception of the young child; the artist, and as a form of communication,

such images are found in ancient and sacred pictographic writings. “Hieroglyphic-

sacred images have their own logic and often convey more subtleties of meaning

than can readily be verbalized” (Whitmont & Perera, 2002:27). Corresponding to

pictographic forms as the language of initiates in different cultural contexts, the

meanings of dream images are open only to those initiated into the capacity to

comprehend their metaphoric, allegoric or symbolic images.

ii Allegory

Dream images become metaphors (descriptions of one thing in terms of the image of

another) by evoking associations with explanations and amplifications and

subsequently providing the context and meaning for the images that can be rationally

understood and expressed. The allegorical aspects of a dream describe ‘inner’ Images, symbols & myths of the Self

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subjective experiences in terms of ‘outer’ or subjective situations or events which the

“Guiding Self holds up for examination at this particular time” (Whitmont & Perera,

2002:29).

iii Symbols

Whitmont and Perera (2002:29) differentiate between allegorical images and

symbols by stating that “symbols, by contrast to allegory point to what can be seen

only ‘through a glass darkly”. Additionally, symbols represent spiritual significance

and a transcendent dimension and point towards the need for meaning in life.

Symbolic images thus represent contents which can only be partly known since they

represent inherent archetypal energy and patterns of meaning.

iv Rebus

A rebus is a representation of a phrase by pictures which might suggest syllables,

words, or ideas. In the rebus, the image is translated into words by the ‘logic’ of

sounding, regardless of the illogic of the picture order itself. Therefore, the rebus

may appear to be a compilation of senseless sequences, but when translated in terms

of its sounds, it conveys intelligible meaning (Whitmont & Perera, 2002:30).

Similarly, Whitmont and Perera, (2002:30) propose that a dream usually does not

produce neat conceptual messages and each image needs to be understood in terms

of its psychological meaning for the dreamer.

Consequently, as in the rebus, the meaning of an image or symbol can be found

through a form of translating the individual images by means of the dreamer’s

associations and through the general meaning of the images in terms of collective

conventions. Amplification of archetypal context suggests a symbolic, no longer

merely allegoric, dynamic by means of which a particular individual is to find and

develop his or her true nature: the individuation task.

v Mythological motifs

Jung (1974:81) explains that mythologems (mythological themes and patterns) are

condensed in dreams and that collective figures in myth represent eternal human

problems and themes that repeat themselves endlessly in the dreams of humankind.

Whitmont and Perera, (2002:79) also propose that dreams may present and even be Images, symbols & myths of the Self

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structured by specific motifs from the mythological storehouse of humankind. Such

images are archetypal symbolic expressions representing to human consciousness the

fundamental principles of form and meaning, and the ordering patterns of a

transpersonal nature which have been discovered, expressed, and celebrated across

the ages in rituals, art, legends, tales, or historical presentations. “They represent the

ways in which mankind’s collective unconscious in its different cultural expressions

has responded spiritually, philosophically, socially, ethically, and aesthetically to

the grand themes of existence” (Whitmont & Perera, 2002:79). Mythical and fairy-

tale motifs may seem irrational, but they show an overall, inner, formal coherence

and identifiable pattern.

Accordingly, the mythic images emerging into dream consciousness are patterned by

the as-such, indeterminable form and principles of the archetypes. Through their

appearance in dreams, they enable direct confrontation with the numinous,

transpersonal and general elements that structure human activity and consciousness.

These include patterns of life, death, rebirth, childhood, development, sacrifice,

conflict, suffering, achievement, order, relationships, separation, and connection

(Whitmont & Perera, 2002:80; Jung, 1974:81).

Ostensibly, such mythological structures are thematic configurations which describe

and offer orientation, meaning and guidance within the intrapsychic realm of the

individual dreamer. While these motifs and patterns often resemble parts of myths or

folk tales, they may also resonate with the underlying life themes played out in the

dreamer intrapsychic reality. Jung (quoted in Whitmont & Perera, 2002:80) states

that we all “dream the myth onward and give it a modern dress”. Mythological

motifs may be recognized by their quality of seemingly destined, dramatic,

encompassing power including images of structures whose basic patterning underlies

whole aspects of the dreamer’s life. Often their appearance in dreams has a peculiar,

slightly otherworldly tonal quality.

5.5.1.3 Functions of dreams

Todeschi (2000b:11) asserts that dreams essentially allow the analysis, comparison and

contrasting of events, thoughts, and issues of the daily experiences of the dreamer. Their


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relevance has physical, psychological, and even spiritual significance. In addition, “the

benefits of dream exploration include such practical matters as problem solving,

understanding relationship and work issues, prophetic voyages, a deeply personal look

into self discovery, and the search for meaning” (Todeschi, 2000b:11).

According to Van De Castle (1994), dreams serve several pertinent functions including

the promotion of creativity; the solution of problems experienced by the dreamer during

waking consciousness; the warning of forthcoming events; the stimulation of activity;

the promotion of innovations and inventions; and spiritual development and

transcendence. Clearly, dreams do not seem to be random readjustments of emotional

equilibrium, but as proposed by Broadribb (1999:102), are readjustments according to a

pattern of psychological growth and development which cumulatively mark out a

direction that the dreamer needs to take in that development.

Jung (1974:43) distinguishes between two functions of dreams, namely the

compensatory and the prospective functions. The compensatory function is a purposive

function where the unconscious, as relative to consciousness, adds subliminal elements

of daily experiences to the conscious. The compensatory function relates to Jung’s

theory of dreams being part of the psyche as a self-regulating system. The prospective

function is an unconscious anticipatory function outlining probabilities which may

coincide with actual and conscious behaviour.

Of significance to this researcher is Jung’s (1960:28) explanation that the goal of the

Self to achieve wholeness as reflected in dreams at first appears indeterminable and

chaotic with no specific pattern. However, gradually it appears to represent a notion of

going around in circles and closely resembles a spiral. “More accurate knowledge has

proved to go in spirals: the dream-motifs always returns after certain intervals to

definite forms, whose characteristic it is to define a centre”.

5.5.1.4 Types of dreams

i Prophetic or precognitive dreams and symbols

This dream category is usually associated with perplexing feelings of déjà vu, or a

feeling of an event that has occurred prior or just after the dream event (Peters, Images, symbols & myths of the Self

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2002:22). Jung (cited in Bennett, 2001:82) refers to this category of dreams as

‘anticipatory dreams’ which apply particularly to the group of dreams which seem to

anticipate the future. Jung (cited in Bennett, 2001:82) stresses that similarly to

conscious thoughts that are often directed to the future and its possibilities, so do the

unconscious and its dreams. Anticipatory dreams are “no more prophetic than a

medical diagnosis or a weather forecast. They are merely an anticipatory

combination of probabilities which may coincide with the actual behaviour of

things”.

ii Archetypal dreams

According to Peters (2000:18) and Jung (1974:80), archetypal dreams, which are

drawn from the collective unconscious, are similar to the so-called ‘big dreams’ of

the ancient cultures as described under the previous heading. These dreams carry

powerful emotional charges which go beyond personal history and experience.

iii Nightmares

Peters (2002:19) describes nightmares as shocking or strong dreams which seem to

reflect feeling of security being threatened. These dreams are often associated with

strong feelings of powerlessness and defencelessness. Nightmares also often frighten

the dreamer and usually constitute urgent messages from the ‘Guiding Self’ of the

dreamer about previously unheard, denied, or inadequately considered material.

They may also point to new problems and adaptations or expose outgrown

limitations and/or constitute invitations to development that the dreamer fears to risk

(Whitmont & Perera, 2002:125).

Some nightmares repeat traumatic situations as if to force their confrontation by the

dreamer and to assist in the process of reaching some conscious relationship to the

stressful and threatening energies on the object and subject levels (Whitmont &

Perera, 2002:125).

iv Recurring dreams and dream series

Recurring dreams are closely associated with nightmares but appear to be less

shocking and fear inducing (Peters, 2002:21). Jung (1974:48) states that the

recurring dream mainly indicates a recurrent problem and are always associated with Images, symbols & myths of the Self

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an unrecognised or unconscious problem or possibility. They may also relate to

continuity, or an extended story, as dreams unfold sequentially as part of a steadily

evolving series. They tend to tell a running narrative, which feeds the conscious ego

with information it requires and could assimilate at a particular stage of an

individual’s developmental process (Whitmont & Perera, 2002:120).

Additionally, as an individual consciously responds to the dream’s messages, the

dreams in turn respond to the newly gained positions of consciousness; thus a

dialectical play develops. When it is a matter of vital importance or fundamental life

issues and consciousness does not respond adequately to assimilate the message,

dreams will recur. Sometimes they repeat in the same form; sometimes the images

become more numerous, larger, or threatening. This kind of recurring dream series

may even lead to nightmares (Whitmont & Perera, 2002:120).

In addition to particular dreams recurring, apparently, central themes and clusters of

themes develop over time when a dream journal is kept which reflects an unfolding

continuum of views. Usually, such a thematic elaboration does not represent a linear

progression, but is rather like a circular or spiral movement around the central

thematic core as though the central theme is considered (in dreaming) from different

angles. “This circumambulation of the dreamer’s psychic field thus separately brings

up crucial complexes, and elaborates on them, building on previous consciousness.

Gradually a sense of ‘wholeness pattern’ develops through the process of being

shown the various aspects” (Whitmont & Perera, 2002:120).

v Healing and physical dreams

Windsor (1998:129), Whitmont and Perera (2002:138) and Jung (1974:49) assert

that healing and physical dreams assist the dreamer in identifying physical afflictions

and may at times be warnings of impending afflictions and the healing behaviour

required to rectify the problem. Jung (cited in Bennett, 2001:82) indicates that there

has long been a general belief that the chief function of dreams is prognostication of

the future and that in antiquity dreams were believed to have played a part in medical

prognosis.


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vi Synchronicity and dreams

Hall (1983:92) claims that on a theoretical level, the occurrence of synchronistic

dreams is evidence of a close connection between the unconscious and events

occurring in a person’s life at a particular time. Synchronistic dreams may also be

taken as evidence that the unconscious is less limited in time and space than the

conscious mind. The very occurrence of a synchronistic dream constitutes some

compensation by the dream for the limited state of the conscious ego since the dream

shows the dream-ego transcending to some degree the usual constraints of the

waking-ego.

Synchronistic dreams may also occur between any two persons in which case dreams

may compensate a narrow view of reality, adding attention and energy to the

situation, plus whatever specific meaning is carried by the structure and symbolism

of the dreams (Hall, 1983:94). Hall (1983:95) warns that synchronistic dreams and

events should be dealt with on the same basis as other psychodynamic material, but

with particular emphasis on why the unconscious used synchronicity to call attention

to what.

Von Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:226) indicates that meaningful coincidences in an

individual’s life seems to be activated by an archetype in the unconscious of the

individual concerned, and expresses itself in a symbol in both the inner and outer

environment of the said individual. The common denominator is a symbolically

expressed message. Jung reportedly had a dream of a two-storey house with a hidden

and ancient-looking cellar and a cave underneath it with remains of a primitive

culture which was chiefly responsible for his postulation of the collective

unconscious (Stevens, 1990:21). He recurrently had this dream during a nine year

period of intensified research on the mind and unconsciousness. In addition to this

dream, Jung (1985) reports on numerous synchronic trends revealed in his dreams

and events in his life.

Von Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:227) asserts that the affinity of events to cluster

together at certain times, leads to an understanding of the attitude of the Chinese.


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Their ancient theories of medicine, philosophy, and even building are based on a

‘science’ of meaningful coincidences. The classical Chinese texts did not ask what

causes what, but rather what ‘likes’ to occur with what. The same underlying

principle is evident in astrology, and in the way various civilizations have depended

on consulting oracles and paying attention to omens. All of these are attempts to

provide an explanation of coincidence that is different from one that depends on

straightforward cause and effect.

Synchronistic events, moreover, almost invariably, according to Von Franz (in Jung

et al, 1964:223) accompany the crucial phases of the process of individuation. But

too often they pass unnoticed, because the individual has not learned to watch for

such coincidences and to make them meaningful in relation to the symbolism of

his/her dreams.

An insightful exposé of the dream life of the Nobel Prize-winning theoretical

physicist and pioneer in the development of the atomic bomb, Wolfgang Pauli is

provided by Lindorff (2004). Lindorff (2004:2) indicates that Pauli was lead by

several of his synchronistic dreams to believe in the common foundation of psyche

and matter. Consequently, due to the association between Jung and Pauli, and Pauli’s

support of the synchronistic link between dreams and outer experiences, Jung

overcame his reticence to put his ideas on synchronicity in writing. This was

reportedly 20 years after Jung first formulated the principle based on the observation

of the phenomenon both in his own life, those of his associates and his patients

(Lindorff, 2004:99).

5.2.2 DREAM IMAGES AND SYMBOLS OF THE SELF

The Self as the regulating centre of the psyche, may also appear in dreams, along with

other archetypal images, according to Hall (1983:75). The dream appearances of the

Self, the archetypal core of the psyche, may appear in, for example, a building that

surrounds a central courtyard with a fountain, or two large buildings joined by a central

common wing. The Self may also appear as a voice, like the “voice of God” (Hall,

1983:76). Hall (1983:76) also asserts that it is impossible to construct a list of possible

images of the Self, “since virtually any image that appears with sufficient dignity and


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meaning may carry the force of this central archetype”. Jung (1974) asserts that dream

symbols of the Self are similar to those reflected in narrative, art and myths and include,

for example, the mandala, a church, a ‘treasure hard to attain’, the serpent and a tree.

5.5.3 DREAM INTERPRETATION

Bennet (2001:101) indicates that Jung attempted to understand the relationship between

the conscious and unconscious through the analysis of dreams. The following three

major steps in the Jungian approach to dream interpretation and hence the path to a

closer understanding of the unconscious is described by Hall (1983:43) as:

A clear understanding of the exact details of the dream;

The gathering of associations and amplifications in progressive order on one or

more of three levels - personal, cultural and archetypal; and

The placing of the amplified dream in the context of the dreamer’s life situation

and process of individuation.

A way of faulty reductionism which Hall (1983:34) warns against is what he calls

archetypal reductionism or the tendency to over-amplify a dream motif toward an

archetypal meaning, “with the attendant danger of substituting the (often fascinating)

archetypal amplifications for the tensions of the individuation process in the dreamer’s

own life”.

5.5.3.1 The imagination

Bennett (2001:102) asserts that Jung drew a sharp distinction between fantasy and

active imagination. Jung (1960:167) asserts that imagination is the active evocation of

inner images, “an authentic feat of thought or ideation, which does not spin aimless and

groundless fantasies ‘into the blue’…, but tries to grasp the inner facts and portrays

them in images true to their nature”. Consequently, imagination is the process of

forming a picture in the mind of something not perceived by the senses, whereas fantasy

is the invention of individual surface associations. Images in active imagination are

“images [that] have a life of their own and … the symbolic events develop according to

their own logic…” (Jung quoted in Bennett, 2001:101). According to Rosen (2002:89),

Einstein viewed imagination as more important than information; some consider it to be


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the eye of the soul, and Hillman (in Moore, 1989:61) describes it as the ground of

certainty, “that nothing is more certain than fantasy - it is as it is”.

Johnson (1986:140) differentiates between active imagination and fantasy by explaining

that active imagination is a conscious participation in the imaginative experience. The

purpose of active imagination is to provide the opportunity of communication between

the conscious and unconscious to bring about change. Fantasy is more like daydreaming

with no real purpose other than images continuously running through the mind.

Consequently, active imagination is the conversion of passive fantasy into a conscious

act of the imagination.

It seems that the major difference between traditional Jungians and post-modern

Jungians such as Hillman (1996) lies in their interpretation of the nature and function of

the imagination. Traditional Jungians view the imagination as an active force and the

foundation from which transformation and transcendence takes flight. Post-modern,

post Jungians refer to high-phantasy, re-imagining, re-visioning and soul-making as

social processes involving the cultivation of subjective soulfulness and meaningfulness

of experiences with no roots in a transcendent or transpersonal reality (Chapter 2 refers).

Post-modern, post Jungians deconstruct experiences by envisioning the psyche as

representing as a “hall of mirrors” (Romanyshyn, et al, 2001) in which a consciousness,

sensitised to its own relativity, participates in perpetually reflected realities. Hillman

(1988 cited in Gray, 1996:109) refers to an imaginal space as the ground of meaning

and metaphor: the Mundus Imaginalis which is an interpersonal space that exists as a

subjective space. It is imagined as a net of meaning that allows personal relations and

structures personal experience.

5.5.3.2 Active imagination

Active imagination is a concept embracing a variety of techniques for activating the

“imaginal processes” in waking life in order to tap into the unconscious meanings of

images and symbols. Jung (1940 in Chodorow, 1997:154) describes it as “a method of

introspection for observing the stream of interior images”. Chodorow (1997:3) indicates

that Jung used various terms to designate the method before he decided on the term


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active imagination. These terms, describing aspects of the dynamics of the construct,

include the ‘picture method’, ‘transcendent function’ ‘trancing’, ‘visioning’, ‘dialectical

method’, ‘technique of differentiation’, ‘technique of introversion’ ‘introspection’ and

‘technique of the descent’. Finally, Jung (cited in Chodorow, 1997:4) described the

‘transcendent function’ as encompassing both a method and an inborn function of the

psyche. Consequently, the term ‘active imagination’ refers to the method expressed

through many different forms based on the image-producing function of the

imagination. Both the transcendent function and the dynamic function of the

imagination (active imagination) combine conscious and unconscious elements and are

creative, integrative functions and methods that shape and transform the living symbol

(Chodorow, 1997:4).

Von Franz (in Jung et al, 1964:219) describes active imagination as a way of meditating

imaginatively, by which there is a deliberate connection with the unconscious and

psychic phenomena. In a sense, says Von Franz (in Jung et al, 1964: 219) it is

comparable to Eastern forms of meditation, such as the technique of Zen Buddhism or

of Tantric Yoga, or to Western techniques like those of the Jesuit Exercitia. Yet in

another sense, it is fundamentally different in that the meditator remains completely

devoid of any conscious goal or programme which is the reverse of a guided attempt to

master the unconscious.

An allusion to both the comparability and amplification of the images in active

imagination and dreaming is reflected in Singer’s (cited in Rosen, 2002:89) description

of the function and process as “dreaming the dream onward”. Rosen (2002:89) defines

it as “a part-directed, part-conscious, meditative-like state that an individual uses to go

deep into the unconscious and bring to light dreams or fantasies which, as Jung states,

‘want to become conscious’”. Moreover, intuition, sensation, thinking, and feeling form

part of the expansion of these unconscious dreams and result in a creative act of

expression, for example, painting, sculpting and writing. “In effect, active imagination

is a process of letting oneself go with the flow of the unconscious” (Rosen, 2002:89).

Jung (1940 in Chodorow, 1997:154) described the images produced in active

imagination as spontaneous part vision, part dream or dream mixed with vision. They

differ from dream images because they are perceived from waking state of

consciousness. An interesting allusion to the comparability of dream-type imagery


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during the twilight state of falling asleep or wakening and active imagination is made by

Broadribb (1999:99).

Hillman (in Moore, 1989:57) describes active imagination as a process of the healing of

the soul and presents a so-called ‘via negativa’ regarding the practise of active

imagination stating that Jung’s method of interior imagining is not a spiritual discipline,

artistic creativity, transcendence of the worldly, mystical vision or union, personal

betterment, or magical effect. “Primarily, it aims at healing the psyche by re-

establishing it in the metaxy from which it had fallen into the disease of literalism”

(Hillman in Moore, 1989:58).

i Stages of active imagination

Active imagination consists of two parts or stages: Firstly, letting the unconscious

come up; and secondly, coming to terms with the unconscious (Chodorow, 1997:10;

Aziz, 1990:25). The first stage may be facilitated by choosing an image from a

dream, hypnagogic vision or fantasy and concentrating on it. At times, according to

Chodorow (1997:5), an image or idea appears first in the mind’s eye, but more often

than not, images arise completely spontaneously during activities such as writing,

drawing, painting, sculpting, weaving, music, dancing, as well as the creation of

rituals and dramatic enactments. Storr (cited in Rosen, 2002:90) recommends that

writing, as one of the forms of active imagination, makes unformulated mental

content real, and moreover affords an individual a detachment and distance from

which to reflect ‘objectively’ on experiences of the inner world. “Words about the

self make possible a psychical distance from the self, and without distance, neither

understanding, nor control, nor willed, deliberate change is possible” Storr (quoted

in Rosen, 2002:90).

Aziz (1990:26), following Jung, claims that since the unconscious is always a step

ahead of rational consciousness, intolerance of the rational mind to reject and even

eliminate unknown symbols and images rising from the unconscious should be

properly checked. This is particularly the case with active imagination, where the

symbolical images must be given the freedom to “develop according to their own

logic until a more or less complete statement of the central theme is produced” (Jung

cited in Aziz, 1990:26) The development of a central theme heralds the completion


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of the first stage of the transcendent function. In his discussion of the first step, Jung

(cited in Aziz, 1990:26; Raff, 2000:21) speaks of the need for systematic exercises to

eliminate critical attention and produce a vacuum in consciousness. This part of the

experience is familiar to many psychological approaches and forms of meditation. It

involves a suspension of rational, critical faculties in order to give free rein to

fantasy.

The second stage, or the coming to terms with the unconscious content, encompasses

the bringing together of opposites and the decisive conscious rapprochement with the

unconscious where insight becomes real and demands to be carried out in practice

(Aziz, 1990:26; Raff, 2000:21). In this second part of active imagination, the affects

and images of the unconscious flow into awareness and consciousness actively

becomes involved with the experience. It may begin with a spontaneous string of

insights which have to be evaluated and integrated or “to live it in life” (Chodorow,

1997:12). For Jung (cited in Aziz, 1990:26; Raff, 2000:22) the second stage is the

more important part because it involves questions of meaning and moral demands.

Building on Jung’s idea that active imagination has two parts or stages, Chodorow

(1997:12) claims that a number of Jungian authors have proposed a subdivision of

active imagination into four or five different stages. For example, von Franz (1980)

proposed: 1) Empty the ‘mad mind’ of the ego; 2) Let an unconscious fantasy image

arise; 3) Give it some form of expression; and 4) Ethic confrontation. Later she

added: 5) Apply it to ordinary life. Johnson proposes: 1) Invitation (invite the

unconscious); 2) The dialogue (dialogue and experience); 3) The values (add the

ethical element); and 4) The rituals (make it concrete with physical ritual).

5.5.3.3 Amplification

Amplification is a process employed to get a larger sense of a dream. It is hence a kind

of spreading-out of associations by referring to mythology, art, literature, and music.

Chodorow (1997:12) claims that amplification was developed by Jung as a more

imaginative and constructive treatment of the unconscious, based on the scholarly

imaginative process of symbolic amplification. Amplification of dream or fantasy

images of an individual is mirrored by association to similar themes that have appeared


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throughout the history of humankind. This constructive method points toward the larger

picture and what it might mean for the future by identifying the cultural and universal

aspects of a symbol. Amplification is thus a method of coming to an understanding of a

dream through linking its motifs with general mythological meaning by comparing

these motifs with extant mythological material (Whitmont & Perera, 2002:83).

Although there are other maxims, the following three basic movements constitute the

essence of dream interpretation. Hall (1983:35) explains that the amplification of a

dream image is analogous to ‘peeling’ the three layers of a complex. The first layer

consists of personal associations including when the image appeared and what the

individual thinks of, and feels about the image. These associations reveal the nature of

the complex as it has developed around the archetypal core and also the objective

reference to, for example, the actual image as it relates in the outer world or the

subjective reference as the image relates to the individual’s own psyche. Known

persons, places or events in dreams are likely to carry an ‘objective’ meaning, but may

also refer to intrapsychic realities of the dreamer, especially when accompanied by a

strong emotional tone.

The second or “middle layer” of a complex, according to Hall (1983:36), contains

cultural or transpersonal images. The third archetypal level of amplification consists of

archetypal images that have proved meaningful to a large number of people over a long

period of time and hence became an accepted part of some large symbolic system.

These are often depicted in living or archaic folktales, mythologem or religious system.

Consequently, archetypal amplification depends largely on a broad familiarity with

mythology, folklore and religion which could be considered as repositories of

significant images that have been meaningful enough to a sufficiently wide range of

people to have been carried over extended periods of time and embedded in written

traditions (Hall, 1983:78). “The realisation of archetypal images unknown to the

dreamer can open an important theoretical window into the deeper nature of the

psyche” (Hall, 1983:36). Moreover, amplification of the archetypal level may encourage

identification with grand mythic patterns and connect her/him with existential themes

and hence facilitates a feeling of connectedness (Whitmont & Perera, 2002:109).


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Whitmont and Perera (2002:97) also specify that the mythologem or mythical motifs

have to be separated from their social, political, historical, and cultural encumbrances

and recognised in their sometimes abbreviated or even distorted contemporary

analogies. Since each symbol and mythical motif has a wide variety of possible

collective meanings, they require both familiarity and reflective study to bring the

relevant traditional significance close to its current, particular expression in a modern

dream.

Amplification may also be applied to the analysis of symbols and myths. Von Franz

(1998:97) states that although the myth, like the dream, is “its own meaning”,

historically the interpretation of myths may vary from culture to culture. For this reason,

Jung devised the method of amplification based on the same principles as those for the

interpretation of dreams. Amplification is described as the process of gathering motifs

as analogous as possible, “first from the cultural environment of the mythic symbol, then

from other areas, until it becomes apparent that these different motifs are like different

facets of the same basic theme” (Von Franz, 1998:97). The amplifications are then

placed in sequence in the narrative, and once the collection of images has been enriched,

interpretation follows. Interpretation is the translation into modern terms, which means

the connection or association of the images to psychic experience which is ‘liveable’ in

the present.

The interpretation, according to Van Franz (1998:97) attempts to reconnect

consciousness with its primordial root which is the archetype contained in the myth.

The assimilation of the meaning of myths has the effect of broadening and modifying

consciousness in such a way as to bring about a heightened aliveness and awareness.

5.6 INTRAPSYCHIC COMMUNICATION AS TRANSFORMATION AND

TRANSCENDENCE

Seemingly, communication not only plays a role in the transformation and

transcendence of consciousness, but also in the maintenance and the development of a

particular level or stage of consciousness. In this respect, Wilber (1980:40) refers to the

terms ‘transformation’ and ‘translation’. He explains it in linguistic terms, namely ‘deep

structure’ and ‘surface structure’. Deep structure embodies the definitions and limitation


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of a level. The movement from one deep structure to a next is called transformation, and

the movement within the structure is called translation. This evidently relates to

intrapsychic communication.

For example, “the archetype of the magna mater - the prima materia of pleromatic-

chaos - may be transformed at the body level into a concrete image of the Great

Mother, which may in turn be transformed at the egoic level into the idea of a loving

wife” (Wilber, 1980:41). At each of these stages of genuine transformations, various

translations may occur. This translation process is not a transformation, but a change in

the ‘language’ or form of the given level. “Translations result in different ‘languages’

or forms, but transformations result in a different type of language or form” (Wilber,

1980:41).

An individual’s sense of Self is hence transformed from one level of consciousness to

the next in the hierarchy by symbols, and maintained by an almost endless stream of

translations which operate on signs (Wilber, 1980:42). A particular mode of Self

translates both its internal milieu and external environment according to the major deep

structures and paradigms characteristic of that level. For example, “once a particular

level of self comes into being, it maintains itself by a series of more-or-less constant

translations. For instance, as the individual reaches the egoic-syntaxical level, he is

committed to an almost perpetual “talking to himself”, a constant sub-vocal chatter

which unceasingly translates and edits his reality” (Wilber, 1980:41).

Wilber (1980:42) states that each transformation upward marks the emergence in

consciousness of a new and higher level, with a new deep structure (symbol-matrix),

within which new translations or surface structures can unfold and operate (sign-

matrix). The implication is that deep structures are remembered and surface structures

are learned. “Development or evolution is a series of such transformations, or changes

in deep structure, mediated by symbols, or vertical forms of consciousness” (Wilber,

1980:42).


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5.7 COMMENTARY AND SUMMARY

Since consciousness cannot be experienced as a distinct experience, symbols and a

change of symbol structures, and the content and focus of information, which is the

domain of communication, facilitates the experience of a sense of Self in different levels

and states of consciousness. Consequently, communication plays a significant role in

the experience of an inner subjective reality. Specifically intrapsychic communication is

significant in the experience of an inner subjective reality and transformation of the Self

through a systemic and dynamic change of symbol structures. Intrapsychic

communication may act as an adaptive principle in the transcendence of the individual

who could be considered as a complex adaptive system.

Van Eenwyk (1997) indicates that Jung believed that symbols are the mechanisms by

which the mind is stimulated to greater self-organisation. As the means by which

archetypes influence the ego, they express the inner workings of the psyche.

Consequently, symbols embody archetypal dynamics and reflect how the psyche merges

conscious and unconscious portrayals. Moreover, symbols are essentially interfaces and

they mediate between consciousness and the unconscious by participating in both.

When the ego comes into contact with the unconscious through a symbolic image, it

experiences a tension of opposites. Behaving like manifolds, symbols provide

departures from and entrances back into the more familiar, and usually more stable, ego

dynamics. Tension between opposites is the precondition for psychological growth, for

it provides an alternative to the status quo (Van Eenwyk, 1997).

The following chapter will explore the experiential dimension of the processes of

transformation and transcendence. The archetypal roots of symbols and myths of the

Self as adaptive, organising and meaning-generating principle as presented in a ‘modern

classic’ narrative and the dream experiences of an individual will be identified and

analysed.


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Documents

CHAPTER FIVE: IMAGES, SYMBOLS AND MYTHS OF THE SELF