1

CHAPTER

7Cognition and Mental Abilities

Links to Learning Objectives

ENDURING ISSUES IN COGNITION AND

MENTAL ABILITIES

BUILDING BLOCKS OF THOUGHT

Three basic building blocks of thought

LANGUAGE, THOUGHT, & CULTURE

Cultural influences on thought & language

NONHUMAN LANGUAGE & THOUGHT

Animal communication & thought

PROBLEM SOLVING

Interpreting problems

Strategy & evaluation

DECISION MAKING

Compensatory decision making,

heuristics, framing, & explaining decisions

MULTITASKING

INTELLIGENCE

& MENTAL ABILITIES

Theories of intelligence

Intelligence tests

Criticisms of intelligence tests

HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, & INTELLIGENCE

Impact of heredity & environment

Flynn effect

Gender & cultural differences in mental abilities

Mental retardation

Giftedness

CREATIVITY

Relationship between creativity & intelligence;

measuring creativity

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

Enduring Issues

How do measures of

intelligence and performance

vary as a function of

expectations and

situations?

2

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

Enduring Issues

Do intelligence test

scores change over time?

Diversity-

Universality

Stability-Change

Mind-Body

Nature-Nurture

Person-Situation

Enduring Issues

What are the differences

and similarities in the

ways people process

information?

The

processes

whereby

we acquire

and use

knowledge

o g n i t i o n

3

Three cognitive processes:

Two mental abilities that psychologists have tried to measure:

Focus of This Chapter

ThinkingProblemSolving

DecisionMaking

Intelligence Creativity

Building Blocks of Thought

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the three basic building blocks of thought and give an example of each. Explain how phonemes, morphemes, and grammar (syntax and semantics) work together to form a language.

The three most

important building

blocks of thought:

Building Blocks of Thought

4

Building Blocks of Thought“When you think of a close friend, you may have in mind complex statements

about her, such as “I’d like to talk to her soon”…You may also have an image

of her – probably her face, but perhaps the sound of her voice as well. Or you

may think of your friend by using various concepts or categories such as

woman, kind, strong…When we think, we make use of all of these things –

language, images, and concepts – often simultaneously.”

– Page 217 (Morris & Maisto)

Flexible system of

communication that uses

sounds, rules, gestures,

or symbols to convey

information

a n g u a g e

LANGUAGE

Language

Basic sounds that make up any language

Smallest meaningful

units of speech

Rules that determine how sounds and words can be

combined and used to communicate

Rules for combining words to form meaningful phrases, sentences

Surface and underlying meanings of words and phrases

5

Direction of Movement in Speech Production and Comprehension

Images

• Mental representations of sensory experiences

– Allow us to think

about things in

nonverbal ways

Concepts

• Mental categories for

classifying objects,

people, or experiences

– Prototype (or model):

mental model containing

the most typical features

of a concept

6

Language, Thought, and Culture

Language, Thought, and CultureLEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the evidence for the idea that people in different cultures

perceive and think about the world in different ways. Explain what is meant by “linguistic

determinism” and summarize the evidence for and against it.

• Linguistic relativity

hypothesis: Whorf’s idea

that patterns of thinking are

determined by the language

one speaks

• Linguistic determinism:

More general belief that

thought and experience are

determined by language

• Softened Whorf hypothesis

• Language, thought, culture

are intertwined

• Experience shapes

language, language affects

subsequent experience

Benjamin Whorf Critics

Is Language Male Dominated?

Research supports the

idea that words such as

he or she influence our

perception of males and

females.

The words he and man are

often used to refer to all

people.

7

Nonhuman Language and Thought

• All animals communicate

in some way.

• Only humans can communicate

verbally and in complex ways.

• Research: Some animals

have humanlike

cognitive capacities.

Nonhuman Thought and Language

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize research evidence that supports the statement that

“nonhuman animals have some humanlike cognitive capacities.” Explain the following

statement: “All animals communicate, but only humans use language to communicate.”

Problem Solving

8

Three Aspects of the Problem-Solving Process

Interpreting Problems

Problem representation:

First step in problem-solving;

involves interpreting or

defining the problem

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain why problem representation is an important first step

in solving problems. In your explanation include divergent and convergent thinking,

verbal, mathematical and visual representation, and problem categorization.

DIVERGENT

Thinking that meets the

criteria of originality,

inventiveness, and

flexibility

CONVERGENT

Thinking directed

toward one

correct

solution to

a problem

Divergent & Convergent Thinking

9

Problem-Solving Strategies

Works best when choices

are limited; wastes

time when there

are many options

to test

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Distinguish between trial and error, information retrieval, algorithms, and

heuristics as ways of solving problems. Give an example of hill-climbing, subgoals, means-end

analysis, and working backward. Explain how “mental sets” can help or hinder problem solving.

Implementing Strategies and Evaluating Progress

Heuristics

Informationretrieval

Algorithm

Trial and Error

Problem-Solving Strategies

Retrieval of information

from long-term

memory about how

the problem was

solved in the past

Implementing Strategies and Evaluating Progress

Heuristics

Informationretrieval

Algorithm

Trial and Error

Problem-Solving Strategies

Step-by-step method of

problem solving that

guarantees a correct solution

Implementing Strategies and Evaluating Progress

Heuristics

Informationretrieval

Algorithm

Trial and Error

10

Problem-Solving Strategies

Rules of thumb that help in simplifying and solving problems, but do not guarantee a correct solution

• Hill climbing: Moves you closer to the final

goal with each step

• Subgoals: Use intermediate, more

manageable goals to make it easier to reach

the final goal

• Means-end analysis: Aims to reduce the

discrepancy between the current situation

and the desired goal at a number of

intermediate points

• Working backward: Works backward from the

desired goal to the given conditions

Implementing Strategies and Evaluating Progress

Heuristics

Informationretrieval

Algorithm

Trial and Error

Obstacles to Solving Problems

• Level of motivation, or

emotional arousal

• Mental set: The tendency

to perceive and to

approach problems in

certain ways

– Functional fixedness:

Perceive only a limited

number of uses for an object

– Brainstorming:

Helps to minimize mental

sets

Applying Psychology

1. Eliminate poor choices.

2. Visualize a solution.

3. Develop expertise.

4. Think flexibly.

11

Decision Making

Decision Making

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain how decision making differs from problem solving.

Describe the process of compensatory decision making and the use of decision-making

heuristics. Explain how framing can affect decisions, and how hindsight bias and

counterfactual thinking affect that way we view our decisions after the fact.

Decision making:

Type of problem solving in

which we already know all

of the possible solutions or

choices

Compensatory Decision Making

Compensatory model:

Rational decision-making model in which choices are

systematically evaluated on various criteria

12

Representativeness:

A new situation is

judged on the basis

of its resemblance

to a stereotypical

model

Decision-Making Heuristics

Availability:

A judgment or

decision is based

on information that

is most easily

retrieved from

memory

Confirmation bias:

The tendency to

look for evidence in

support of a belief

and to ignore

evidence that would

disprove it

Framing

• Perspective from which we

interpret information before

making a decision

• Way information is

presented can influence a

final decision

Explaining Our Decisions

Hindsight bias:

The tendency to see

outcomes as inevitable

and predictable after we

know the outcome

Counterfactual thinking:

Thinking about alternative

realities and things that

never happened

13

Multitasking

Multitasking

• With digital technology

(i.e., iPods, Internet)

multitasking is a way of

life.

• According to research,

multitasking isn’t always

efficient.

• Multitasking may actually

interfere with the

successful completion of

task.

Intelligence and Mental Abilities

14

General term

referring to the

ability or

abilities

involved in

learning and

adaptive

behavior

n t e l l i g en ce

• Intelligence is

comprised of seven

distinct, independent

mental abilities.

• Individuals can excel

in certain areas but

not in others.

• Intelligence is a

singular, general

quality about a person.

• People who are bright

in one area are usually

bright in other areas as

well.

Charles Spearman L.L. Thurstone

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the theories of intelligence put forth by

Spearman, Thurstone, Sternberg, Gardner, and Goleman.

Theories of Intelligence

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

ANALYTICAL: Involves mental

processes emphasized by

most theories of intelligence

CREATIVE: Involves

adapting to new tasks

and situations, to gain

insight

PRACTICAL: Involves

finding solutions to

practical and

personal problems

15

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

1. Linguistic

2. Musical

3. Logical

mathematical

4. Spatial

5. Bodily-kinesthetic

6. Interpersonal

7. Intrapersonal

8. Naturalistic

Emotional Intelligence

Five traits that contribute to

emotional intelligence:

1. Knowing one’s own

emotions.

2. Managing one’s

emotions.

3. Using emotions to

motivate oneself.

4. Recognizing the

emotions of other

people.

5. Managing relationships.

Comparing Gardner’s, Sternberg’s, and Goleman’s Theories of Intelligence

16

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the similarities and differences between the Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, and explain how they differ from group

tests, performance tests, and culture-fair tests of intelligence. Explain what is meant by test

“reliability” and “validity” and how psychologists determine whether an intelligence test is reliable

or valid.

Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scale

Wechsler

Intelligence Scale

Group tests

First test developed to

measure intelligence

yielding an IQ

Intelligence Tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological

Measures

Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scale

Wechsler

Intelligence Scale

Group tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological

Measures

• Individual intelligence tests

• Measure verbal and performance

abilities and also yield an overall

IQ score

• One developed for adults and

another for children

– Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale:

Third Edition (WAIS-III)

– Wechsler Intelligence

Scale for Children:

Third Edition (WISC-III)

Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scale

Wechsler

Intelligence Scale

Group tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological

Measures

Written intelligence

tests administered by

one examiner to many

people at one time

Intelligence Tests

17

Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scale

Wechsler

Intelligence Scale

Group tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological

Measures

Intelligence tests that

minimize the use of

language

Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scale

Wechsler

Intelligence Scale

Group tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological

Measures

Intelligence tests

designed to eliminate

cultural bias by

minimizing the use of

language as well as

the use of skills and

values that vary

from one culture

to another

Intelligence Tests

Stanford-Binet

Intelligence Scale

Wechsler

Intelligence Scale

Group tests

Performance Tests

Culture-Fair Tests

Biological

Measures

For decades:

Attempts by researchers

to assess intelligence

using biological markers

To date:

No biological measure

of intelligence

approaches

accuracy of

psychological

tests

Intelligence Tests

18

Validity: Ability of a test to

measure what is has been

designed to measure

• Content validity: Having an adequate

sample of questions measuring the

skills or knowledge the test is

supposed to measure

• Criterion-related validity: Validity

measured by a comparison of the test

score and independent measures of

what the test is designed to measure

What Makes A Good Test?

Reliability: ability of a test

to produce consistent and

stable scores

What Makes A Good Test?

Split-half reliability:

Determines test reliability by

dividing the test into two parts

and checking the agreement

of scores on both parts

Correlation coefficients:

Statistical measures of the

degree of association between

two variables, used to measure

reliability

I.Q.

UNRELIABLE &

INVALID

Visualizing Reliability & Validity

I.Q.

RELIABLE &

VALID

I.Q.

RELIABLE

BUT INVALID

19

Criticisms of IQ Tests

IQ tests are controversial because psychologists

disagree on the definition of intelligence.

Critics argue that the tests assess a very limited set of

mental skills and that some tests may be unfairly biased

against minority groups.

Poor performance in school may be the result of, rather

than caused by, low test scores.

Psychologists tend to agree on the validity of IQ tests to

predict academic grades and obtaining high-status

occupations such as M.D.s and lawyers.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the criticisms of intelligence tests and the

relationship between IQ test scores and job success.

Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence

Is intelligence inherited,

or is it the product of environment?

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the evidence that both heredity and environment

(including intervention programs) affect intelligence.

EnvironmentHeredity

Approximately 50% of the differences in

intelligence are due to genetics, and

50% are due to differences in environment.

Intelli gence

20

Heredity

• Help scientists understand

the influence of heredity

• Identical twins raised

together – most similar IQs

• Identical twins raised by

different families – still have

very similar IQ scores

Source: Adapted from Genetics and intelligence: A review,” by L. Erienmeyer–

Kimling and L. F. Jarvik 1963, Science, 142, pp. 1477–79. Copyright © 1963 by the American

Association for the Advancement of Science. Reprinted with permission of the author.

Twin Studies

Environment

Many environmental influences on intelligence:

• Socioeconomic status

• Prenatal nutrition

• Level of environmental stimulation

Intervention programs:

• Milwaukee Project, Head Start

• Seem to have a significant impact on cognition between the ages of 3 and 5.

Influences

The IQ Debate: A Useful Model

• IQ scores have increased in the

population as a whole.

• Possible explanations:

– The population is better at test-taking.

– There have been improvements in

nutrition and health care.

– The modern world is increasingly

complex.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: What is the “Flynn Effect”? What are some of the explanations

that have been offered for it?

Flynn Effect

21

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

“Suppose that you grow one group of randomly assigned plants in enriched soil,

and another group in poor soil. The enriched group will grow to be taller and

stronger…the difference between the two groups in this case is due entirely to

differences in their environment. Within each group of plants, however,

differences among individual plants are likely to be primarily due to genetics,

because all plants in the same group share essentially the same environment.

Thus, the height and strength of any single plant reflects both heredity and

environment.”

– Page 245 (Morris & Maisto)

Mental Abilities and Human Diversity: Gender and Culture

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the

evidence regarding gender differences and

cultural differences in mental abilities.

• Research: Males and females

don’t differ significantly in most

cognitive abilities.

• When observed, differences are:

– Relatively small

– Concentrated in very

specific skills

Gender

• Achievement gap between

American and Asian students

• American students lagging

behind

• Differences reflect cultural

attitudes toward importance of

ability and effort

Mental Abilities and Human Diversity: Gender and Culture

Culture

22

Mental Retardation

• Low IQ and the inability to

function independently

must both be present

• Causes often unknown,

although approx. 25% of

cases can be traced to

biological causes

• Variety of intervention

programs

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what is required for a diagnosis of mental

retardation and summarize what is known about its causes. Describe what is

meant by “inclusion” and whether it has been shown to be beneficial.

Extremes of Intelligence

Extremes of Intelligence

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain what

is meant by saying a person is “gifted.”

Explain the pros and cons of special

programs for gifted children.

Giftedness

• Special abilities usually

exhibited in only a few areas

• Causes often unknown

• Pros and cons to enrichment

programs:

– Intellectually fulfilling

– Accompanied by social

concerns

Creativity

23

rea t iv i ty

The

ability to

produce novel

and socially

valued ideas

or objects

• Early research found no

correlation between creativity

and intelligence, but these early

studies focused only on bright

individuals.

• Threshold theory: Creativity

and intelligence are linked up

to a certain level of IQ, but then

the relationship disappears.

– Support for this theory

has been mixed.

Intelligence and Creativity

LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the relationship between creativity

and intelligence,and the ways in which creativity has been measured.

Torrance Test of Creative Thinking

Christensen-Guilford Test

Remote Associates Test (RAT)

Wallach and Kogan Creative Battery

Creativity Tests

1

2

3

4

24

Lecture Activities

Tower of Hanoi

Time to solve another problem. The object of the game is to move

ALL of the disks onto a different pole. The rules are these:

1) You can only move one disk at a time.

2) A bigger disk can't go on a smaller disk.

See how quickly you can solve the tower in seven moves.

Click the next slide to see the solution.

25

• Did you use an algorithm or a heuristic

to solve that problem?

• What types of day-to-day problems might require

algorithmic solutions?

• What types of daily problems could be handled more

heuristically?

• What do your conclusions suggest about the nature

of problem solving?

A Mental Set

Try this one. On your paper,

draw nine dots just like you

see up here. Then, see if you

can draw four straight lines

so that they pass through

ALL nine dots without lifting

your pencil from the page

AND without touching any

dot more than once?

(Click button to reveal solution)

26

Did you solve the problem? Did you experience any

“insight”? If not, what was it that kept you from doing

so? Was it thinking about the group of circles as a

square with solid boundaries? How can you break free

from mental sets to “step outside of the box” when you

need to?

Breaking Through

Functional Fixedness

On the next slide you will

see various items on a desk

and be presented with a

problem to be solved. Let’s

see who is able to break

through their functional

fixedness.

Using only the items on top of the desk, how could you attach the candle to the wall ABOVE the desk, so that when the candle burns, it does NOT drip wax onto the desk?

27

Perhaps the most elegant

solution to this problem is to:

1. Empty the matches out

of the box.

2. Tack the empty box to the wall.

3. Place the candle in the box.

This solution requires one

to avoid fixating on the

normal function of the box

as that of holding matches.

Avoiding this trap allows

one to see more than one

use for the box (i.e., as a

candle holder).

See Gardner’s list of intelligences. Are there

any other types of intelligence Gardner’s list

might still be missing?

Intelligence Test Activity

The speed with which an

individual can verbally identify

simple concepts is a critical

measure of intelligence. In this

activity, you will be presented

with colored stimuli. Your task

will be to identify correct colors

as quickly as possible. We will

go through this as a group.

28

n

• Was this test a VALID

measure of

intelligence?

Why? Why not?

• Was this test a

RELIABLE measure of

intelligence? Why?

Why not?

29

Intelligence Testing

Could you create a test

that is free of cultural

bias? What sorts of

test items might you

incorporate? Math?

Picture completion?

Explain your

reasoning.

Creativity

Time to harness some of that

doodling creativity. On a sheet

of notebook paper, see how

many different pictures you

can draw, using this image

comprising two circles. Don’t

worry about drawing perfect

pictures. Just make sure

that the circle image is in each

of your pictures. Work quickly.

You will have 60 seconds.

Time is up! After such a task, a psychologist

studying creativity might be interested in

answers to the following types of questions:

1. How many pictures did you draw?

2. Were the pictures from different semantic

categories (e.g., fruits, sports, cars, etc.)?

3. Were your pictures unique? In other words, did

you draw pictures that others probably did not?

30

Acknowledgments

Slide # Image Description Image Source

text template

upside down blue sky & grass ©iStockphoto.com/Konrad Lew

chapter template

person with numbers ©istockphoto.com/Francisco Romero

3 teacher working 1-on-1 w/ student ©istockphoto.com/Feverpitch Photography

4 calendar ©istockphoto.com/Kutay Tanir

5 Indian woman cooking ©iStockphoto.com/Vikram Raghuvanshi Photography

5 White couple cooking ©iStockphoto.com/Frantysek

6 head with sparkles ©iStockphoto.com/Luis Bellagamba

10 Open Your Book - textbook cover Shutterstock

10 Open Your Book - textbook background From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 213-214

10 Open Your Book - open textbook From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 114-115

11 hebrew mezuzah ©istockphoto.com/vitovt

11 chinese calligraphy ©istockphoto.com/BVBeckman

11 1743 english ©istockphoto.com/Grafissimo

11 Korean alphabet ©istockphoto.com/neomistyle

11 Japanese ©istockphoto.com/trutenka

11 formulas ©istockphoto.com/foto-ruhrgebiet

11 chemistry formulas ©istockphoto.com/Inga Nielsen

11 old paper ©istockphoto.com/Peter Zelei

13 Figure 7–1: Direction of Movement in Speech Production and Comprehension

Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 219

14 person with thought bubble ©istockphoto.com/Digital Savant LLC

14 breakfast food ©istockphoto.com/Photo studio FD

15 person with a thought bubble ©istockphoto.com/Abejon Photography

15 bird 1 thought bubble bird ©istockphoto.com/Andrew Howe Photography

15 bird 2 real bird ©istockphoto.com/James Group Studios

18 man profile talking ©istockphoto.com/Digital Savant LLC

18 woman profile talking ©istockphoto.com/See Hear Media, Inc.

20 bee on flower ©Michael Nowak

20 chimpanzee ©istockphoto.com/Life on White

23 person thinking ©istockphoto.com/akurtz

24 cup of pencils ©istockphoto.com/Nicholas Monu

24 quill ©istockphoto.com/jbarber873

24 pen in box ©istockphoto.com/Sergii Tsololo

24 crayons ©istockphoto.com/Photograpther

24 head ©istockphoto.com/Nicolas Hansen

24 calligraphy set ©istockphoto.com/marcel63

25 man choosing between and éclair and an apple ©istockphoto.com/Designs of Integrity

26 woman remembering ©istockphoto.com/Thornberry Photography

27 woman walking up stairs ©istockphoto.com/TommL

28 icon: helmet ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

29 road closed ©istockphoto.com/PDB Photography

29 icon: classic studies car ©istockphoto.com/Brian Sullivan

30 scrap of paper ©istockphoto.com/Trevor Hunt

30 someone trying to figure out a problem/carpenter

©istockphoto.com/John Krajewski

32 person thinking ©istockphoto.com/akurtz

33 Table 7-1: Compensatory Decision Table for Purchase of a New Car

Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 231

33 sports car ©istockphoto.com/HooRoo Graphics

33 pick up truck ©istockphoto.com/6th Gear Advertising

35 picture frame ©istockphoto.com/winterling

36 girl thinking with lighbulb ©istockphoto.com/BartCo

38 woman multitasking ©istockphoto.com/d'SOLEIL Studios

40 parrot ©istockphoto.com/THEPALMER

31

40 parrot feather ©istockphoto.com/konstantin32

42 analytical intelligence ©istockphoto.com/acilo - photography

42 practical intelligence ©istockphoto.com/BartCo

42 creative intelligence ©istockphoto.com/khilagan

43 fisheye woman looking up ©istockphoto.com/asiseeit

43 icons: calculator ©istockphoto.com/imgendesign

43 icons: music ©istockphoto.com/imgendesign

43 icons: sports ©istockphoto.com/imgendesign

43 icons: mind/puzzle ©istockphoto.com/imgendesign

43 icons: palette ©istockphoto.com/imgendesign

43 icons: handshake ©istockphoto.com/_zak

43 icons: talk bubbles ©istockphoto.com/lushik

43 icons: birdy ©istockphoto.com/lushik

43 icon: wanted sign Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

44 emotional intelligence/person listening ©istockphoto.com/Aldo Murillo

45 Summary Table: Theories of Intelligence Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 237

46 Figure 7-6: Approximate Distribution of IQ Scores in the population

Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 238

47 examiner giving child a test ©istockphoto.com/iofoto

48 multiple people taking a test ©istockphoto.com/Laurence Gough

49 a maze ©istockphoto.com/Mikhail Mishchenko

50 drawing of a person ©istockphoto.com/khorzhevska

51 brain ©istockphoto.com/Stephen Kirklys

52 girl taking a test ©istockphoto.com/bonniej graphic design

53 Table 7-2: IQ Scores on the Same Test Given One Year Apart

Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 240

54 person with darts ©istockphoto.com/Eric Hood Photography

54 darts ©istockphoto.com/mustafa deliormanli

54 icon: helmet ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

55 icon: wanted Charlie Levin, adapting wooden board image from ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

58 twins ©istockphoto.com/Thomas Gordon

58 Figure 7-7: Correlations of IQ Scores and Family Relationships

Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 244

59 alphabet blocks ©istockphoto.com/Ahmad Hamoudah

59 bottle of vitamins ©istockphoto.com/Baris Simsek

61 Open Your Book - textbook cover Shutterstock

61 Open Your Book - textbook background From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 213-214

61 Open Your Book - open textbook From Ciccarelli, Psychology, 1/e pp. 114-115

62 students raising hands in classroom ©istockphoto.com/Neustockimages

63 globe in classroom ©istockphoto.com/Bulent Ince

64 Table 7-3: Levels of Mental Retardation Morris/Maisto, 9/e p. 248

65 boy at chalkboard with math ©istockphoto.com/Bart Coenders

67 icon: helmet ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

67 creativity big C page ©istockphoto.com/susandaniels

67 creativity sidebar - drawing out of light ©istockphoto.com/Steven Hayes

68 trombone ©istockphoto.com/batuque

68 oud ©istockphoto.com/nexus seven

68 books ©istockphoto.com/Julián Rovagnati

68 artist's pallete ©istockphoto.com/ROMA-OSLO

68 microscope ©istockphoto.com/Ken Zirkel Studio

68 chemistry equipment ©istockphoto.com/3alexd

71 topbar: helmets ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

71 topbar: athletic field ©istockphoto.com/Jamie Otterstetter

72 church spire ©istockphoto.com/WShermanPhotography

72 Bancock towers ©istockphoto.com/Wokn

72 minaret ©istockphoto.com/Worldpics

73 church spire ©istockphoto.com/WShermanPhotography

73 Bancock towers ©istockphoto.com/Wokn

73 minaret ©istockphoto.com/Worldpics

74 topbar: classic studies books ©istockphoto.com/Justin Allfree

74 topbar: chrome & license plate ©istockphoto.com/Grafissimo

74 topbar:red shiny car background ©istockphoto.com/Jon Helgason

76 woman walking down street ©istockphoto.com/ftwitty

76 storefront woman walking in front of ©istockphoto.com/DonNichols

77 topbar: classic studies books ©istockphoto.com/Justin Allfree

77 topbar: chrome & license plate ©istockphoto.com/Grafissimo

77 topbar:red shiny car background ©istockphoto.com/Jon Helgason

77–78 window box ©istockphoto.com/sbossert

77–78 window frame ©istockphoto.com/Dr. Hollaender

77–79 table and wall ©istockphoto.com/David Clark

78–79 matches ©istockphoto.com/grimgram

78–79 candle ©istockphoto.com/Yevgeniy Il\'yin

78–79 push pin ©istockphoto.com/Kyu Oh

80 topbar: cactus ©istockphoto.com/Lee Daniels

80 topbar: wooden board ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

80 cello player ©istockphoto.com/fSlinger

80 architect ©istockphoto.com/PIKSEL

80 ballet dancer ©istockphoto.com/Phil Date Photography

81 topbar: helmets ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

81 topbar: athletic field ©istockphoto.com/Jamie Otterstetter

81 & 84 paint ©istockphoto.com/Skip ODonnell

85 topbar: cactus ©istockphoto.com/Lee Daniels

85 topbar: wooden board ©istockphoto.com/andynwt

85 text messaging ©iStockphoto.com/Freeze Frame Studio, Inc.

86 topbar: helmets ©istockphoto.com/Li Shen Jun

32

86 topbar: athletic field ©istockphoto.com/Jamie Otterstetter

86 doodles ©istockphoto.com/saw

87 doodles ©istockphoto.com/saw